Research Korner

The Role Of Circumcision Culture In HIV Prevention In Sub-Saharan Africa

The Role of Circumcision Culture in HIV prevention in Sub-Saharan Africa   It has been proven that the male circumcision which implemented in Zambia minimized the risk of HIV infection among men in the Sub-Saharan African region.  These findings were stem from the implementation of circumcision by UNAIDS and the World Health Organization (WHO) in the region.  Since the decision was made, the health record has shown that there has been increasing number of 700 men who voluntarily requested to be circumcised.  And, the number has been getting bigger and bigger.   This phenomenon has been become prevalent in the African region when the health agencies announced that circumcision is the most effective way of preventing HIV infection from heterosexual intercourse.  These two international agencies recently announced that 6 million new cases of HIV infections, as well as 3 million deaths caused by HIV infections could be prevented among men if they would submit themselves to voluntary circumcision procedure program.  However, many men in the country who never experienced to be circumcised have doubt in mind over the procedure.  Well, according to the medical expert, male circumcision just a minor removal of the foreskin that covers the head of the penis.  And, this procedure can be done at any age of men, during infancy, childhood, adolescence or adulthood.  The circumcision procedure has been a wide-spread culture among several countries in the world for hundreds of years now. In some cultures, it is more often a trademark of men that they belong to a particular tribal or religious group in the society. (http://www.avert.org/circumcision-hiv.htm) Furthermore, since 1980s, scientists have assumed that male circumcision might trim down the rates of HIV infection transmission during sexual activities. They also observed that circumcised men are less likely to have HIV than uncircumcised men, and HIV is rare among populations that traditionally practice male circumcision than in communities where the procedure is not being practiced.  Just take the case of North Western region of Zambia, where   HIV cases are less likely common because circumcision has been done traditionally compared to the Northern province in Zambia, where circumcision among men is not done culturally.  In this connection, the health international agencies have decided to settle the HIV issue through three sets of trials in Sub-Saharan African region.   They implement a circumcision program that attended by more than 11,000 not circumcised men.  All men circumcised under the program    received extensive counseling about HIV prevention and the possible risk reduction strategies to avoid it to happen to them. Same circumcision program was held both in Kenya and Uganda. It was shown a clear evidence that circumcision reduces the risk of HIV infection.  Remarkable record of men participation from three different regions in Africa is represented by the table below: 		Location 		 		Participants 		 		Report published 	 		South Africa 		 		3,274 		 		July 2005 	 		Kenya 		 		2,784 		 		February 2007 	 		Uganda 		 		4,996 		 		February 2007 	   These findings therefore conclude that circumcision among men can really help in addressing the prominent problem in the world today on HIV cases.  As long as it is performed with medical guidelines, it is most likely to prevent the causes of HIV infections among men.  Moreover, several possible reasons are associated with male circumcision for the HIV prevention, first, the foreskin of the penis is susceptible of HIV moist, and has the potential that the HIV infection cells may spread to the other delicate parts of the penis down to the inner surface of the male organ.  As this regard, a particular study was conducted among men in Ugandan before and after circumcision program, the doctors concluded a decrease in anaerobic bacteria that play a major role in reducing the risk of HIV acquisition by men. The most important fact is that the removal of the foreskin helps the head of the penis to have a strong resistance against virus infection; if this is not prevented, the transmitted virus infection will eventually penetrates inside the body of the victim.  And, that will start to weaken the immune system of the person.  (http://www.avert.org/circumcision-hiv.htm) On the other hand, there was a certain study about the effect of circumcision on male-to-male sexual HIV transmission. A research which was done in Australia has found that circumcision goes also with a remarkable reduction of HIV incidents among men who have sexual contacts with the same sex through anal intercourse.  Another circumcision study made in Peru and the United States of America concluded that there had no effectiveness benefit of the circumcision to the male-to-male sexual HIV transmission. Nevertheless, circumcision might reduce the risk of those who are doing the insertive role during sexual activities. (http://www.avert.org/circumcision-hiv.htm) References: http://www.avert.org/circumcision-hiv.htm http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/HIV/vincenzi/   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The Role Of Circumcision Culture In HIV Prevention In Sub-Saharan Africa

The Role of Circumcision Culture in HIV prevention in Sub-Saharan Africa It has been proven that the male circumcision which imp...

Problems That Occur During Catering Service

Problems in  Catering Service  Business   Catering industry has been in the business with major policy issues, challenges and problems that are all common in this type of business. Foremost is the working conditions and human resources issue, it is fundamental to the business  practicality and stability.  The  conditions of working in hotels and catering industry is associated with long and beyond normal working hours, low pay, instability and low status of the  employees. (http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/emcc/content/source/eu05027a.htm?p1=ef_publication&p2=null )   However, the daily problems that  a catering  company faces everyday include the  unexpected shut down of  their refrigerator, when   appropriate freezing and cooling capacity of the fridge is very much needed in order to sustain the freshness of the raw food products for the various functions of the clients within the day. when    some of the staff are absent due to illness or  personal  urgency.  Also, if the faulty vehicle will be the cause of the on time arrival  in the event or party.  Plus the scenario that the food quantity is not sufficient enough for the additional number of guests.  These are only some of the everyday problems that a catering services   experience in dealing with their customers.  And so, in order to prevent all these things to happen; an excellent management policies must   be implemented beforehand, and have discussed it with the staff; by doing this, the catering company will be in control of every situation during parties and functions. (http://www.howto.co.uk/business/catering-business/keeping_your_business_on_track/ )   These problems more often caused the catering  industry to have an increasing turnover, as well as difficulties in employing suitable  staff.  These negative   side of catering services  is the major problem that catering services owners have been experiencing all throughout these years.  Hence,  to address this problem, the working conditions of the  catering staff must be improved in order to attract skilled and  competitive staff to be retained in the operations.  The next right thing to do is for the catering services owners to invest in the effective human resources development management, at the same time,  take a main part in the  improvement of the well-being of the employees. And, the efficient and effective way to achieve this is to make an assurance  based on a mutual  agreement which  both the  employers and employees will benefit from it  in the long run.  And, it  includes the higher margins and  productivity  and expansions of the business.  Offering  attractive remuneration package  for the employees. (http://www.howto.co.uk/business/catering-business/keeping_your_business_on_track/ )   Seemingly, there are several catering businesses that   are less likely to  take the risk of raising their employees' working conditions because  they do not want to  pay higher net labor cost.   Though, this issue has been  the major aim of every labor union, still there are still some catering companies that do not consider this idea. The second issue is the legislation,  the sector cannot avoid the challenges that the  lawmaking bodies implemented for the hotel and  catering industry.   Nevertheless,  as to compare to other industries,  the  hotel and catering   sector  has less  Compared to some industries, the hotels and catering sector is subject to less regulation and government intervention. Still, the  hotels and catering sector is now being instantly subjected by initiatives and legislation in   smoking, alcohol consumption or responsible alcohol drinking, as well as  food safety and  products labeling.  (http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/emcc/content/source/eu05027a.htm?p1=ef_publication&p2=null )   Furthermore, the hotel and catering  sector must not only focus on  the issue of alcohol consumption, but also, it is responsible to protect its sector’s image.  Therefore  hotel and catering companies should be  active in monitoring alcohol consumption and controlling the sale of alcohol in their establishments. A  proper control over  who enters their business places is required; but, they  must face the tough challenge of protecting  the human rights of their customers as well.  Third issue is  the intense impacts of  new technologies  on the catering service  sector; this is the main reason that the catering services business raise there efforts to upgrade their operations as well, in order to go with the modern world and sophisticated  demand of their clients. A part of the challenges that catering sector is facing these days is the requirement  for innovative marketing  approaches and strategies  such as marketing campaigns  in print ads and TV commercials  in order to promote their catering products and services.   (http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/emcc/content/source/eu05027a.htm?p1=ef_publication&p2=null )   Subsequently, hotels and catering services have to work harder these days  with IT companies to be able to find the most efficient and effective way in dealing with their customers.  Apparently, this cannot be achieved  without the intervention of  newest technology in the personal services in the industry.  For this reason, internet based hotels and catering services are very rampant today  in order to provide a fast and effective services to the clients.  Due to this very essential factor, the hotels and catering services employers do not have any choice but to hire    technologically well-equipped employees to do the modern task  in a most efficient and effective manner.  Consequently, the advent of new technology in most of the industries here and abroad, lead to  high demand of the  qualified candidates for employment to demand for the favorable compensation rate on the basis of their  advanced educational attainment, as well as  to their work experience, innovative skills and knowledge in doing their tasks.   (http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/emcc/content/source/eu05027a.htm?p1=ef_publication&p2=null ) References: http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/emcc/content/source/eu05027a.htm?p1=ef_publication&p2=null http://www.howto.co.uk/business/catering-business/keeping_your_business_on_track/ Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Problems That Occur During Catering Service

Problems in Catering Service Business Catering industry has been in the business with major policy issues, challenges and probl...

The Impact Of Access To Information On Adult Education In Uganda

THE IMPACT OF ACCESS TO INFORMATION ON ADULT EDUCATION IN UGANDA       Uganda is historically a high population location in Eastern part of Africa they have also poor literacy ratings especially among adults ages 15 to 60 and above. A large numbers of adults in their society are even illiterate they do not have the basic school participation although they have learn to practice simple agricultural and livelihood they have also gain education during Arab and European colonization period. Natives have learned to acquire skills and informal literacy in carpentry, agricultural development, masonry, arts, crafts and other skills. Adult education is limited because most of foreign colonial explorers have taught them only labor skills. However during 1945 to 1962 Christian and Islamic missionaries during the independence brought Uganda and in their society basic education system that they have adopted. In 1946 their government has also included adult education program as a part of Public Relation and Social Welfare Development initiative, it was then that the adult and out of school youth has been given the opportunity to join the education system in Uganda.       One of their latest programs for adult is “The National Literacy Strategic Investment Plan” (NALSIP of 2002 to 2007) their target is to bring 50% literacy rate to more than 7 million illiterate adult population although their priority is still the children in formal schools. They also have provision for women and girl out of school youth. This program is a part of their commitment to strengthen education that will empower adults to be a part of successful community development that they themselves can improve the quality of their lives through education. The government and their agencies have provided basic adult education program to their people through Adult Learning Education (ALE) Proficiency in reading and writing, Functional Adult Literacy (FAL), gender perspective program and many other program especially designed for adult education.       Government of Uganda have been continuously committing themselves to provide a long lasting education that can impact a great advancement to their people and in the 21st century they have also included Information and Communication Technology in their Schools and Universities to provide competitive knowledge based education system to their adult enrollees although this program has not been fully implemented nationwide. Through this they believed that innovation and competitive education will bring significant and strategic development in a diversified component. Presently they have four Universities who have information and communication technology courses while they have also expanded non formal education for Functional Adult Literacy they are also beginning to include basic computer literacy skills. Generally the access to information and communication technology has slowly been introduced to non formal sector and adult learners in the 21st century.       Information and Communication Technology is also a part o the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) in Jamaica, Bolivia, Zambia, Ghana, Tanzania, Burkina Faso and Uganda. Adult learners including teaches have felt improved and empowered in the discovery of this God given technology and any use of computers whether offline and online provides extra knowledge and appreciation to their students they have enjoyed this new forms of technology and today adults and youths alike have already learn to use computer for their communication, social networking, research and development. The community in Uganda has been participating in this new form of technology that even out of school youth women have been using computers in their engagement the use of computer shops as a means of their usual access. As of today they believed that Uganda has one of the highest ICT education literacy in Africa that reaches up to 50% of adult ages 15 and up have been using computers although according to survey they still have an illiteracy rate of 30% on their population (CIA World Fact book of 2006). Generally the informal institution and the adult learners believed to consider ICT to impact a great deal in their knowledge that the opening of ICT in Uganda during the 21st century has provided the following to adult education; ·         Information and Communication Technology (ICT) inclusion to their curriculum improved the quality of education in formal and non formal level because of audio visual approach in learning using computers. ·         ICT Reduces illiteracy rates among adults as much as 50% they are now able to access lessons to their advantage and interact with people al around the world. ·         ICT eliminates education barriers that education is now open to all ages as long as there is computers even disable individual can learn their lessons. ·         ICT also provide ease of teaching methods and act like a teacher support. ·         ICT has brought many professionals to increase competitive advantage to employability, locally and internationally. They have also produced global experts in technology to meet the challenges of globalized economy. References: http://www.iiz-dvv.de/index.php?article_id=172&clang=1 http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/ICE47/English/Natreps/reports/uganda_rev.pdf http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/INSTITUTES/UIL/confintea/pdf/NationalReports/Africa/Africa/Uganda.pdf // http://www.iicd.org/files/icts-for-education.pdf                                    Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The Impact Of Access To Information On Adult Education In Uganda

THE IMPACT OF ACCESS TO INFORMATION ON ADULT EDUCATION IN UGANDA Uganda is historically a high population location in Eastern par...

Research Proposal Investigating Hawala Remittance System And Its Crucial Role In Money Laundering

Research proposal Investigating Hawala Remittance System and its Crucial Role in Money Laundering   Background of the Study             One of the issues faced by different industries or perhaps a government is about financial issues, specifically money laundering.  Throughout the years, the government is considering different initiatives and alternatives to solve these kinds of financial issues, but there are some systems which prevents government systems to solve money laundering issues. One of the financial practices which is very common in different countries all over the world is Hawala. Accordingly, Hawala referred to informal financial networks which originate on its Arabic roots that which indicates to change or to transform (Passas, 1999, page 11). It is believed that Hawala network were first used by Asian countries to provide safe money transfers for traders which travel along the Silk route. The contemporary development of this approach is connected to the partition between Pakistan and India in 1947, when exchange controls made it illegal to transfer money between nations and this approach filled the gap for this issue (Miller, 1999). This remittance approach aims on arranging for the transfer of money internationally or domestically Hawala networks arrange for the transfer of money domestically and can also use to arrange credit. Even if there are talks about the black market and underground economy, Hawala transactions are not deemed as illegal in most nations except for India (Cottle, 2001). Specifically, Hawala transaction have some similarities with international money transfers done by normal financial organizations and those Hawala brokers in Western regions do not operate underground and advertise openly to press about the ongoing transactions (advertise in the local press (Passas, 1999, page 20).  It can be said that the informal money transfers such as Hawala remittance system paves the way for having a system that escape the formal accounting procedures of the national government and other international organizations.  Because of the 9/11 terrorist attack, Hawala remittance system has been in the critical issues because of its connotation of being a banking systems which is built for terrorism (Ganguly, 2001). Hawala is has not only been attached with terrorism but other illegal financial activities such as money laundering.             Primarily, the main goal of this proposed research is to identify the role played by Hawala remittance system in money laundering.   Research Objectives             The issue of Hawala remittance system has made some hot topics in the financial system, specifically for forensic accounting. With the aim of most government to solve illegal financial issues, Hawala’s legality has been questioned; specifically it’s connection with money laundering.  In this regard, the main goal of this proposed research is to identify the role played by Hawala in money laundering. In particular, this paper aims to achieve the following objectives: 1.    To identify how Hawala works as a remittance system. 2.    To determine how Hawala is being attached with money laundering. 3.    To know how Hawala remittance systems become appealing as a remittance approach. Significance of the Study             This study is very significant as it will provide clear analysis for the context of Hawala and how it is attributed to the money laundering issues. This research is also deemed important because it will help the reader to have a clear view of the Hawala remittance system. With the growing issues of money laundering all over the world, most organizations and interested parties are trying to find how this works and what contributes to the growth of this financial issue, hence analyzing Hawala as an alternative remittance system is very essential. Literature Review Hawala Remittance System             Hawala Remittance system also regarded as the alternative remittance system by Financial Action Task Force are known to be an informal banking arrangements and transactions which allow transfer of funds for international and domestic remittances without considering formal financial companies like banks. It is well recognized for having the cheapest and also the fastest and most reliable transfer approach which has been used by overseas workers sending remittances for their families. Though it is very hard to accurately quantify the volume of funds transferred yearly to the developing world through such avenues, remittances are very essential sources of income for different impoverished households and may also play an essential role in promoting development and growth. Nonetheless, in the aftermath of September 11, there has been growing issues on the potential role of Hawala in money laundering. This thought was due to the fact that remittances through Hawala system are anonymous and only require minimal documents, that it can be easily misused by criminal organizations or the terrorists groups to cover the proceeds of criminal operations or corrupt government officials to launder the proceeds of their corruptions (El-Qorchi, 2009). According to some studies, Hawala is considered to be a safe, fast and cost-effective transfer funds approach.  It runs independently from the formal banking approach and was originally developed to assist trade between distant regions at a period of time or in regions where traditional banking medium were not available, weak or considered as unsafe.  Alternative remittance systems such as Hawala are being defined by the FATF as a system used to cover any system utilized for transferring funds from one region to another and universally operates independently from the banking channels. Alternative remittance systems services range from those administered by large multinational firms to small local networks. They can be of illegal or legal nature and make use of different methods and tools to transfer the money.             In some countries, Hawala remittance systems is not considered as illegal, however because of some irregularities of the system and its limited documentation, authorities are considering this as an illegal form although they are having difficulties to oppose it because it has been promoted and advertised through internet and ethnic media.  Furthermore, brokers of Hawala usually run legal business in line with the remittance services that they offer, which further post some challenges to detect its irregularities. Hawala Remittance Process             The Hawala remittance process is very simple: the customer has a quantity of funds which he wants to provide from his nation of abode to his family in his original country. He gives such money to a Hawala banker and the banker calls his contact, which is another Hawala banker, in the second nation and asks this to release such cash to the family of the client.  On the other hand, the Hawala banker gives the client with a remittance code which he will give to the member of the family. His family member visits their contact who will give the money on the presentation of the correct remittance code. Such entire process can take less than 24 hours.  The Hawala banker as well as his counterpart in the client’s country of origin keep a tally of how much each owes the other party and settle their accounts on several times of a year.  Hawala bankers mostly have import/export firms and may utilize goods to settle accounts such as they can export a specific amount of good to the other at a decreased rate to cover the amount that he owes from Hawala exchanges. Research Methodology To achieve the objective of this proposed research, the author of the research opted to use descriptive method of research. The purpose of considering this type of research design is to describe the nature of a condition or topic, as it takes place during the time of the study and to explore the cause or causes of a probable condition. The researcher opted to use this kind of research considering the desire to acquire relevant data from relevant documents (Creswell, 1994).  For this research, content analysis will be done to the information in order to answer two levels of questions – the descriptive and the interpretive. Descriptive questions focused on what the communication contains. Interpretative questions focused on what the contents was likely to mean. The process entailed searching through one or more information to answer questions that an investigator brings to the search (Brubaker & Thomas, 2000). Analysis of the gathered secondary data will be considered in this research as well. Herein, data about money laundering and its connection with Hawala will be given emphasis. The Hawala remittance system and how it works will also be an important highlight of this proposed research.   References: A-Books   1-Regulatory Frameworks for Hawala and Other Remittance Systems (Paperback) by Monetary and Financial Systems Department (Editor), Stefan Ingves (Foreword) "The First International Conference on Hawala, hosted by the government of the United Arab Emirates under the leadership of the Central Bank of the U.A.E 2-Transnational organized crime perspective on global security Edited by adam Edwards and peter Gill. 3-The money exchange dealers of Kabul: a study of the Hawala system in Afghanistan By Samuel Munzele Maimbo B-Web sites 1-http://www.interpol.int/Public/FinancialCrime/MoneyLaundering/Hawala/default.asp 2-http://www.gdrc.org/icm/hawala.html 3- http://www.gdrc.org/icm/hawala.html   Cottle M, 2001, ``Hawala v. the war on terrorism: Eastern Union'' The New Republic 15 October, http://www.tnr.com/101501/cottle101501.html, accessed September 2, 2009.   Ganguly M, 2001, ``A banking system built for terrorism'' Retrieve September 2, 2009, http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,178227,00.html Passas N, 1999 Informal ValueTransfer Systems and Criminal Organizations: A Study into So-called Underground Banking Networks Dutch Ministry of Justice, http://www.minjust.nl:8080/b_organ/wodc/publications/ivts.pdf. Retrieve September 2, 2009.

Research Proposal Investigating Hawala Remittance System And Its Crucial Role In Money Laundering

Research proposal Investigating Hawala Remittance System and its Crucial Role in Money Laundering Background of the Study ...

Economics and Management 550 Quiz

Economics and Management 550 Quiz 1.  A firm using two inputs, X and Y, is using them in the most efficient manner when   A.   MPX = MPY B.   PX = PY and MPX = MPY C.   MPX/PY = MPY/PX D.   MPX/MPY = PX/PY   Answer: It would be in the most efficient manner when MPX = MPY with a firm using two inputs, X and Y     2.  Which of the following indicate when State I ends and State II begins in the short run production?   A.   When AP= 0 B.   When MP = 0 C.   When MP = AP D.   When MP starts to diminish     Answer:     Stage 1 of the production ends and Stage 2 begins in the point where MP = AP as shown in the graph above.       3.  Which of the following is the best example of two inputs that would exhibit a constant marginal rate of technical substitution? A.   Trucks and truck drivers B.   Natural gas and oil C.   Personal computers and clerical workers D.   Company employed computer programmers and temporary supplemental computer programmers.   Answer: Marginal rate of technological substitutions is defined as the amount of by which the quantity of one input can be reduced when one extra unit of another input is used, so that output remains constant. From the choices, natural gas and oil is the best example that would exhibit a constant marginal rate of substitution.   4.  If MRP>MLC, it means that a firm should   A.   Use less labor B.   Use more labor C.   Increase its fixed capacity D.   decrease its fixed capacity     Answer: If MRP > MLC, the firm can use more labor because as long as the labor cost is less than the marginal revenue product, an additional worker hired can increase profits but in a given diminishing rate. Thus, the firm should use more labor. However, a firm can only increase its employment of labor until marginal revenue product is equal to the labor cost.     5.  Which of the following cost functions indicates that the law of diminishing returns takes effect as soon as production begins?   A.   1000 + 2.5Q + 0.05Q2 B.   1000 + 2.5Q C.   1000 + 2.5Q -1.2Q2 + 0.03Q3 D.   Not enough information to determine this.   Answer: The law of diminishing returns is defined as a relationship in which in a production system with fixed and variable inputs beyond some point will yield less and less output with every additional unit of variable input.   1000 + 2.5Q + 0.05Q2 exhibits a diminishing returns since as we add another Q the rate of increase has dropped from 2.5 to 0.05. 6.  Economists consider which of the following costs to be irrelevant to a short-run business decision?   A.   Opportunity cost B.   Out-of-pocket cost C.   Historical cost D.   Replacement cost   Answer: The short run is a period of time when there is at least one fixed factor of the production that can not be altered. Thus, replacement cost is irrelevant in the business decisions in the short run.   7.  Which of the following actions has the best potential for experiencing economies of scope?   A.   Producing a product that has appeal to a wider segment of the market B.   Producing computers and software C.   Producing spaghetti and soft drinks D.   Producing cars and trucks     Answer: Economies of scope refer to efficiencies primarily associated with demand-side changes, such as increasing or decreasing the scope of marketing and distribution, of different types of products. Thus, it can be known that producing a product that has appeal to the wider segment of the market has the potential to experience economies of scope.   8.  Which of the following products is the best example of perfect competition:   A.   automobiles B.   apples C.   aircraft D.   Designer clothing   Answer: An apple is basic need in which generally would consume.           9.  A perfectly competitive firm sells 15 units of output at the going market rate of .  Suppose its average cost is and its average variable cost is .  Its contribution margin (i.e. contribution to fixed cost) is A.   B.   0 C.   5 D.   Cannot be determined from the above information     Answer: The contribution margin is total revenue minus total variable cost. Given: Output = 15 Price = AV = AVC = Solution: Contribution Margin = TR – TVC TR = p (q) = (15) = 150 AVC = TVC/no. of goods = TVC / 15 TVC = (15) = 120 Contribution margin = 150 – 120 = 10.  Which of the following is true for a monopoly?   A.   P=MC B.   P=MR C.   P>MR D.   P<MR   Answer: In monopoly price is generally set where P is greater than marginal revenue.                     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Economics and Management 550 Quiz

Economics and Management 550 Quiz 1. A firm using two inputs, X and Y, is using them in the most efficient manner when A. MPX = ...

Medical Essay on the Effects of Tourette’s Syndrome on Children’s Academic Ability

Introduction             Many complex characteristics are being presented by children and youth affected with the Tourette’s Syndrome. Often, even in learning institutions both special and general educators misunderstand them. This is the case children with Tourette’s Syndrome have unique physical, social, emotional as well as academic needs inside the classrooms. This must be investigate since 1 out of every 25.000 individuals have Tourette’s Syndrome with boys being diagnosed with the syndrome more frequently than girls (LinguiSystems, 1999). Even though, the syndrome is not fatal, the ability of children and youth to develop as normal and well functioning individuals can be jeopardized by the presence and failure to address their situation a t an early stage of development. As such, educators must foster a culture and environment of understanding and openness, which will help in making students with Tourette’s Syndrome feel included and thus, part of the whole class. In addition, simple interventions must be applied to make them academically adept.               However, these measures cannot be implemented without recognizing that TOurette’s Syndrome is indeed present in the some students within the regular educational system. This means that the first step towards addressing the learning or academic needs, among others, of children affected by the Tourette’s Syndrome is the acceptance and recognition of the presence of the syndrome. The following sections of this paper will be discussing the nature of Tourette’s Syndrome in order for educators to recognize them in the classroom. In addition, the effects of Tourette’s Syndrome will also be discussed to determine how educators can better facilitate the learning process of students with Tourette’s Syndrome.   Tourette’s Syndrome               Tourette’s Syndrome is a neurobiological disorder that is characterized by involuntary motor and vocal actions (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). These involuntary motor and vocal actions are known as tics. According to Bronheim (1991), tics are usually observed in early elementary age children. This suggests that Tourette’s Syndrome occurs at the age of 6 to 7 years (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Some of the most common motor and vocal tics are head or arm twitching, eye blinking, sniffing and throat clearing (Dornbush & Pruitt, 1995). In comparison to other neurological disorders, people with Tourette’s Syndrome have different tics as well as symptom severity (Ottinger, 2003).               This commons motor and vocal tics can become more complex as the child matures. The tics may develop into facial gestures or movements that replicate others (LinguiSystems, 1999). It can also be the case that completely new tics could develop and manifest. Tourette’s Syndrome is a life long condition that will take an unpredictable course. This means that symptoms as well as behaviors associated with the syndrome will persist throughout the life of the affected person. However, these symptoms and behaviors can change and thus the person may appear to be acting differently.    However, tics can temporarily disappear during a remission period or early adulthood. In addition, tics disappear during sleep as well as intense sexual arousal (Berlin, n.d.). Even though tics are involuntary, some people have the ability to hold the urge to release their tics until they deem that it is the right time and/or they are in the right place. This is believed to be caused by their neurological basis. However, holding the urge to release tics can be extremely difficult and once the tics are released are a period of holding it may cause the tics to intensify.               Unfortunately, people who have been diagnosed with Tourette’s Syndrome have comorbid diagnoses. This means that aside from having Tourette’s Syndrome they have also been diagnosed as having other neurological problems. Some of these other conditions include obsessive-compulsive disorder, Asperger Syndrome, attention-deficit or hyperactive disorder and learning disabilities (Dornbush & Pruitt, 1995; Marriage, Miles, Stokes, & Davey, 1993; Ottinger, 2003). Of the other conditions that comes with Tourette’s Syndrome, attention-deficit hyperactivity is the most common (Kerbeshian & Burd, 2000; Freeman et.al, 2000) followed by learning disabilities and obsessive-compulsive disorder (Pauls, Leckman, & Cohen, 1993; Coming & Comings, 1994; Como, 2001).               It has been demonstrated that the presence of comorbidity overtime is an important factor in severity of the syndrome as well as the level of impairment due to the condition (Burd et al., 2005). This means that the presence of comorbid diagnosis can further the disability of a child most especially if learning disabilities are diagnosed. The symptoms learning disabilities and other neurological disorders associated with Tourette’s syndrome are more challenging for students more than the symptoms of Tourette’s syndrome itself. However, these symptoms do not have an effect on the measurable intelligence of the individual, which suggests that it does not directly affect the intelligence of person with Tourette’s Syndrome. It is even the case that students with Tourette’s Syndrome have average to above-average Intelligence Quotient levels.                Nevertheless, schooling is still needed to ensure that the peson with Tourette’s Syndrome as well as other condition can meet or achieve their full potential as individuals. It has been suggested that the difficulties that will be faced by a person with Tourette’s syndrome is categorized into three – physical, socio-emotional and academic. Diccussing the three categories of difficulty involved with having Tourette’s syndrome requires the author to delve into a wide range of discussion. For the purpose of this paper, the academic challenges or difficulties will be the focus of the following section of this paper. As such, the effects of Tourette’s Syndrome on the academic ability of children will be highlighted in the next section of the paper.   Learning with Tourette’s Syndrome               According to LinguiSystems (1999), about forty percent of individuals who hae been diagnosed with Tourette’s Syndrome also have learning problems. As a result, seventy percent of students who have been found to be affected by Tourette’s syndrome were enrolled in special education. In addition, twelve percent of children in special education programs have Tourette’s Syndrome (Coming et al., 1990).  Coming et. al (1990) added that Tourette’s Syndrome have significant effects on school performance. Nevertheless, they are often misdiagnosed.               Based on the studies conducted by Harris et, al (1993), 3 out 4 children and youth with Tourette’s Syndrome showed spelling and writing as significant problem areas, while 1 out of 4 have problems with word identification  as well a reading comprehension. In addition, half of the participants of the research exhibited difficulty in calculation. This suggests that Tourette’s Syndrome can be associated with difficulties in visual-motor skills as well as spelling.               Aside from the abovementioned academic difficulties presented above, students with Tourette’s Syndrome may also experiences any or all of the following impairments in relation to their academic performance (Prestia, 2003):   v     Non-completion of school works v     Illegible or poor quality of written works v     Easily distracted in class v     Disorganization v     Difficulty in comprehending and thus executing verbal instructions               Once again, it needs to be reiterated that the problems presented by a TOurette’s Syndrome patient in class can vary depending on the severity of the tics as well as the presence of learning problems. It must also be considered that educators have to think about the welfare of the entire class and not just individuals. As such, educators must treat students with Tourette’s Syndrome like a normal student whenever possible.               As stated earlier, student’s with Tourette’s syndrome can be easily distracted or do not pay attention when it comes to lectures and other school activities. This maybe the result of the tics that they need to release. Involuntary jerking of the head, for example, can disrupt the concentration of the student to the lecture being given by the teacher. In addition, reading and comprehending a book can prove to be difficult if one’s eyes keeps on blinking at rate that is beyond normal. This means that the physical manifestations of Tourette’s Syndrome contributes greatly to the inability of students to focus on the learning process.               Moreover, pressure to fit in with all the other student in the school being attend posses as distractions that affects the learning curb of the student with Tourette’s syndrome. It may also be the case that const teasing due to the physical manifestation of the syndrome could lead to a student loosing interest in going to school altogether. As such, aggressive behaviors may arise on the part of the student with Tourette’s syndrome (Berlin, n.d.). Incidents where students with Tourette’s Syndrome are being teased by other children intensifies the socio-emotional effects of the syndrome. Children may develop a kind of thinking that they are not accepted by their peers and the community because of their tics and as such, some might choose to isolate themselves to refrain from experiencing embarrassment and anxiety. In addition being bullied will affect the child’s self- esteem and confidence.                Aside from this, tics can also provide threats to the safety and well being of the students especially if they are within school grounds. The presence of vocal and motor tics can damage joints, muscles as well as organs due to excessive wear and tear.  Injuries can also accompany tic releases due to accidents. This means that daily routines can also prove to be difficult to some people with Tourette’s Syndrome. The successful completion of physical tasks is affected by impairments in visual perception, sensory processing and motor planning.     Role of Educators               In the midst of the difficulties being faced by students with Tourette’s Syndrome., educator play an integral role in ensuring the all possible interventions be implemented so that the students will be able to meet their full potential within the academic institution as well as in the real world. Therefore, it is one of the roles of educator to ensure that a culture and environment of understanding and acceptance be fostered for benefit of all especially those with disabilities.               Teachers can start be providing information about Tourette’s Syndrome in a child friendly manner. Some of the interventions that can be implemented to ensure a positive environment for all are the following (Prestia, 2003):   v     Information dissemination about Tourette’s Syndrome v     Use the strengths of the student with Tourette’s Syndrome to facilitate peer connection v      Encourage student with learning disabilities or disorders to form a support v     Prevent confrontations by providing explanations v     Praise positive behaviors and efforts of students with Tourette’s Syndrome in order to encourage independence and the promotion of self-esteem and confidence v     Incorporate social skills in the weekly curriculum   In addition, it is important to note that the success of students with neurological disorders is interdependent. This means that each category of difficulty being faced has a direct effect on the others. For example, the academic performance of a student can be affect by bullying, which categorized as social-emotional difficulty. This means that the intervention needs to be formulated based on the challenges that nave been identified. In addition, the interventions to be implemented must use the strengths of the students with Tourette’s synrdrome so make them realize that they do have skills that they are good at and thus increase the students desire to enhance his her skills and abilities.   As such, the formation of an environment that is friendly and accepts diversity will allow people with disabilities to function as normal as possible around other people. This will also prepare them for the challenges in life that will require them to go act and interact to more diverse individuals that may or may not accept them due to their disabilities. Schools gives children and youths the basicthat they will be needing to survive the harsh realities of the world. Therefore, students with neurological disabilities will also be able to benefit in the future if they are able to acquire these basic tools.   Conclusion               In conclusion, it can be stated that Tourette’s Syndrome affects the academic ability not by decreasing the intelligence of the students affected by the syndrome. Rather, their academic abilities are being affected by other categories of difficulties that they face. It is the case that the ability of the child to learn more is being hindered by the physical manifestation of the syndromes symptoms. This means that distractions, as the results of the symptoms and behaviors associated with Tourette’s Syndrome, contribute greatly to the inability of the students to process and digest information being passed onto them by their educators.  It is also the case that social-emotional difficulties pushes students with Tourette’s Syndrome to view themselves as different from their classmates and peers and thus affect their interest in taking part in school related activities.               However, the effects of Tourette’s Syndrome on the academic ability of student can be minimized through interventions by educators as well as families and friends. Students with Tourette’s syndrome can live a normal live with a little help form the people that they interact with. It is through the proper diagnosis and the formulation and implementation of effective interventions based on the challenges and strengths of the student can the effects of Tourrette’s syndrome on the academic ability of the patient be minimized.   Reference   American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.   Comings D.E. & Comings B.G. (1994). TS, learning, and speech problems. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry.  33, pp. 429-430.   Coming, D.E. Himes, J.A. & Coming, B.G. (1990). An Epidemiological Study of Tourette’s Syndrome in a single School Distrct. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 51, pp. 463-469.   Como, P.G. (2001). Neuropsychological function in Tourette syndrome. Adv Neurol. 85, pp. 103-111.   Bronheim, S. (1991). An educator's guide to Tourette syndrome. New York: Tourette Syndrome Association.   Dornbush, M. P., & Pruitt, S. K. (1995). Teaching the tiger: A handbook for individuals in the education of students with attention deficit disorders. Tourette syndrome, or obsessive-compulsive disorder Duarte, CA: Hope Press.   Freeman R.D., Fast D.K., Burd L., Kerbeshian J., Robertson M.M., & Sandor P. (2000).  An international perspective on Tourette syndrome: selected   Kerbeshian J. & Burd, L. (1992). Epidemiology and comorbidity: The North Dakota prevalence studies of Tourette syndrome and other developmental disorders. Adv Neurol 58, pp. 67-74.   LinguiSystems, Inc. (1999). The source for syndromes. East Moline, IL: Author.   Marriage, K., Miles, T., Stokes, D., & Davey, M. (1993). Clinical and research implications of the co-occurrence of Asperger's and Tourette syndromes. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 27, 666-672.   Ottinger, B. (2003). Tictionary: A reference guide to the world of Tourette syndrome, Asperger syndrome, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and obsessive compulsive disorder for parents and professionals. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing Co.     findings from 3,500 individuals in 22 countries. Dev Med Child Neurol.  42, pp. 436-447.   Pauls D.L., Leckman J.F. & Cohen D.J. (1993). Familial relationship between Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome, attention deficit disorder, learning disabilities, speech disorders, and stuttering. Journal of American Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry.  32, pp.1044-1050.   Prestia, K. (2003). Tourette's Syndrome: Characteristics and Interventions. Intervention in School & Clinic. 39(2),pp. 67+.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Medical Essay on the Effects of Tourette’s Syndrome on Children’s Academic Ability

Introduction Many complex characteristics are being presented by children and youth affected with the Tourette’s Syndrome. ...