Research Korner

The Need for Computer Forensics

The industry open arms accepted the computer’s existence in the forensics’ fascinating field. The industry that becoming complex in exchanging the more information available mostly on the net is growing in a rapid rate. The touch of science had already in the system of their profession. And there should be a private eye and a computer scientist the mixes the forensic computer analysts. The whole background of the forensic accounting field is always with the legal, technical, and enforcement of the law upon the investigative intelligence and proficiency in terms of technology. A forensic professional can be as private investigator, corporate professional compliance, and a law official. The addressing of computer forensic needs will help the assessment of the organization’s needs and discuss through the training methods they had been through. As the legal evidence were retrieved from the computer investigation by the following techniques – analysis of techniques, identification, preservation, extraction, documentation, and interpretation.9 Such that computer forensic field became popular topic in computer security circles and in the legal community. The nature of the computer only nurtured the information that is available to analyze in so much time.             Determining the data is also with the matter of preserving the evidence until the time comes where it is needed to be presented. The extraction in the data gathered goes on with the process as they interpret the evidences. And of course, ensuring the evidence should be weighed to be acceptable in the court. The computer-based information is sensitive and can be easily manipulated if it fell in the wrong hands. It can be planted, that’s the forensic accountant specialist is well-trained in a science of training, equipment, and experience.10             Information technology is still on the development process and the new development serves as another impact in the lives of the individuals. Much more of it is the impact of the electronic devices which is part of the law enforcement. The value of electronic evidence should be treated equally with the forensic evidence.             Recovering and maintaining evidence is in a high-risk stake, but the continuous support can make the foundation strong. Dealing with the correctness in the evidence presented will cure the complications of the law that needed a broad enforcement.             Forensic Accountants are certified to detect and interpret both the fraud and non-fraud facts presented, through scrutinizing the details behind the evidences. The resultant effect with the use of technology through the examined accounts, inventories, and other representation is safe in the part of the investigative team. The forensics accountants understands the normal and separate it from the abnormal category which only gives them minimal lead and might cause misleading. The classification process is done through tractions taken upon their training.              The professionalism arises in their blood in a natural way, which is additional to their portfolio. The introduction of the technology in crime-solving process gives a good impression and trust in the investigating organization. What a fascinating world of crime fighters. Conclusions             The change in the electronic world emphasized the importance of every traditional works. The same principles embodied the newly introduced activity and the spirit remains. It is like in the mirror that breaking down into pieces but the reflection is still the same.             It cannot gradually lead the rules into something where it should not be applied but it is responsible in the opening of every possibility where it could be apply. That is the brilliant work of technology and together with a good practice in the comprehension and understanding the systematic approach, the team up of a specialist and the tool he use is indivisible.              There are many available evidences that scattered. Those evidences are with the connection in the current case, the strand of hair, a drip of blood, and notice that the computers are sometimes the main source of the master plan (especially in the “big time” syndicates as seen in television). Wonder how the technology affects the lives of the good and the bad man. Wonder hoe it can establish knowledge and destroy the humanity in one single click.             To begin with, the specialist gathered the data and use techniques that had been used in the past crime scenarios and still can be tested when the court advises it to.  The data has been a part of the subject to peer review or any publication that is related in the case. And the high potentiality of the error rate, which is relevant to the community, should be proved - the reasonable factors that measure the reliability of a testimony and unchanging beyond the times.             The impact of technology is undeniable and can be felt by everybody. Because of the growing awareness in the field where wires, cables, and software involve, the truth for the need of it is already in the system.  References: 1.    Crumbley, L., (n.d.). What is Forensic Accounting? Journal of Forensic Accounting. [Online] R. T. Edwards Inc. Available at: http://www.edwardspub.com/journals/JFA/students.html [Accessed 11 September 2009]. 2.    Pagano, W., (2005). Perspectives of an Accounting Expert as an Expert Consultant and Testifying Witness. The Accountant As An Expert Witness Expert Witnessing in Forensic Accounting (Pagano and Buckhoff). [Online] R. T. Edwards Inc. Available at: http://books.google.com/books [Accessed 11 September 2009]. 3.    Basney, D., (2005). Ten Commandments for Expert Witness. Expert Witnessing in Forensic Accounting (Pagano and Buckhoff). [Online] Google Books. Available at: http://books.google.com/books [Accessed 11 September 2009]. 4.    Nolte, D., (2005). How to Succeed as an Expert Witness. Expert Witnessing in Forensic Accounting (Walter J. Pagano and Thomas A. Buckhoff). [Online] Google Books. Available at: http://books.google.com/books [Accessed 11 September 2009]. 5.    Steen, S. & Hassell, J., (2004) Computer Forensics 101. Electronic Evidence Retrieval, LLC. [Online] Expert Law. Available at: http://www.expertlaw.com/library/forensic_evidence/computer_forensics_101 [Accessed 11 September 2009]. 6.    Ibid., 7.    Carroll, O., Brannon, S., & Song, T. (2008) Computer Forensics. Digital Forensic Analysis Methodology. Computer Forensics, Vol. 56 No. 1. [Online] Available at: http://www.usdoj.gov/usao/eousa/foia_reading_room/usab5601.pdf. [Accessed 11 September 2009]. 8.    Meyers, M. & Rogers, M. (2004) Computer Forensics. The Need for Standardization and Certification. CERIAS Purdue University. International Journal of Digital Evidence Fall, Vol. 3 No. 2. [Online] Available at: http://www.utica.edu/academic/institutes/ecii/publications/articles/A0B7F51C-D8F9-A0D0-7F387126198F12F6.pdf [Accessed 11 September 2009]. 9.    Anonymous (2004). The Needs for Computer Forensics. [Online] Media Wiley Inc. Available at: http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/5X/07821437/078214375X-1.pdf [Accessed 11 September 2009]. 10.  Ibid.,

The Need for Computer Forensics

The industry open arms accepted the computer’s existence in the forensics’ fascinating field. The industry that becoming complex in exchanging the more information available mostly on the net is growi…

Media Reaction: Portrayal of diversity in the media

Media Reaction: Portrayal of diversity in the media The article refers to ‘Minority Journalists Push Media to Maintain Diversity Commitment’ as written by Michelle D. Anderson (2008), it was related to a media advisory released, the National Association of Black Journalists had an urgent message for the newspaper industry, quoted “Diversity should not be treated like a passing fad and it should continue to be a top priority”. Showing diversity landscape of the US, upon exposure to such American Black print journalists, warned that it would hold the industry accountable if managers did not consider diversity in recruiting and hiring practices. To the extent that stereotyping issues can be evident as for instance, Anderson point out shocking number of layoffs and buyout packages, leaving many concerned journalists questioning whether diversity will become the "sacrificial lamb" as newsroom managers and recruiters focus on the economy's impact on newsrooms. For instance, Tribune Company hosts the highly competitive program, which is two-year diversity initiative designed to help beginning journalists launch careers in Tribune newsrooms, including the Chicago Tribune and the Baltimore Sun. Fostered better understanding of diversity and multiculturalism since, there has been audience aggregation, an attempt on the part of news executives to identify which audiences to target and the products that will be suited to each target group based on specific set of criteria," says Lloyd, who was the founding executive director of the Freedom Forum Diversity Institute, housed at Vanderbilt University, the institute ran a now-defunct program responsible for training dozens of second-career journalists of color (2008, p. 16). Anderson also noted that, “advertisers often focus on women because they make key buying decisions in their families, people of color and immigrants have often been ignored as key target audiences”. The concrete understanding is related to the state of diversity wherein the American Society of Newspaper Editors (ASNE) released its annual Newsroom Employment Census, revealing that newsroom staffs decreased by 4.4 percent and that the number of minority journalists in the industry went up just barely from 13.4 percent to 13.5 percent.  According to a 2008 survey, the Los Angeles Times newsroom consisted of 19.1 percent minorities - 8.7 percent Asian American; 3.1 percent Black; 7.1 percent Hispanic and 0.2 percent American Indian (Anderson 2008, p. 16).  Furthermore, ASNE began conducting the annual survey in 1978 in an effort to measure the industry's success in recruiting and retaining journalists of color so that the percent of minorities in newsrooms would be representative of the general population and the communities that newspapers cover. ASNE's decision to conduct the survey came on the 10th anniversary of the well-known federal Kerner Commission declaration, which stated that the poor coverage of inner-city communities facing riots and upheaval at the time was because of a shortage of minority journalists in newsrooms across the nation. The situation is ideally something many journalists of color had been saying for some time. Thus, agreeing that there is ample need of journalists from all backgrounds to ensure that US media has been fulfilling an effective yet credible public service role and to accurately reflect what's going on among individual lives of the people. There leads to policies in the US as it aims to integrate media people and ethnic minorities within the media assumption, as print media is also essential for the creation of multi-culture based schemes which integrate journalists to be aware of increasingly diverse US society. There has been issues in order to achieve newsroom diversity within the media with policies to increase the diversity in the print media. The development for media diversity can account to problems of integration of ethnic minorities as being obvious, along with diversity known pressures for example, the finding of political solutions for the situation has been rising. The situation on media markets is favouring 'mainstream' content, reflecting diversity only insufficiently as addressing of positive possibility of diverse public sphere, which have active part in the realisation of US democracy and its social relationships to other cultures. In addition, aspect of the diversity discourse as focus on media commitment such as certain attempts to bring closure to the political contestation in the name of empirical objectivity or expert knowledge. With increasing inclination to develop empirical indicators to measure media diversity, the scholarly and policy discourse on media diversity has arguably shifted to more instrumental considerations and practices that link with the general trends of technocratisation and instrumental rationality in public policy as there alludes to objectivity and neutrality that seem to transcend the dilemmas inherent in terms such as quality or social responsibility in assessing media performance.             ________________ Anderson, M.D. (2008). Minority Journalists Push Media to Maintain Diversity Commitment. Diverse Issues in Higher Education. Volume: 25. Issue: 12, July 24, 2008, p. 16+. Cox, Matthews & Associates, Inc. by ProQuest LLC

Media Reaction: Portrayal of diversity in the media

Media Reaction: Portrayal of diversity in the media The article refers to ‘Minority Journalists Push Media to Maintain Diversity Commitment’ as written by Michelle D. Anderson (2008), it was rela…

E-Government: Effects, Models and Application

1.0       Introduction             The introduction of information and communication systems had brought several developments to countries worldwide. Through these innovations, production of goods, marketing, education and other processes had become faster and more efficient. However, while the use of technology had been greatly related to business and education matters, advance developments have also influenced how government processes are done. Commonly termed as e-government, technological techniques and tools are now being applied by various government agencies in order to achieve several benefits. In general, e-government is applied in order to serve the government and its citizens better.              Considering that the needs and demands of people change constantly, government officers realize the need of service improvement. This in turn had been achieved through the integration of technology to various government operations. The implementation of e-government had been well-known due to the advantages it delivers. In particular, literature stressed that e-government is capable of enhancing the countries’ economic status. Aside from this, the implementation of e-government is used in order to address several political issues. Although it can provide several benefits, it should be noted that the effective application of e-government requires several requirements. Moreover, an appropriate model should be selected to ensure that the new government systems are appropriate for each user.             In this literature review, a background on e-government and its application will be provided. Its benefits, drawbacks and users will also be cited. More importantly, the possible appropriate model for e-government application in Greece will be described. Its effectiveness will be stressed by citing its effects and citing e-government projects patterned after it. 2.0       Information and Communication Technology (ICT)             The use of e-government actually originated from the development of various information and communication technologies (ICT). Generally, ICT is made up of innovations, gadgets and instruments that are based on technology; these enable users to improve their operations, products and services. Some concrete examples of ICT include computer systems, internet and wireless communication. Before it was used to improve government and public administration processes, ICT was able to provide several advantages to different fields. One of which is the business sector. In all types of business, innovation and expertise are two of the important elements to be considered. In particular, information and communication technology (ICT) encourages companies to become competitive by means of expanding their markets, attracting and retaining customers through tailored services and products as well as restructuring their current business strategies. This in turn affects the business industry by transforming internal processes and external relationships (Wirtz, 2001; Timmers, 1998).             There are several business industries that have already realized the significant role ICT has in their operations. For instance, in the manufacturing sector, ICT has been utilized by several companies in order to improve their supply chain operations. Presently, various information systems are made available to business owners, from less-sophisticated to more advanced systems for this purpose. In particular, internet utilization facilitated the ease of interaction between business and business partners (B2B) and consumers (B2C). Through the internet, online deliveries, information searches as well as mass customization are all made available to the customers. Manufacturers, suppliers and distributors on the other hand, benefit from internet utilization through well-coordinated information sharing. Online auctions are even made possible with this breakthrough (Emiliani, 2000).  Evans and associates (1995) noted that the development of ERP or Enterprise Resource Planning systems also contributed to the evolution of SCM practices. Aside from information exchange, this ICT-based system has also enabled proper monitoring of orders, materials, schedules and inventories. Business process engineering was also made easier through this ICT system. EDI or Electronic Data Interchange is yet another product of ICT that helped enhanced SCM processes. Private wide-area networks or value-added networks (VAN) were conventionally used to implement EDI. This however made EDI too costly for small and medium sized companies. With the introduction of the internet-based EDI, these enterprises are now able to acquire the benefits of EDI application (Johnston & Mark, 2000). Through EDI, computer systems are linked across organizational boundaries, which facilitate electronic data exchange that does not necessitate human intervention.  The EDI is then beneficial as it increases the response rate of the company as well as its accuracy. Expenses incurred in transactions are also considerably reduced. In addition to these advantages, business strategies such as vendor managed inventory as well as just-in-time delivery were made possible through the EDI. Vendors were also able to develop recent ICT-based systems for SCM. These include the Manugistics and the i2. With these technologies, businesses are able to apply analytical applications that are useful for planning, scheduling and revenue management. This in turn is useful for the optimization of the manufacturing, supply, transportation and distribution processes. According to Chopra and Meindl (2001), these are actually sophisticated algorithms which depend on transactional data inputs from either ERP or legacy systems. Aside from managing companies’ supply chain procedures, ICT also improve production processes. Specifically, these technologies enable business firms to perform mass production of goods at a lesser time with greater quality. Interacting with external partners has also improved significantly due to intranet systems and e-commerce platforms. Through the establishment of communication networks, manufacturers, suppliers and consumers are able to interact efficiently. Aside from these, handling valuable data becomes less tedious and costly as ICT systems allow automatic information gathering and processing (Schoder & Eymann, 2000). The performance of autonomous actions through ICT machineries helps in reducing human work load and effort. Moreover, the use of ICT in business has been critical to management due to other important benefits such as increased responsiveness to customer demands, lower order cycle times as well as higher business profitability (Gavirneni, 2002; Kulp et al., 2004). Indeed, knowledge transfer through ICT has been a significant source of competitive advantage for several companies. ICT has also helped in improving other business sectors such as the hospitality industry. In this industry, particularly in the accommodation sector, innovation is an important element for relaying information about their products and services to consumers worldwide. Aside from the increased market coverage, innovation such as the use of ICT enables companies to utilize a marketing method that is direct, time efficient and cost minimizing.             The study done by Gratzer and Winiwarter (2003) can serve as an example to this factor. In this study, the researchers analyze the role of the internet within the small and medium-sized (SME) hotels in Austria. The findings concluded that the use of internet enables hotels to contact customer directly. In addition, SME hotels in Austria typically had no access to distribution channels. However, with internet access, SME hotels were able to use this innovation in order to develop a new and additional channel.  In addition, the researchers noted that the SME hotels in Austria do realize the value of Internet as a competitive advantage. In fact, the management of these hotels would have considered themselves as a business failure without this technology. This is mainly because the lack of internet presence reduces the presence of these businesses to the market, both to the customers and intermediaries. According to the statements in the OECD Conference (2004), the increased adoption of the ICT within the tourism sector has caused significant transitions in the roles played by common tourism actors, including the tour operators, travel agents, booking agents and conference organizers. Nonetheless, ICT systems enabled enterprises to create or obtain updated information, particularly in product prices and availability, increase volume of sales and profit generation. In addition to the business sector, ICT has also been used to improve teaching strategies and the learning process. With the growing interest of people towards technology and online services, the use of computer systems had made its way to the educational setting. One of the important developments in this sector is the introduction and use of web-based learning. Here, computer systems and ICT have been integrated into the students’ education as they are capable of improving their academic development. Furthermore, teachers also benefit from this innovation. Nielsen (1993) for instance, stated that these computer systems have the properties of social and practical acceptability, making them useful for the students. Another feature of the web-based learning is its usability; specifically students are able to learn effectively through online features. One of the general findings researchers have on the use of ICT in the educational context is that it allows students to become more analytical. As suggested by the research of Neo and Neo (2001), as students search for information through multimedia and online tools, students become more critical thinkers. This in turn, stimulates their interest to learn and look for more information. By means of ICT, students gain access to mind tools that enhance their ability to evaluate, imagine, analyze, synthesize and design. Moreover, learning activities that use ICT for teaching enables the students to become better problem-solvers and decision-makers (Jonassen & Carr, 2000). With the use of ICT tools, students become more motivated and interested to learn. As a result, students gain several skills and abilities that are useful in performing various tasks. Teachers on the other hand, are able to improve their teaching organization through this development. In general, the use of this technology for both studying and teaching makes the learning process more interesting; thus, improving retention and learning appreciation. Studies focused on the effects of ICT to the students have also been conducted. These further stressed the benefits achieved by employing ICT in the educational process. For example, in the study conducted by Ping Lim and Yong Tay (2003), the insights of the students towards internet-based learning were identified. During the research process, the student participants were asked to do an information search through the internet. Students were also asked to analyze and evaluate the information that they were able to obtain. After the activity, students were interviewed. The students unanimously agree that Internet is a good information resource as it is accessible and easy to use. Moreover, the student felt that they could learn more by using this tool. The students also recognize the requirement that they must have good internet searching skills so as to optimize the function of this technological tool. Some of them noted however, that using the internet can be disadvantageous due to lack of skills and time for effective searching. Gao and Lehman (2003) investigated on the perceptions of the college students on web-based learning environment. For this study, the researcher made use of three data-gathering instruments, which include an achievement test, an interview and an instructional material motivation survey. In this experimental research, the control group was subjected to typical classroom settings, while the experimental group had gone through a web-based learning approach. Findings showed that the experimental group outperformed the students from the control group. In addition, the students assigned in the experimental group indicated a significantly higher motivational perception towards the instructional tool given to them as compared to the control group. The interview of the students further stressed their perception on web-based learning.             The students noted that web-based education can significantly develop their performance at it helps in reinforcing their learning potentials and clarifying concepts. Web-based education has an immediate feedback feature that allows students to interact more with the learning content, enabling them to perform better. Furthermore, students noted that the web-based learning environment help them to reflect on the learning content, apply what they learned and integrate their learnings to other subject areas. In general, this effect does not only improve the student performance but also improve their analytical skills. Finally, as mentioned earlier, students find web-based education more appealing and interesting, which also improved learning outcomes (Gao & Lehman, 2003).             Although there several benefits can be achieved through ICT, it should be noted that this technology also has certain downsides. For instance, in the business sector, applying ICT especially advanced ones may not be suited for small and medium enterprises due to their cost. Aside from the installation expenses, maintaining these innovations also require financial support. In the education setting, using ICT in the learning process also has certain drawbacks. In the education setting, some students for example, perceive web-based learning negatively due to lack of self-confidence or self-esteem; this happens especially if the students’ instructors do not provide sufficient guidance and motivation. Waterman (2001) stated that students who had not been exposed to certain activities or task may feel too inferior to try them, especially in the presence of more skilled peers. In this situation, students are typically afraid or hesitant to ask questions as it will make them look even more ignorant. If students for instance, are assigned to make an essay through ICT approach, untrained students may fear using a word processor (Todman, 2000). This perception of fear and inferiority among students are also evident even on traditional classroom settings. It is then imperative that instructors establish a learning environment where students are given equal learning treatments and are free to as for help when needed.             Waterman (2000) also stated that stress, depression and anxiety are major factors that influence the students’ perception on online learning. There are many reasons that could cause these affective factors; however, among students, course dissatisfaction, frustration and academic issues are the main causes of stress. In fact, anxiety or phobia on computer use is among the most common causes. Based on statistical findings, 42% of individuals who are more than 35 years of age, show signs of phobia with computers. A greater level of anxiety is observed among older students when technologies are involved. A significant level of anxiety among students is even observed when they have to access their assignment or course information online.             According to Todman (2000), in order to participate and perform well in web-based education, students would need to be equipped with the required computer background and skills; however, it should be considered that majority of the undergraduates have mild phobia on computer use. This clearly implies that the perception of the student of web-based education is significantly dependent on the educational support and motivation they receive from their instructors. In the research done by Davis (1999) using undergraduate students at Cornell University, the researcher concluded that peer support, faculty support, printed documentation, drop-in clinics, voluntary workshops and online help are some of the ways school can provide to enhance the students’ perception on web-based education; these activities can also help the students during the adaptation phase.              From these sample applications of ICT, it is then clear that its employment exhibit dual effects. It is then possible that the effects of e-government also lead to both positive and negative impacts. According to Hasan (2003), ICT has three main features which enable the promotion of more effective governance and public service delivery. These features include automation, informatization and transformation. The automation feature of ICT helps improve governance by enabling the replacement of human-operated activities with technology. Duties that involve the acceptance, storage, processing and transmission of information are some common human-executed processes that can now be performed through machines. In turn, tasks are accomplished faster and with fewer errors.             Some ICT tools still require the support of human knowledge and skills. This is where the informatization feature comes in. Activities that require communication, decision-making and decision implementation are examples that need human intervention. Thus, with the informatization feature, ICT and human skill can be integrated together. This helps in achieving similar results as with the automation feature. In terms of governance, informatization allows the development of better policies and relations with the public. Lastly, the transformation feature of ICT supports the new developments made by human knowledge ad processes. If for example, the government intended to create a new mean of delivering public services, ICT then may be used for its development (Hasan, 2003). These features then justify the value of ICT in improving government activities. The succeeding sections will then focus on e-government and its relevant aspects. 3.0       E-Government             In the early times, the transaction between the government and the citizen concerned takes place in an agency or in a designated government office. However, changes over time allowed the clients to relay their issues to the government easily. For instance, rather than having the clients visit distant government agencies, most governments now have several agencies established and operating near the citizens’ locations. In most instances, these branched out agencies are placed to sites where transportation is easy and more people can be served. With the introduction of various information and communication technologies, conducting public administration services became even easier and more efficient. Specifically, people nowadays can just use their personal computer at home in order to perform various government transactions.             From way back the 1990s, governments worldwide had been trying to find ways on how the internet and other major ICT innovations can be integrated into their operations to achieve better transaction outcomes as well as obtain higher client satisfaction. Similar to the use of ICT in business, education and other fields, technology has become an essential tool in conducting daily government administrative procedures. E-government had been a common tactic applied today by governments from various nations. This development had been defined by a number of experts as well. For instance, this has been define by the United Nations Division for Public Economics and Public Administration as the system that makes use of the world wide web and the internet in order deliver public services and government information to the citizens. Aside from quality service, e-government has also been defined as the system, which encourages the public to be more participative and cooperative with the governments’ plans, projects and policies. It is also a concept that helps governments become more committed to their goals especially for the people. The World Bank on the other hand views e-government as the governmental utilization of various technologies such as mobile computing, wide area networks and the internet in order to build relations with the business sector, public and other government agencies (Hasan, 2003). According to Sprecher (2000), e-government can be broadly defined as the concept that helps make governmental transactions simple and efficient. Fountain (2001) also suggests that e-government is somewhat synonymous to a virtual state wherein most of the operations, structure and capacity of the government are based on information and communication technology. Moon noted in her article that e-government is actually made up of four main internal and external aspects. One of these aspects is the development of a secure central database and government intranet. This is for the purpose of observing more cooperative and efficient interaction among different agencies of the government. Another aspect is the delivery of service based on internet services. The application of e-commerce knowledge and expertise in order to conduct better government transaction activities is also an important aspect of e-government. Lastly, e-government is applied to utilize digital democracy, which in turn will create a more transparent and accountable government. The rise of technology as well as information and communication systems did not only introduce new opportunities for producing or manufacturing fields but also even to those providing public services such as the government. Within the network of information, commerce and knowledge, ICT was able to bring servicing bodies and the public together. Indeed several technologies had already been used in order to support the e-government concept. Some examples are interactive voice response, we service delivery, electronic and voice mail, public key infrastructure and electronic data interchange. With this, the government and its officers become more accessible and transparent to the people. This outcome is in fact one of the reasons why governments realized the significant value technology has to their operations. Initially, governments are often seen as information and service providers that build this certain barrier, making it difficult for people to approach them. Moreover, there had been growing issues with the governments, making their processes and operations too complicated for the clients to follow and comprehend. The governments all over the world aimed to improve its processes, obtain better service outcomes and provide public satisfaction. Along with the growing presence of information technology, e-government was introduced to meet the general goals of governments worldwide. The concept and use of e-government had been introduced to public service delivery during the latter part of the 1990s. During this time, both practitioners and scholars were still unaware on how e-government works. Nonetheless, similar to other managerial practices and concepts for public administration, the e-government concept followed the idea behind e-commerce and e-business. In public administration the use of web technologies can actually be divided into two internal and external categories. Internal web technologies pertain to tools that can be used to organize, store and manage huge amounts of information or data. With these functions, up to date government information can easily be uploaded and downloaded by the clients or displayed on the website on a real-time basis. The internal web function also allows governments to transfer funds through electronic means to other government agencies; the intranet or internet system provided by internal web technology can also be used for relaying information to public employees. Responding to the requests of employees is also made easy through this function (Moon, 2002). External web technologies on the other hand, also provide similar functions as with its internal counterpart. Through this, government linkages with the citizens are established through government web sites. Specifically, these online sites allow government agencies to conduct public relations and communication with the clients. Information or data sharing is also made easy through external web technology; external stakeholders such as the public, interest groups, businesses and non-profit organizations can benefit from this feature. Interactive bulletin boards accessed online also enable government agencies to encourage the public to participate in various government activities such as policy-making; exchanging messages with the people is also easier by posting public notices through the internet (Moon, 2002). 3.1       Motivating Forces             Although it has been cited that the introduction of technology and the changing goals of the government gave birth to the use of e-government, there are actually several motivational factors that encourage governments to adopt this ICT-based development. In most cases, how governments apply e-government tools is mainly based on their view of the private and public sectors. For example, government officers may see the need to shift old into modern practices in order to develop new cultures and processes; governments may also use e-government systems in order to enhance existing operations mainly for the purpose of improving current means of public service delivery.             On the other hand, government officials may also be motivated to utilize e-government by external reasons like public demands. This is particularly true among newly established or still developing governments; officials would naturally want to improve the government’s openness or transparency to the public. Hence, e-government in these nations is typically used in order to attract economic development and increase citizen opportunities. In some cases, a mixture of both internal and external reasons may motivate governments to employ this system. Whatever the motivating factors, the reason for governments to apply e-government is largely dependent on their nations’ political and economic status. Below are some of the identified motivating forces of e-government. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">For efficiency improvement </li></ul> This perhaps is the most common reason why government officials implement e-government in their operations. Improving efficiency through e-government is mainly concentrated on enhancing resource management and operational improvement. There are many ways on how this ICT-based system can help improve efficiency. For example some, e-government initiatives can be used in order to improve consistency or reduce errors in the outputs derived from automated tasks. The efficiency of operating procedures can also be improved by means streamlining, reducing operational layers or cost saving. Through e-government, duplication of positions can be eliminated, lessening the time necessary to accomplish various transactions. In addition, distributing different tasks to government employees can help in developing their skills and facilitating career growth (Breen, 2000). <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Service enhancement</li></ul> Collectively called as the marketization, enhancing the provision of public services through e-government involves the improvement of their accessibility, quality and range. This motivational factor is greatly centered on the creation of a government that is public and service oriented. E-governmental reforms influenced by service enhancement are typically applied by means of identifying and applying the best service practices derived from both private and public sectors. Aside from improving the relations of the government with public, applying e-government for the purpose of service enhancement can also facilitate stronger and more cooperative relations. The improvement of the relations between the government and the business sector can also lead to quality business operations. In addition to the improvement of existing services provided by the government, e-government can also be used as a tool for developing new means of service delivery. Governments may be encouraged to apply new operations, systems or processes that will make public transactions less complicated.             Through the use of e-government, government agencies, private sectors and the citizens are also able to access more useful information provided by their governments. Hinnant, Moon and Welch (2005) provided an example to elaborate more on this e-government motivating factor. For instance, in the agricultural sector, the application of ICT can assist farmers in crop management through the information provided by the government’s agricultural department. Information such as irrigation systems, harvest management, disease and pest control as well as proper planting dates can be provided through e-government. The Land Information System can be taken as an actual example. Through this e-government application, information on tariffs and quotas, food pricing, market issues, imports and exports, rainfall, soil data and hydrology can be made available to the farmers. Aside from enhancing their knowledge on proper farming, the level of agricultural productivity will also increase (Hinnant, Moon & Welch, 2005).             Even historical documents and publications can be made available through the use of e-government. By means of various ICT systems, the government can install a program that would not only allow quick data dissemination but also enable effective data storage and preservation. Rather than keep all documents in paper and folder files that would not last long, saving all historical government files in the computer or online storages can guarantee the life long availability of these valuable data. Aside from public users, this feature of e-government is also important for bureaucrats especially in keeping track or comparing various statistical findings.             In the United States, the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) serve as an important storage and collection of historical government information. Through online access, users can easily access these data in a single and comprehensive website. Aside from providing an easy and searchable database, NARA also has a feature that allows users to request for offered documents in non-electronic format. Malaysia also has its Malaysian National Archives which provided a similar purpose. A website that works like a search engine, the Archive helps in preserving materials that pertain to the country’s history (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006).             The enhancement of services can not only be achieved by increasing the accessibility of government information. Through ICT, large volumes of government information can also be managed more effectively with e-government. This then can also contribute to service enhancement. By means of better record management systems, the accuracy of official government information can be maintained. Moreover, information retrieval done by the users can be made easier through this important feature. A good example of achieving effective records management through e-government is the Geographic Information Systems (GIS) of South Africa’s Independent Electoral Commission. The GIS is an ICT-based system that enables online voter registration and tabulation of votes during election. As the election process involves the provision of multiple data from the voters, using an ICT to manage all given information can facilitate a faster, accurate and more transparent election process. The data of the voters virtually serves as a demographic description of a particular location; thus the effectively arrangement of these valuable records can also support other beneficial purposes. For instance, it could identify areas were medical support or education enhancement is necessary (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Delegation of government responsibilities</li></ul> Aside from improving the operations and services of the government, e-government initiatives are also applied in order to decentralize some of its major activities like service provision and decision-making. This is particularly useful for local and national governments that lead considerably large geographic areas; areas with heterogeneous populations where the implementation of general solutions may not work well can also benefit from decentralized governance. Through e-government, smaller agencies can operate with a more manageable population size and still coordinate with other operating agencies. Decentralizing government agencies can allow the launching of smaller community projects that require the allotment of fewer resources; for entrepreneurial leaders, decentralization is also beneficial as it enables them to recognize business opportunities that may go unrecognized. Aside from increasing the success rate of various government projects, decentralization of duties increases administrative control or democratizing influences. For this motivating factor, governments can employ e-government initiatives to conduct online monitoring, perform data mining activities as well as track citizen and officer activities. Enhancing administrative control can lead to several positive effects. One of which is the reduction of inefficiencies in the government as well as corruption (Kalathil & Boas, 2003).  By cracking down corruptive and inefficient activities, economic development and stability are promoted. This effect is particularly helpful for nations that are still developing economically. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Integration of Government Operations</li></ul> Governments are motivated to employ e-government initiatives in order to allow their different offices to work together. By means of integrationg government operations, processes conducted in individual departments can be simplified; simpler processes in turn can help in saving valuable resources like energy and time. In addition, the amount of workload done by individual government official can be lessened considerably. In order to integrate different government operations into one, it is imporatnt that each department analyze its current record systems; through this, e-government developers can easily design an initiatve that would work for all departments. Regulatory schemes and communication channels shoulc also be developed to facilitate easy interaction between one agency to another. A common or standard IT infrastructure should also be used by all involved government departments (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). The integration of government operations has been observed in the United States through e-government application. Specifically, the country’s Chief Information Officer Council developed a detailed guide for structuring and restructuring fovernment information technology that will facilitate government interoperability. This developed guide basically provides a map on how to develop communication plans, establish management structures as well as acquire executive buy-in and support. In Hong Kong, the Electronic Service Delivery Scheme had been implmented in order to connect 20 of its government agencies in a single online site. Through this, about seventy government services can be accessed in the site. In addition, as the policy makers were aware of the multiple coding standards with Chinese characters, the government also utilized a system called ISO 10646, which enables the use of a standard Chinese language interface; this in turn, prevent communication confusion among users (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Citizen Demand</li></ul> The demand for automatic procedures increases as people become more and more accustomed to various technological gadgets. This trend clearly emphasizes the growing awareness on the role of ICT to the present time. With this, the demand for government activities to be enhanced with technology increases. It is even expected that for the coming years, citizens especially the young generation will demand for better government procedures and services through technology (The Economist, 2000). The citizen demand can also be influenced by time pressures; if the demands of the citizens increased during a particular time, they are likely to find services that are not time-consuming and complicated. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Citizen Cooperation and Participation</li></ul> The cooperation and participation of the public on various activities of the government is important in any nation especially in the promotion of peace and unity. By means of e-government, citizens will likely feel that their contribution and role for effective government operation are valuable. Governments on the other hand find citizen cooperation and participation essential due to several positive outcomes. Examples of these include the acquisition of higher inputs for rule-making processes, increased voter turnout as well as greater citizen interaction with the government. There are actually several ways on how governments can increase citizen cooperation and participation along with the application of e-government tools. For instance, government official can focus on population groups living in highly remote areas; with the help of e-government, the government and these citizens could easily interact and exchange significant information. Providing more opportunities to the public by means of developing a civic culture is yet another approach to increase their cooperation and participation to the government. In addition, by enriching the level of interaction among citizens who have similar issues or share similar interests, geographic barriers are eliminated. Governments can also increase public participation by reaching out to citizens who are not normally active in supporting government efforts or activities. In some countries these non-active groups could be the young adult population or the ethnic groups. E-government can then be used in order to learn more about their issues or demands; in this way, their interests and problems are given due attention by the government. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Government Transparency</li></ul> As mentioned earlier, one of the goals of governments in applying e-government in their operations is to increase transparency. By increasing government transparency, the barriers that prevent citizens from visiting government agencies are taken out. One of the important uses of increasing transparency through e-government is to identify and prevent unlawful acts among public servants and politicians; it has been said that the lack or inadequacy of political transparency is very much related to corruption in the government (Bonham, Seifert & Thorson, 2001). This political problem often occurs as bureaucrats require payments from citizens to provide various services or process certain transactions. The lack of political transparency can then result to increased service costs for the citizens as well as the reduction of the governments’ democratic accountability. This can also increase the level of skepticism towards the government not only by the public but also from external allies. E-government initiatives can then be used in order to address this problem. Aside from increasing government transparency, e-government can also be used to eliminate corruptive behavior, remove bottlenecks encountered during service provision or routine transactions. Information accessibility as well as the predictability and reliability of various government actions can also be increased through e-government. According to Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev (2006), government transparency can be integrated in e-government initiatives through a number of ways. For instance, government rules, requirements and regulations can be posted online for the public to see; this is very much applicable to the filing of applications or acquisition of various government certificates. By increasing public knowledge on conducting these transactions, public servants will no longer take advantage on the public’s unawareness. Aside from allowing government information access, transparency can also be increased by enabling the users to track down the progress of their applications. To support government transparency further, government staff and officers should also be trained to serve the citizens with high levels of openness and accountability. In India, the use of e-government for addressing the issue on corruption had been stressed. As mentioned, the Indian government faces the challenge of corruption due to inadequate government transparency. For this purpose an independent government agency called the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) is formed to fight corruption. In 2000, CVC published online all the names of government officials suspected of corruptive behavior as well as the sanctions appropriate for them. This e-government initiative addresses corruptive behaviors in the government through public censure and exposure. Aside from preventing corruption, the CVC site helps in boosting the confidence of the public towards the government as it shows that citizen concerns are acted upon (The Central Vigilance Commission, 2006). In Mexico, President Vicente Fox implemented an e-government initiative that promotes government transparency. Known as Declaranet, this system enables the online disclosure of the assets owned by public officials. This helps in increasing the public’s trust towards the government. The ACE or the Administration and Cost of Elections is yet another e-government project that is focused on increasing government transparency. In this project, an online electoral system is the primary service offered. Accurate and reliable election data are provided online through this system, which benefit both the public and government officials. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Economic Development</li></ul> The promotion of economic progress is a goal of the government that is very much related to transparency. Naturally, if corruptive behaviors are addressed through e-government initiatives, economic development is then ensured. Aside from being the product of increased transparency, economic development can also be achieved through e-government as foreign investors become more and more interested in investing to other countries. Various initiatives of this ICT-based system can be used by the government in order to make its country more appealing to investors; for instance, it could emphasize the quality of its resources and infrastructures as well as the services and facilities available in the country through e-government. Employing e-government initiatives is also a sign of commitment on government reforms and information economy. 3.2       Sectors             The form of e-government generally describes the different technologies and means of communication that can be applied by governments to improve its services. On the other hand, the sectors of e-government pertain to the governments’ connection with specific constituents; these sectors are slightly similar to those applied for e-commerce. Generally, there are three sectors common to this concept: <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Government to Government  (G2G)</li></ul> This sector of the e-government involves data exchange and sharing between different government agencies or departments via electronic means. The G2G sector involves both inter and intra agency exchanges within local, provincial and national levels. Government to government services can also be applied on the international level; thus, local governments can obtain information from governments all over the world that also apply e-government systems. It has been suggested that governments worldwide should apply the G2G sector in order to enhance their internal systems and processes. Moreover, having G2G is also said to be the key for successful business and citizen transactions (Atkinson & Ulevich, 2000). Thus, this sector has also been recognized as the main support frame of e-government. The e-government applied by the National Institute of Health (NIH) is a good example of G2G application. The department’s Electronic Contractor Past Performance System had been developed in December 1996. In this e-government initiative, scorecards of government contractors from their previous performance are placed in an online database. These scorecards are provided by projects or contract officers. There are about 13 agencies that are contributing to this database; the General Services Administration (GSA), the Department of Commerce and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are some of these contributing agencies. The information in the database is useful for various government agencies that are in need of suitable contractors. By evaluating each contractor’s criteria such as quality of service, business practices, timeliness and cost control, agencies will be able to make the appropriate decision.  NEGIS or the Northeast Gang Information System of the Department of Justice is yet another example of G2G application. This e-government initiative functions as a shared resource focused on street gang information derived from northeastern states like New York, Rhode Island, Vermont, Connecticut and Massachusetts. A reference library as well as data for gang-related activities is found in NEGIS. This G2G application is connected to the police departments of the participating states; in turn, law enforcement agencies are able to access information from NEGIS through data sharing and transmission. The US Patent and Trademark Office had applied an electronic filing system with a customized software program that allows the use of encryption technology. This system has been developed in order for the agency to allow its agents or inventors to send important documents through the internet (Daukantas, 2000). As a result, the agency is now able to lessen the amount of paperwork it has to handle; moreover, confidential files can be safely transmitted through the developed program. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Government to Business (G2B)</li></ul> The G2B sector involves the connection between the government and the business sector. This e-government sector has bee popular due to the interest of several business operators to achieve the benefits it can provide. In particular, the application of the G2B enables the private sector to streamline their regulatory procedures, improve their procurement practices and reduce expenses (Alorie, 2000). Some of the common features in the G2B sector include the procurement of products and services and the sale of surplus government goods to the public. Reverse auctions is among the most popularly used G2B application. In this application, companies openly bid against each other online in order to win government contract; the purpose of this bidding is to bring prices down to market levels. Not only does this make transactions easier but products for purchase can easily be evaluated for quality as well. The G2B sector also allows the reduction of cost specifically through the acquisition of relevant information and compliance with the laws. The utilization of online-based tools for navigating regulatory landscapes, centralization of information resources and the creation of applications for electronic tax fillings are some useful applications of the G2B sector. Business operators can also create online accounts to conduct various transactions with the government such as the payment of taxes. Available online portals can also be accessed by business owners in order to acquire various important documents or information from the government that could help the companies. The General Services Administration (GSA) applies an example of G2B application called the FedBizOpps. This initiative is a website that aims to develop an easy to access and standardized contact point for companies interested to bid for government contracts; having this website developed is helpful for businesses as they need not to search through multiple contracting opportunities (Peckenpaugh, 2001). Through FedBizOpps, Request for Purchase notices as well as other procurement notices can be posted easily for businesses to view. The Department of Defense has also established a similar e-government initiative known as the DoDBusOpps.             Another good example of G2B application is the Buyers.gov of the GSA Federal Technology Service (FTS). This mainly serves as an auction and business exchange website for the information technology products developed by federal government agencies. The website uses the concept of reverse auction to put these products available for purchase. The GSA Auctions on the other hand, is a G2B website that put federal surplus properties on sale; products are sold to the highest bidders. Some examples of these properties are furniture, hand tools, vehicles and industrial machineries. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Government to Citizen (G2C)</li></ul> The G2C sector is applied in order to facilitate the interaction between the government and the citizens; with this sector, the public can easily deal with the government even while at home.  Among other sectors, this is the one that mainly fulfills the goals of e-government application. Some of the common uses of this sector include the renewal of licenses or certifications, application of benefits and payment of taxes; with the implementation of G2C e-government, these activities are conducted with less time and hassle. The utilization of G2C initiatives provides several advantages especially to the public. For instance, this increases the accessibility of information to the public. Another important feature of this sector is that it tends to make complicated government transactions easier for the citizens. A good example is the establishment of initiatives that allow one-stop sites for the public. By combining relevant agencies together in one system, people can easily do different transactions without visiting one agency to the next (Hasson, 2001). One of the important outcomes of applying G2C initiatives is that it encourages the public to become more participative in various government activities and affairs. It also increases the opportunity for citizens to contact with one another, which in turn reduces geographic barriers. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is a good example of the G2C application. One of the important features of this agency’s website is the provision online tax forms for the public to download. This is very helpful for taxpayers as they need not visit the agency personally to get a hold of this application form. Aside from this, the website also has an information section where some of the most frequently ask queries of the public are addressed. Similar to the downloadable forms, the information available on the site is helpful for the citizens as they no longer need to visit or call the agency. The IRS website also has an e-file feature wherein the public can easily send information, receive funds or make tax payments through electronic means. Another example of a G2C initiative is the FirstGov website administered by the GSA. This website was developed in September 2000 and functions as an online portal of millions of pages of government data, transactions and services. Aside from providing easy information access, the creation of this website also fosters the enhancement of the partnership between the private and public sectors. The application of e-government technologies also allowed millions of American taxpayers to file their returns online. Furthermore, more that half a million students applying for educational loans were able to file their applications through the Department of Education’s online application system (Preston, 2000). 3.3       Challenges             Although the application of e-government provides several benefits to governments and their constituents, this development also poses a number of challenges and downsides. While some of these challenges involve computer technology, some issues are also related to resource allocation: <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Internet and Computer Security</li></ul> The use of computer technology and the issue of internet security pose a challenge in the effective application of various e-government initiatives. Relevant problems such as online sharing of information, the use of cookies as well as the electronic disclosure of confidential or private data are some of the common topics of argument regarding this problem. Buchholz and Rosenthal (2002) noted that the Internet had not only increased the people’s access to information, but it has also increased the likelihood that their personal details are also made accessible to other via the internet. Considering that the internet is the main component for e-government application, the government and its constituents are then at great risk of privacy violation. The main security issue relevant to internet privacy is the people who sell private or personal information through the internet. These individuals are particularly dangerous as they are not concerned about confidentiality and protecting others’ privacy. While data brokers and hackers are known threats to internet security, people that develop profiles derived from illegally acquired personal data are big threats as well (Tynan, 2000). Illegal profiling has been occurring even before the internet was introduced. However, at that time, personal records are difficult to obtain. With online access, profiles containing various information, from the user’s activities, interests, location and contacts, can easily be acquired and sold to anyone who needs it for whatever purpose. Security among online users is also put to risk due to another feature made available by the internet. This feature is known as cookies. Cookies contain and store information, in the form of websites, on the user’s computer. These sites will be sent back to the users’ web browser once the site is visited again. A cookie is created in order to website of different user information like passwords and customized settings, which in turn makes online browsing easier. Cookies allowed websites to welcome their visitors back; however, some operators may take advantage of this feature as they could read the other websites visited by the user. While some operators may use this cookie-based information for negative intentions, the operators may also use them in order to learn more about consumer preferences, which in turn can help in narrowing down product offerings. A number of companies and businesses had been successful through this method on data-gathering (Litan, 2001). In spite of this useful advantage, user data taken from cookies are still acquired illegally, without due priority and is a blatant act of privacy violation. Some operators who gained user information from cookies can use these for illegal and negative purposes. The illegal creation of user profiles, containing their interests and the websites they commonly visit, can be included and displayed. Internet users are very much aware of the existence of cookies and how this can be used against ones’ privacy. This then affects the consumers’ trust over conducting online transactions and activities. In terms of e-government application, some agencies had been reported on using cookies to track the movement of their site visitors. An example of which is the national Drug Control Policy Office (Harris & Schwartz, 2000). This practice can greatly affect the trust citizens have on government websites and their online services. It is then essential that policy and technical responses are developed to resolve the privacy issues on the e-government context. Aside fro internet security, computer security also appears to be a common challenge in implementing e-government initiatives. Based on the report made by the General Accounting Office (GAO) in July 1999, several large federal agencies do not provide adequate protection for their operations from different computer-based attacks (General Accounting Office, 1999). The report named six problem areas of the agencies related to computer security. These include access controls, security program management, distribution of duties, change controls and program development, continuity of service and operating system controls. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Limitations on Computer Accessibility</li></ul> Although it is said that online services are beneficial due to its high accessibility, it should also be noted that not all citizens can have equal computer accessibility. Some of the common reasons for the public’s limited access to computers would be inadequate skills or lack of financial resources to support online access. There had been efforts to address this obstacle by means of putting up computer units and online services in various public facilities such as libraries and schools. Nonetheless, it should be noted that most of the activities of the government are made to help out the poor, the less educated and the elderly; for this population groups, increasing the access to computers may not be sufficient. In addition, citizens who are physically impaired or disabled may encounter difficulties in supporting their governments’ activities. In order for them to use various e-government initiatives, special tools like special hardware and software, screen readers and oral controllers would have to be installed; these tools however, can be costly. In the United States, the American government had tried to resolve this matter by implementing a relevant policy. Specifically, Sec 508 of the Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1998 was passed on June 21, 2001. This legislation was done in order to make electronic and IT systems of the federal agencies accessible to the public and government employees (White, 2001). Thus, while computer access may pose problems to successful e-government implementation, certain actions may be done in order to overcome it. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Funding and Management Needs</li></ul> If a government would want to use information technology to improve its operations and services, considerable management skills and funding are then required. Within this challenge, issues such as IT human resource recruitment and compensation, coordination of various government levels as well as the development and installation of e-government systems to be used would have to be considered. In terms of IT workers, the application of e-government initiatives provides great opportunities for their knowledge and skill development. However, considering that the IT sector is a highly competitive field, hiring and retaining skilled workers can be challenging especially if the compensation and benefits offered are below market standards. With this problem, some governments are left with no choice but to delay the implementation of the system or do human resource outsourcing. In addition, government officers who are to implement certain e-government initiatives may go through budgetary issues; this is particularly true for developing nations. These funding issues limit the capability of other countries to apply state-wide systems, affecting e-government outcomes (Welsh, 2001). <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Human Resources</li></ul> Workforce issues are also a major challenge in e-government implementation. In particular, to succeed in applying e-government initiatives, the human resources must be highly skilled, knowledgeable, well-trained and motivated. In order to successfully integrate public servants in e-government, technology and leadership training must be carried out. Aside from these, it is important that the government helps in motivating the staff to support its e-government initiatives; this can be done by giving out rewards or recognition to those who had faithfully support e-government changes. To overcome the challenge of workforce issues, it is essential that e-government changes are introduced gradually. A timeline of development should be developed to represent when each change should be done. In this way, government officials are given ample time to adjust to each change. Regular meetings and submission of progress reports should also be done by the assigned e-government team. Through this, the problems or issues hindering the success of e-government application can be identified and addressed immediately (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). 3.4       Models/Stages There had been a number of models of e-government that have been introduced and applied. These models generally represent the different stages an e-government initiative undergoes over time; an e-government model basically describes how an initiative evolves. Below are some sample models: <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">The Five-Stage Model</li></ul> Moon (2002) noted that e-government involves several stages; these stages represent the degree of sophistication each system has. The first stage of e-government is known as the simple information dissemination or one-way communication. As the name suggest, this stage of e-government can be done by merely posting information online for the clients to view. Request and response or two-way communication is the second stage of e-government. Here, a more direct interaction between the government and the constituents is observed. Good examples of two-way communication e-government include the use of online data-transfer technologies or e-mail systems. Hiller and Belanger (2001) cited that an actual example of this e-government form is the website of the Social Security Administration wherein the agency directly receives Medicare card applications and benefit statement requests and have them processed while clients access its response. The third stage of e-government is called the service and financial transaction. In this form, public service providers are replaced with online-based self-services to perform online service and financial transactions. According to Layne and Lee (2001), the transaction-based e-government can be applied by means of employing database links to online interfaces. Some of the important transactions conducted through this e-government stage include the payment of fines, renewal of licenses as well as filing applications for financial support. Horizontal and vertical integration is the term used to describe the fourth stage of e-government. This stage can be applied either through intergovernmental integration (vertical) or intergovernmental integration (horizontal). Implementing this stage of e-government can be difficult as the governments need to integrate online and back-office operations with considerable amount of resources. The American government portal site (http://www.firstgov.gov), the state of Victoria in Australia (http://www.maxi.com.au) and the e-Citizen Center of Singapore (http://www.ecitizen.gov.sg) are some good examples of the fourth form of e-government. Basically, horizontal and vertical integrations allow governments to push and share information within their different levels to allow the provision of better online public services (Layne & Lee, 2001). The fifth stage of e-government is called political participation. This enables a wider and more direct interaction of the government with the citizens. Some uses of the fifth e-government stage include online public forums, online opinion surveys and online voting (Moon, 2002). The first four stages of e-government were focused on the provision of online-based public services. However, the fifth stage is more concentrated on enhancing the political activities of the public. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">The UN/ASPA Model</li></ul> The model introduced by United Nations and American Society for Public Administration is made up of five stages (Digital Philippines, 2001). The first stage is called emerging. In this stage, the nation is committed to becoming a user of e-government. The process typically begins by developing a small number of independent government websites that could deliver some fixed political or organizational information to the public. Contact information of various agencies or addresses and telephone numbers of public officials are typical content of an emerging e-government system. At times, a question and answer section is also provided to provide details on frequently asked issues. The second stage of e-government as developed by UN and ASPA is called enhanced. Here, the number of websites that provide government services begins to increase. Rather than focus on providing static information, the sites begin to offer information that are constantly updated. In addition, links to relevant government sites or pages can now be accessed and used. Other useful documents, legislations, documents and newsletters of the government are also made available at this stage along with electronic mailing and search features. The third stage of e-government is known as the interactive stage. Here, the presence and access for online government services increase significantly. In particular online services now support more formal interactions between the public servants and the citizens. Post comment areas and electronic mail are typical features of government sites during this stage. Website contents are also updated on a regular basis. A major development in the interactive stage is the availability of downloadable forms and specialized databases. The transactional stage is e-government’s fourth stage. As its name suggests, this stage is more focused on performing important transactions between the government and its constituents; examples of these transactions are obtaining records, passports, visas, certificates, permits and licenses (Digital Philippines, 2001). Payment for these transactions can already be paid through electronic means. During this stage, digital signatures can already be used to support procurement activities and security measures can now be enforced to protect the systems. The last stage of e-government is called the seamless or the fully integrated stage. Here, instant access to any government service is already available (Digital Philippines, 2001). Differences among various agencies and departments are removed through online features. Common needs of the public are also easily provided through the available online services offered by the government. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Gartner’s  Four-Stage Model</li></ul> The four phase model of e-government was developed through the Gartner research (Baum & DiMaio, 2000). Unlike the two mentioned e-government models, Gartner developed a model made up of four stages. The first stage is known as presence. The aim of this stage is to merely have a place on the internet. Similar to the initial stages mentioned in the previous model, this stage is characterized by contact details, agency mission, opening hours, addresses and a few government documents that may be useful to the public. The second stage is the interaction stage where websites basically contain more helpful features for the users. In this stage, the public can already access links to relevant sites, downloadable documents and search features. In addition, users can already send electronic mails to officials or agencies concerned. The citizens are also given the benefit of receiving important files and information online even without visiting the agency office.  The third phase of e-government in Gartner’s model is called the transaction stage. At this point, users can already complete certain transactions with various government agencies via online means. The main purpose of this e-government stage is to allow the public to access electronic self-service applications. Filing tax payments, renewing licenses or applying for permits are some of the common activities that can be done online in the transaction stage. E-procurement is also available at this point. Aside from providing a 24/7 service availability for the citizens, this stage also allows cross-agency shared services. Most countries worldwide applying e-government initiatives are already at this stage (Baum & DiMaio, 2000). The final stage of Gartner’s four-phase e-government model is the transformation stage. This represents the long-term goal of nations applying e-government initiatives. The aim of this stage is to provide the public a single point of contact for all the government services that they need. The achievement of this stage increases government transparency to its optimum. Furthermore, this also results to considerable improvements in citizen participation and cooperation. In this phase, e-government initiatives rely significantly on various customer relationship management tools and new means of public service delivery. The creation of virtual agencies or highly-tailored government websites is one of the common applications during the transformation stage. Here, the citizens could freely access various government information and conduct different transactions in a single location. Seamless interfaces are also provided, allowing users to go from one agency to another (Baum & DiMaio, 2000). Employees working from different government agencies can also benefit from the transformation stage. Specifically, as this stage enables the utilization of high standard intranets, employees can easily connect with other government employees from different agencies. The transformation stage also allows the development of extranets, which in turn makes seamless information flow possible. This helps the government and its constituents to perform collaborative decision-making. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">World Bank’s Model</li></ul> This particular model comprises the least number of phases for e-government application. These stages include publish, interact and transact (AOEMA, 2006). In the publish stage, large amounts of information useful to both public and private sectors are already made available, The internet as well as other information and communication technologies are used in order to deliver e-government services. Most of these provided data are made up of government documents, regulations and forms. One of the important objectives of the publish phase is to eliminate the need for the citizens to travel from one government agency to the next just to conduct different transactions with the government; furthermore, the publish stage aims to increase corruptive practices and inefficient bureaucracy that typically occur during these transactions. The publish phase represents the leading edge of applying e-government as it enables government data dissemination to as much people as possible. While the publish phase is more focused on the provision of various government information, the interact phase on the other hand is centered on building relationships. Here, the main goal is to allow the citizens to interact with the government as well as participate more in various government activities. By means of strengthening the engagement of the public in the governance process, the citizens’ trust in the government will also increase.  The application of two-way communication is one of the basic systems applied at this stage. The provision of contact information and the allowance for sending e-mails are the basic services enabled (AOEMA, 2006); these allow the public to send in their policy recommendations, comments and problems directly to the government agency concerned. The final phase is called the transact stage. Here, aside from providing information access and allowing citizens to interact with the government officials, the transact phase can also enable the public to conduct various transactions online. Similar to the function of e-commerce services to the business sector, e-government initiative at the transact stage can also provide the same functions. Government accountability, cost savings and production improvement are some of the important factors that can be achieved in this phase. The achievement of this stage established a direct link between the citizens and various services offered by the government at any time (AOEMA, 2006). During the early times, conducting government transactions require long waits, confrontations with harsh bureaucrats as well as occasional bribing. With the transact phase of e-government, the public no longer needs to visit the agency in person and go through several hassles. In addition, results of transactions can be obtained faster than before. 4.0       Greece and E-government: An Overview             Among the nations attempting to employ e-government initiatives in its own government system is Greece. There had been several developments that took place in the country in order to meet its e-government objectives. This has been supported by the development of the information system level in the country. According to Boufeas, Halaris and Kokkinou (2004), the implementation of the KLISTHENIS project in January 1995 opened the path towards e-government for Greece. Through this initiative, the administration of public services in the country has been modernized and became more functional. Integrated information systems had been used for several functions like human resource training. The conduction of various tax services has also been improved through the TAXIS project; The Prefectural and Local Self-government had been connected to the Central and Regional Administration institutions through the country’s SYZEYXIS project. Official websites of various government agencies had also been developed in order to create e-networks; these are used to improved services offered by different sectors like culture, trade, research, education and medicine.             Further e-government achievements had occurred in Greece in the following years. In 1999 for example, the White Book was developed. This is an online global strategy that provides useful information to the public regarding various fields, which include the labor market, economy, social welfare, regional growth, education, public administration, telecommunication and many others. In general, the Greek government was able to put up several e-government programs by utilizing different information and communication technologies (Boufeas, Halaris & Kokkinou, 2004). Like the main function of e-government implementation, the government of Greece aims to use e-government initiative in order to improve the quality of government services delivered to the public.             However, despite the efforts of the government, initial evaluation of its ICT systems and e-government initiatives indicates the country’s need to reconsider its developmental efforts. Specifically, there had been a number of problems that appear to affect the effective implementation of e-government in Greece. According to the publication written by the Greek Government (1999), the local administration is very much interested and willing to pursue its e-government plans to help out the citizens; however, one of the main obstacles encountered by the government is the low presence of internet access in Greek households. Compared to other members of the European Union, the online capability in Greece is considerably much lower. Specifically, the publication indicated that less that 14% of the total households in Greece have internet access at home; this figure only increased significantly in 2001 to 2003. With limited online access, the public may not be able to use e-government services to its full potential.             In the study conducted by Hahamis, Iles and Healy (2005), the researchers also revealed that the broadband rate in the country is also poor. Based on the 2004 reports, Greece has the lowest broadband rate out of the 15 members of the European Union. On the average, the broadband rate of the EU member was at 6.1%; however, Greece alone was only at 0.1%, suggesting that its broadband level was very low. In 2005, reports indicated that the country made very little progress in increasing its broadband rate; not only was Greece the country with the lowest broadband level but it was also the only EU member state that has a broadband level lower than 1%.             The problems noted in Greece’s information system appear to affect the efficacy of its e-government projects. One of the notable problems in the country is the inadequacy of its technical infrastructure. The expenses allotted for ICT instruments appear to be low in Greece, indicating that the value given for this aspect of development is not as high. Successful e-government implementation requires coordination and standardization; however, in the Greek setting, operating systems lack common specifications that will allow the establishment of communication linkages. This problem stresses the need for the government to redesign its systems to interconnect public agencies (Hahamis, Iles & Healy, 2005).             In relation to this problem, it has also been noted that the issue of Greece’s public administration is brought about by its divided information architectural models. Specifically, the integrated information systems of the country appear to be developed and implemented to serve individual organizations or agencies rather than as a whole. With its divided systems, citizens tend to encounter difficulty in using the e-government systems of each department. Moreover, this problem also appears to prevent the country from managing huge volume of information. In addition to the problem on ICT, the e-government initiatives in Greece also appear to be affected by the country’s government system. In general, the country practices a system made up of several hierarchical bureaucratic layers; this in turn prevents fast transaction processing. Delivery of services and decision-making are also affected (Hahamis, Iles & Healy, 2005).             With these issues raised, it is clear that aside from poor ICT availability, Greece also needs to reconsider its own government system, the interconnection between its individual government agencies as well as the information system model used. If the e-government initiatives in Greece will be analyzed, it appears that its government does not follow a certain e-government model. While its initiative started on the first stage of e-government development, its succeeding e-government projects seem to concentrate on developments that should have been done on latter stages. This pattern of change contributed to the difficulty of implementing e-government successfully in the country. Furthermore, this also makes it difficult for the private and public sector to realize the full potential of these e-government initiatives. It is then necessary that the country selects an appropriate e-government model to ensure successful implementation.             Based on the issues and current situation of Greece, the four-stage model introduced by Gartner will positively contribute to the country’s e-government objectives. There are several reasons that could support this choice. One is based on the current ICT situation of Greece. As mentioned, the country is still struggling to increase the accessibility of internet utilization among the citizens’ households. Doing this process can take a while; hence, a model that would support gradual development is more appropriate. The model introduced by Gartner also clearly identifies the important developments a country must undergo as it implements e-government projects; the clarity of the model will make it easy to follow. Another important reason is the fact that this model was also used by other nations worldwide. As this model was able to bring about successful outcomes in these countries’ public administration sector, there is possibility that using the same four-stage model will provide the same outcomes for Greece. 5.0       E-Government and the Four-Stage Model in various Countries The application of e-government had been done in several countries worldwide mainly because of the benefits it can provide. Through the use of information and communication technologies, services offered by the government become more enhanced. Aside from this, the interaction of the government with the public and with various industries is also improved. It has also been noted that the implementation of e-government helps in addressing various political and economic issues. Specifically, this helps in reducing corruption, increasing government transparency, increasing public convenience, maintaining revenue growth as well as reducing costs. Nations worldwide have also used various e-government models in order to apply certain initiatives. Below are some of the countries that were able to implement their own e-government systems using the four stage model. 5.1       Sweden             Most European Union member states have used the four-stage model in order to implement their e-government objectives. Among these countries include Sweden. The Swedish government intended to apply this development mainly to provide quality information and services to the public irregardless of time or locations. The e-government program of the country is mainly composed of 24/7 services, service charters, public information through a single entrance, data made to fit the needs of the SMEs, service coordination between different government levels, utilization of electronic signatures and development of basic databases (Ostberg, 2006).             In order to carry out this plan, government agencies would have to assess their existing operations to determine their current position in terms of e-government development. Through the use of the four-stage model, Swedish government agencies were able to identify their position and foresee their supposed e-government level in the future. By means of the four-stage model, agencies were able to determine the sections of their processes that still need to be developed in order to meet the nation’s e-government plans and objectives (Ostberg, 2006). As a result, Sweden has been able to implement a number of important and advanced e-government systems that bring important benefits to the government and its constituents.             One of these e-government systems is called the Virtual Employment Office. In the past, the country’s National Labor Market Board had been hiring counselors in order to assist job applicants find the appropriate work for them. In addition, databases for job seekers as well as job opportunities had been stored in computerized databases in order to facilitate this operation of the agency. However, through the introduction and use of e-government systems to the country, the public can now personally access available job opportunities and apply electronically on their own. Within this system are some of the important employment features that an applicant and employer needs. The online system for example enables free job vacancy advertising for the employers. Through this feature, employers can easily have their job slots advertised online and even view how many times the advertisement has been read. This advertising feature also allows thousands and thousands of job opportunities for the public to see and apply for (Ostberg, 2006).             For the job seekers, the site also allows public users to create their online resume. By simply registering themselves on the website, employers could easily see the qualifications of each applicant and contact them directly. In this way, applicants need not visit the company or work site just to submit their resume or application form. In addition, the online resume can easily be updated at any time. Through various settings offered by the site, job seekers can also easily modify their personal data through the use of keywords and occupational nomenclature; in this way, employers can easily find and read their data. Rather than just post their personal data online, job seekers can directly send in their resume to job opportunities that suit their needs and qualifications (Ostberg, 2006). If the employer has provided an e-mail address, applicants can then send their data electronically. Furthermore, the availability of links to certain job vacancies on the site can lead to online application forms which the applicants can fill up even while at home (Ostberg, 2006). The availability of this employment feature helps in saving the time and resources of both the employer and the applicant. The application of the online employment system by the National Labor Market Board has been very successful and was even recognized as the number one self-service system through online means. Aside from improving the employment process in the country, The Swedish government has also applied an e-government project in order to monitor and enhance its trading sector. The system known as the Customs’ Stairway has been developed in order to serve as a caretaker of the import and export operators. The Custom’s Stairway was actually a project initially created with Australia, Netherlands and the European Commission. Finland, Denmark, Italy, Russia, Norway and Ireland are some of the countries that had eventually adapted the same system. The main purpose of implementing this e-government initiative is to have all import and export declarations fully computerized. In the previous years, declarations from both import and export sectors are sent through online means of using a Smart Card and the Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) system. Thus, the project aims that by 2005, all declarations must be voluntarily supplied through the online EDI program while 90% of the dealings should be conducted automatically. Based from the project assessment in 2000, the aim for paperless and hassle-free transactions had been showing significant and positive outcomes (Ostberg, 2006). In addition, the application of this system had also been beneficial in terms of building relations. Specifically, as the quality of transactions is improve via the Customs’ Stairway program, the relation between the Customs and the Operator is improved as well; the use of this system has been particularly helpful in building mutual trust between the two parties. The implementation of the system also helped in lessening interference during the custom declaration operations, making the process faster and more efficient. Another important project developed by the Swedish government is the Road Administrations’ Vehicle Database. Through this e-government initiative, car dealers can easily manage all their registration needs in the system’s database. The 24/7 services of the system further makes this initiative useful (Ostberg, 2006). By means of this project, 80% of the car ownership registrations can be done electronically by the car dealers themselves, making the process less time-consuming. 5.2       Bulgaria             By 2007, Bulgaria will also be a member state of the European Union; similar to other member states, the country also implements e-government initiatives guided by the four-stage model. One of the Bulgarian cities active in implementing e-government projects is Vidin, which is located on the country’s northwestern section. The population of the city is more than fifty thousand and is led by a mayor and a municipal council. Due to the various social issues affecting the city, the city’s municipal government seeks for possible investments that would resolve these problems. As a resolution, Vidin then formed a sister city relation with West Carrollton City in Ohio through the ICMA or the International City/Country Management Association (Seifert & Bonham, 2003). The establishment of the sister city allowed Vidin to develop various e-government projects to improve its current systems. One of these projects is the development of the online Office System which can be accessed by all staff members of the municipality. Through this system, all important documents for the city can be stored and viewed. An important aspect of the Office System is that it enables the staff members to be connected to the Internet, allowing access to all laws of Bulgaria. In addition, Sofia, a commercial firm, had supported the development of the office System by adding a website feature where basic information about Vidin can be viewed (Seifert & Bonham, 2003).             Based on the four-stage model, the city of Vidin is still on the first stage of e-government evolution. Most of its services are concentrated on information delivery; several changes will then have to take place before the city reaches the final phase of e-government. Nonetheless, the city had been doing a number of activities in order to enhance its e-government system further. Aside from providing information, Vidin has also been trying to implement initiative that would increase the transparency of its economic and political systems. Moreover, these changes are done in order to combat corruption occurring within the municipality (Seifert & Bonham, 2003). To support these goals, Vidin now has an Information center where the public can not only obtain information about the city but can also report corruption cases. This effort is further supported by the municipal government’s new and more competent means of recruiting administrative staff.  The sister city of Vidin in the United States is also helping out to improve its website. Specifically, the aim of these changes is to make the site more useful and informative not only to the public but to the private sector as well. Thus, information about the city’s infrastructures, workforce and transportation are being included in the improved website (Seifert & Bonham, 2003).             Although the city has done several developments in order to improve its e-government initiative, Vidin and its citizens would have to handle other issues in order to move to the next levels like transaction and transformation. One of these issues is the fact that computer access in most citizens’ households within Vidin is limited. Aside from the limited number of personal computer owners in the city, the public also has inadequate computer skills that would optimize the benefit of e-government initiatives. Although the public can access online services in other facilities like post offices and cafes, offering and using such services are also costly (Seifert & Bonham, 2003). Establishing an IT infrastructure to reach the interaction stage of e-government also require considerable funds. Moreover, it is difficult to find fund support within Vidin for the IT infrastructure due to demand competition. Vidin City however does receive funds from external resources such as the European Union and USAID. The central government of the country also provides funds for e-government initiatives. The city must then make the most of these available funds and make effective plans for further development (Seifert & Bonham, 2003). 5.3       South Korea             Several nations in Asia had also implemented their own e-government initiatives. The Seoul Metropolitan Government for example, has developed and applied a number of e-government projects in order to improve its operations and services. The Korean bureaucratic before was run by centralized governance; this in turn made corruption a major issue in the country’s political system. Mayor Goh Kun, Seoul’s municipal mayor in 1995, realized this growing political problem; hence, the activities during his administration were focused on the elimination of corruption in the city. Through an e-government initiative known as the Online Procedure Enhancement for Civil Applications (OPEN), Seoul is able to pursue its anti-corruption campaign.                          The OPEN system is an online-based initiative which enables Seoul officials to monitor application done through the internet. This e-government initiative was implemented in 1999 and caters to about fifty types of civil applications including government purchasing and construction permits. In developing this system, the developing team considered all forms of civil applications, processing protocols, forms of irregularities and corruption-prone areas. The result of this analysis was a 26-division of civil applications that are often affected by various irregularities. For every division, information like contact details and application procedures are provided. E-mail access is also provided, enabling user to ask questions or forward comments. In order to use this program, the user is given an identification card and a password. Through this, users can regularly monitor the application process via internet connection. This system had been an important aspect of Seoul’s e-government effort as about forty thousand applications are processed through it (Choi, Seungbeom & Ahn, 2001). By means of this system, officials can easily identify the history of one application, including its origin, duration and required processes. This then enables the staff to determine whether transactions are going smoothly; the time spent for the transactions can also be assessed through this system. The mayor can also easily identify the offices or bureaucrats who are not doing their responsibilities well. By means of increasing the transparency of online government transactions, the mayor and his staff are able to address the corruption issue. This has been verified by the initial assessments of the OPEN system. Surveys conducted by Transparency International have also indicated that the implementation of the OPEN system contributed to considerable decrease of corruption instances; in addition, this system has also been helpful in increasing the credibility of the municipal staff (Bhatnagar, n.d.). Before OPEN was applied in Seoul, the citizens would have to personally visit the City Hall to check on the progress of their applications. This conventional practice however, increases the likelihood of corruptive behavior especially if the office concerned would ask for side-payments just to speed up the application process. With the OPEN system, citizens neither need to visit the city hall nor deal with public servants anymore. The application of the OPEN system in Korea has made important implications. One is that in order to address corruptive behaviors in the political system, one must go beyond addressing individual acts or events of corruption. Actions should concentrate more on identifying the root of the problem and applying standard measures. The application of information technology in government operations has also proved to be useful not only in eradicating unlawful political behavior but also in improving public service administration. Furthermore, a strong political leadership such as the one exhibited by Seoul’s city mayor should be observed to make e-government implementation successful. From the description of the OPEN system, it can be said that Seoul has reached the third stage of e-government application. While this status may be near the final stage of development, certain challenges should still be considered. These include the impact of using technology to improve governance, citizen adjustment, funding and coordination of various government levels. 5.4       Singapore             The Singaporean government has also been very active in implementing e-government initiatives over the years. The most recent projects implemented by the country can be divided into three divisions. These include eGAP I, eGAP II and iGOV2010. The first e-government program of Singapore was implemented from 2000 until 2003; the main focus of this program was to deliver public-oriented services. Approximately US$1 billion had been allotted in order to support this project, which is made up of various G2E, G2B and G2C applications. Within this program, six aspects were considered. These are electronic service delivery, strong ICT infrastructure, technology experimentation, ICT education, operational efficiency improvement and knowledge management. Aside from these, it is the main aim of this e-government program to ensure that the officials who will use and monitor the systems have the necessary skills and competencies to handle these technological innovations (Bhatnagar, n.d.).             Within the eGAP I project, several programs had been implemented. One of which is the Public Service Infrastructure (PSi). This particular program has been implemented in order to help government agencies speed up the delivery of different e-government services to the private and public sector. Another important program under eGAP 1 is SingPass or Singapore Personal Access. This program was developed in order to allow the single authentication or a universal ID system to use for all available e-government services. In this way, users will no longer need to use different and multiple passwords in order to initiate a transaction with the government. Another important program is the Government Electronic Business, which serves as an online procurement system for the citizens. Through GeBIZ, both domestic and foreign suppliers can easily view and participate in various business opportunities offered by the government in a safe and more efficient environment (Singapore Government, 2006). For business operators, eGAP I’s BizFile program is also useful especially in registering a new business or forwarding changes on the operators’ business particulars. Through this business-oriented program, filling out business application forms online makes the process easier and faster. Finally, the CORONET program or the Construction and Real Estate Network is an online system beneficial for real estate developers. Through this program, building plans made by professionals can easily be processed and approved through online means. This is a very cost-effective techniques especially since hardcopy print outs of the plans are no longer necessary (Singapore Government, 2006).             In 2003, the second e-government program called eGAP II was implemented. Compared to the first e-government project, the second program appears to be more focused on enhancing the existing developments and services offered. Specifically, this project was developed in order to deliver value-adding and integrated public services, to connect the public as well as to transform current services to a networked government. Similar to the first e-government program, various systems were developed to carry out eGAP II. One of which is called the CitizenConnect. The aim of this program is to assist the public or the users who are not very familiar with the internet or computers. This program was actually introduced by the People’s Association, the Ministry of France and other relevant organizations (Singapore Government, 2006). Through this, the users are able to understand more about online transactions and acquire the benefits brought about by e-government services. Toa Payoh Central, Gek Poh Ville, Serangoon, Zhenghua Community Clubs and Pasir Ris East are the sites where this program can be accessed (Singapore Government, 2006).             A government-wide online information service called the Singapore Government Online Search engine was also developed under eGAP II. This on the other hand was done in order to improve the government information search results provided by the system. While CitizenConnect was implemented to provide assistance the Online Search Engine was enhanced to ensure public convenience and service efficiency. This program is very helpful especially to users in need of specific government information. Through this, citizens can easily view or download government files and documents for their personal use (Singapore Government, 2006). In October 2004, a related program known as the Singapore Government Online Portal has been introduced. The goal of this system is to provide government services and information via electronic means. There a four available segments within this online portal. These include the government, e-Citizen, business and non-resident segments; the types of information provided are based on the needs of the said portal divisions. Aside from giving out useful information, the portal also serve as means to integrate or collaborate different government agencies within the country (Singapore Government, 2006).             The Web Services program is also a part of the eGAP II project; the aim of its deployment was to provide better and more opportunities that would lead to better public service delivery and business relations. It is the aim of this program to enhance the ability of the government agencies in terms of data efficiency and sharing. Another important aim of this program is to allow real-time connection and access to various government agency systems. It is also the goal of this program to encourage all government agencies to provide web services. The business sector was also part of the eGAP II; the online business licensing service (OBLS) was developed for this purpose. Specifically, the OBLS is helpful for the business sector as it enables the one-stop experience when applying for different licenses online (Singapore Government, 2006).             The latest e-government program in the country today is called iGov2010. In this program, the Singaporean government aims to connect and delight the customers through an integrated government. To carry out this program, backend government processes would have to be transformed and customer-focus on service delivery would have to be strengthened. Through the iGov2010, the Singaporean government does not only intend to deliver quality services to the public but also to encourage them to participate more in policy development. With this e-government program, Singapore will be able make a government that operates as one; this in turn will take down political boundaries as well as generate more public administration opportunities. For this latest e-government program, the government cited four important thrusts. These are to increase the accessibility and quality of e-government services, to increase the participation of the public in political engagements, to heighten government capacity and to enhance the competitive advantages of the country (Singapore Government, 2006).             Similar to the first two e-government programs discussed, the iGov2010 also has different projects that support its implementation and future success. One of these projects is the Unique Establishment Identifier (UEI). Conventionally, citizens are able to get a hold of the Accounting and Corporate Regulatory Authority (ACRA) number as well as the Registry of Societies (ROS) number in order to transact with various government agencies. However, having and using different identification numbers for every agency has become difficult for the public users. Thus to remedy this problem, the government introduced the UEI which world like a universal identification number for most public agencies. Aside from reducing the complexity of initiating transactions with the government, this also makes government processes faster. Most importantly, using a single identification number helps in making different government agencies more integrated (Singapore Government, 2006).             The government has also developed a project that would directly benefit the business sector. Known as Singapore Government Enterprise Architecture, SGEA covers various business functions like information architecture, technical architecture, business architecture and solution architecture. It main purpose is to encourage agencies to relate themselves to different collaborative opportunities with the business sector. Through the use of information and communication technologies, this particular program can help in joining the business sector with the government, enabling both parties to create activities that will be beneficial to the country. Apparently, SGEA targets IT professionals and the development of useful IT projects with sufficient government support (Singapore Government, 2006).             The M-Government (mobile government) is another important project under the iGov2010 program. The focus of this project is to ensure the high accessibility and convenience of e-government services; specifically, this project aims to allow the conduction of e-government services even while the user is on the move. Aside from this, it is the goal of this project to enhance the cost-effectiveness of mobile services, to ensure the coordinated operations of different government agencies as well as to enforce the implementation of m-services in the country (Singapore Government, 2006). Based from the given e-government projects, Singapore has truly been active in developing various initiatives to improve its public services. If the projects will be analyzed, the country also follows the four-stage model wherein the government started its e-government goals by introducing the internet, allowing service enhancements and finally creating a holistic service delivery. From the projects involved in iGov2010, Singapore is currently trying to reach the final stage of e-government evolution where government integration is the main focus. The improvements and benefits achieve through this e-government pattern has been evident in the Singaporean example. 5.5       India             The Indian government has also been developing and implementing e-government initiatives for the same reason as the other users of this operational development. Information Kiosk or more commonly in India as Drishtee Soochnalaya is among the e-government initiatives developed in the country. Despite the abundance of resources, the Indian economy seems to remain inactive; business opportunities and the investors also do not appear to coordinate. In order to address this problem, a rural network called the Drishtee was developed. This information kiosk is operated by rural business owners in order to connect one Indian community to another. This has been developed in order to enable economic development by means of utilizing information and communication technologies.             This e-government initiative was implemented in order to create the required IT infrastructure and provide technical management and expertise among rural citizens. The software used to carry out this program helps in conducting transactions and communication across village kiosks. In terms of funding, the entrepreneurs are provided with government-sponsored loans to purchase all the needed instruments. The revenues obtained from the services provided on the other hand are the ones used to pay off the loans made. At present about 180 kiosks are operational within four states and five districts. Most of the participants and users of this system belong to the rural areas. Specific services provided by this system include the provision of e-health and rural employment information, computer insurance and training as well as other commercial services. Furthermore, public services such as filing applications for various certificates are also covered by the Drishtee program. E-mails containing issues or complaints on different public facilities can easily be sent through this program as well (Bhatnagar, n.d.).             A related e-government application is the development of the e-Chaupal initiative by the International Business Division of the Indian Tobacco Company, an export leader of agricultural products in India. One of the important functions of this initiative is to streamline its supply chain and procurement processes. The company then established internet kiosks in various rural areas, where about six hundred farmers can utilize the system. By means of the e-Chaupal, farmers can easily obtain updated information regarding farm and risk management practices. During the old times, farmers often lack information on the actual rates observed in the Indian market. Thus, they often lose significant profit margins from the traders. Now that the e-Chaupal system is available, farmers can offer their products with the closing price of the previous day.             In order to use the e-Chaupal system, farmers would have to deliver their products to the centers established by the ITC Company and pay the required transaction fee. Through the system, farmers can also acquire other useful farming resources including fertilizers and seeds at a lesser price. Order for these products can be placed through the ITC representative, making the process more organized. The implementation of this initiative has resulted to several benefits other than increased information access for the farmers. The e-Chaupal system also helps in reducing costs for product transportation, improving awareness for optimum productivity and increasing profitability. The system also gives the farmers a certain degree of empowerment, enabling them to make the appropriate choices for their livelihood. Based on the 2004 report, the system is already operable in more than three thousand villages in five Indian states. Farmers served by e-Chaupal have also reached up to two million (Bhatnagar, n.d.).             It has been noted in the discussion as well as in the examples given that e-government is applied mainly to increase government transparency. This in turn not only helps in establishing mutual trust between the government and its constituents, but also in preventing corruptive practices. This is also one of the main reasons for India to pursue the application of various e-government initiatives. Thus, relevant programs or initiatives that promote the achievement of this goal are implemented. One good example is India’s Bhoomi project in Karnataka. This is an e-government project wherein the focus is on the delivery of land records to the local farmers by online means. The Bhoomi project is not only a simple program considering that this initiative show how technology and reengineering can take out discretion among public servants. In addition, this e-government system also provides public empowerment as government records become more accessible and available (Bhatnagar & Chawla, 2004).             Before the Bhoomi project was implemented, about nine thousand accountants are in charge of maintaining the land records of Karnataka. With this practice, several problems and issues had been encountered by the citizens. One of which is the need for farmers to bribe the accountants in order to get a copy the Rights, Tenacy and Crops (RTC) record necessary to apply for bank loans. Aside from the inaccessibility of important land records, processing record changes can also take longer than necessary. For instance, altering records, which is needed when individuals were able to inherit or sold a land parcel, normally takes about a month to process. However, in the case of Karnataka, citizens would have to wait for a year or two before the process is completed (Bhatnagar & Chawla, 2004). As the procedure is mainly dependent on the discretion of the revenue inspector, standards in the system were not observed.             Through the use of information and communication technologies, the Bhoomi project now enables the computerization of these important land documents; all legacy data records kept and maintained by the accountants have been taken an transferred into a single database. This change in system brought a number of benefits especially to Karnataka’s land owners. With the use of computerized kiosks distributed in several offices, the public can easily have their own copy of the RTC record by just inputting a few land ownership details and paying a fee of thirty cents. The users can also see the actual process once a transaction is initiated. When the land owners need to make some changes on their records, the owners can file an application to an operator-assisted counter. Each filed application is given a number; this number can be used by the user to track the progress of the application filed. The process then automatically follows a step by step procedure where persons in charge act in accordance to a prescribed processing system. With the Bhoomi project, the rate of processing is no longer dependent on the discretion of the revenue inspector but on the first-come-first-serve protocol. Most importantly, the 1 month waiting time for the record mutations is strictly observed (Bhatnagar & Chawla, 2004).             The Bhoomi project in Karnataka clearly shows how increased government transparency can reduce incidents of corruption in the government. Specifically, previous evaluation of the project indicated that the amount of bribing cases in the system had been reduced considerably. Aside from being able to reduce the amount of bribe incidents, the accessibility of information and the visibility of government transactions allowed the public to understand the actions and decisions made by the public servants.             An important e-government initiative in the country is the development and implementation of the National E-Governance Action Plan (NEGAP). This program is envisioned to run from 2003 until 2007. The main goal of this program is to promote the long-term development of e-government in India. By implementing appropriate policies, establishing core infrastructures and improving services for both private and public sectors, NEGAP will be able to achieve its primary goal (Department of Information Technology, 2006).  The plan is actually made up of twenty-two mode projects, which is supported by a Program Management Directorate (PMD) for effective implementation. Generally, the entire plan is made up of infrastructure and human skill development projects, cross-cutting applications, state level agencies and key central agencies. A fund of US$3 billion was used in order to support government agencies in the country that still needs further e-government progress through the mission mode projects. Within this plan, current government processes would have to be redesigned. Government transparency and accountability must also be increased. Significant improvement in human capacity to achieve better service delivery must also be acquired (Bhatnagar, n.d.).             Other national initiatives to improve human capacity have also been implemented in the country. In Andra Pradesh for example, a training program for officers had been carried out in order for them to efficiently lead e-government activities conducted in different departments. This program is led by the Indian Institute of Management of Ahmedabad. During the training program, middle-level administrators who have substantial knowledge and experience in governing are selected and subjected to three months training. Topics covered in the program include technology, systems design and analysis, reengineering processes, change management, networking and database management. For a more meaningful training program, participants are also exposed to cases studies of failed and successful e-government initiatives (Bhatnagar, n.d.). In this way, they are able to learn how to handle future e-government projects that they will handle. Aside from the conduction of the training program, Andra Pradesh had also implemented other e-government initiatives by coordinating with India’s central government as well as the National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM). Through this partnership, the National Institute of Smart Governance (NISG) was established; it is the aim of this department to enhance the state’s capacity to train e-government leaders. In addition, training centers for the public servants has also been strengthened for this purpose. Within the state’s public institutions, research centers can also be used for effective training (Bhatnagar, n.d.). This is a good program as it supports the country’s goal of ensuring future e-government progress. Moreover, as the efficacy of e-government initiative strongly relies on the services the government staff can provide, training them is the most direct action to ensure e-government success. While individual e-government projects are implemented in various Indian states, there are also projects which had been implemented for the national benefit. The e-Seva project is perhaps the most advanced e-government systems implemented in the country. This project is actually based on a pilot system Twin Cities Network Services that was introduced in 1999. This system caters to 13 local government agencies and states, 9 private sector organizations and 3 central government agencies; servicing all these constituents involves a system known as the ICSCs or Integrated Citizen Service Centers. By means of this program, users can easily conduct various government transactions; moreover, this system enables one-stop transactions, making the process less time-consuming (Bhatnagar, 2005). The e-Seva project mainly provides G2C and B2C services; some of the common transactions carried out by this project are bill payments, birth and death registration as well as passport application. Every month, more than a million citizens make use of the e-Seva services. Over time, the project has undergone major expansions in various Indian states. This is actually a good example of e-government initiative at the transaction stage. At this phase, conducting various government transactions has become more convenient for the public. Rather than going to one agency to another, the one-stop feature of the e-Seva allows the citizens to have more time to transact and less time to wait.  Compared to other e-government initiatives, the electronic services of the e-Seva involve a wider array of options and channels (Bhatnagar, 2005). Although India is able to develop and implement useful e-government initiative, the effect of its projects is not optimized. Moreover, the progress achieved through e-government in various Indian states tends to be at different levels. For instance, in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, a few of their government processes had already been computerized. However, the level of advancement in these departments varies; one department may have already surpassed the initial stages of e-government evolution while most of the departments show no signs of online development. In addition, while some e-government initiatives may have provided significant outcomes to several locals, the positive effects are usually concentrated only to a limited population (Bhatnagar, 2005). These are some of the major issues affecting India’s e-government application. It can be noted that one of the reasons for these issues is the fact that India is a large country. Moreover, as its population mostly belongs to the poor and illiterate group, embarking on large and central e-government projects is not possible. The country itself lacks the resources to support high end e-government projects. Nonetheless, it should be noted that the four-stage model allowed the different Indian stated to introduce e-government even to farmers whose IT knowledge and skills may not be as high as those who are more exposed to technology. This then indicates that with proper implementation and training, common people can easily adapt to the services e-government has to offer. 5.6       Australia             Australia is also among the nations that were able to recognize the significance of e-government initiatives. Centrelink, an Australian government agency, developed the e-government system called the Citizen Service Centers (CSCs). The main objective of this system is to allow the simple and convenient acquisition of various government and community services. Ultimately, the implementation of this project will help in improving the public’s lives. For this e-government system, the concept of intra-agency collaboration is utilized in order to administer government service as well as to allow G2B, G2G and G2C transactions. Aside from enabling easy information access, visiting CSCs is also easy as about a thousand access points are scattered all over the country. The site itself is also user-friendly, providing important information, basic functions and features, contact details and a feedback section. The processing of information received from the clients is also fast as data, complaints and other similar matters are addressed regularly. Handling about twelve million transactions daily and servicing about a third of the country’s entire population, the Centerlink and the CSCs do play an important role in increasing the use of e-government in Australia (Bhatnagar, n.d.). 6.0       E-Government Model for Greece             From the examples of e-government application, it is clear that technological initiatives are beneficial to the government, businesses and the public. In addition, using the four-stage model allows an organized and continuous development of the applied e-government systems. However, it should also be considered that despite the successful outcomes the e-government projects were able to provide, some issues and problems still arise. This indicates that while computerized systems are beneficial to the present time, governments should remain resourceful as to how application issues related to e-government can be addressed. In the case of Greece, the overview of its e-government background stresses that while its government has attempted to apply e-government initiatives, factors still hinder their optimum effects. For this reason, using the four-stage model is not enough to ensure the success of Greece in implementing future e-government initiatives. Among others, its government must ensure that key success elements and a definite implementation plan are used to overcome e-government challenges. 6.1       Key Success Elements In order for Greece to improve its current e-government status, certain key elements must be present: <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Develop Ideas for Process Development</li></ul> In this key element, countries applying e-government initiatives should realize that this change does not only involve the use of technologies, the improvement of existing operations and the computerization of government processes. Among others, governments should prioritize the development of unique systems. In some cases, e-government fails to progress as it is only used to improve current government processes when the political system itself is a problem that has to be addressed first. Some nations also find it difficult to reach the fourth stage of e-government evolution as government agencies tend to operate individually rather than as a single team. The integration of ICT tools in government operations should not only be viewed as a cost effective tool that can allow the conduction of automatic processes. Governments should then design e-government solutions that can bring major changes on the government system. For example, if the government would like to implement an e-government initiative improve the services delivered to the public, it is essential that the official analyze first the actual process of delivering public services. In this way, the actual issues that make public administration problematic are the ones addressed. Better outcomes can be obtained from this instead of merely buying computer systems and connecting them to the internet to make the processes work faster. It has been suggested that in order to use ICT tools for process development, it is essential to make effective plans. In order to make this plan, the developer must first analyze the existing processes in the government. Instead of making all offline processes online, the e-government developer must think of ways how to coordinate individual procedures into one. Rather than make problem areas automatic, it is best that they are first identified and eliminated. This will make the implementation phase easier and hassle-free. The e-government developer must also consider the future users of the system. Instead of plainly purchasing the newest and most expensive ICT tools available, the developer should take into account whether ordinary users will be able to use these instruments with ease. The provision of user training and support should also be part of the plan; through this, resistance from using the new processes will be addressed. Finally, the use of e-government should not only be for the purpose of improving current government processes. Developer should view e-government initiatives as long term solutions for even better government processes in the future (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). A number of nations were able to realize the significance of reforming processes in order to succeed in e-government application. In Chile, before government transactions had become online, the country is experiencing a complex procurement system due to contradicting regulatory frameworks. In order to resolve this, the national government developed a program known as the Communications and Information Technology Unit (UTIC). The purpose of this system is to coordinate all e-government efforts for cost control; moreover, this was also introduced in order to increase government transparency. Using a single website, UTIC enabled the centralization of all procurement activities of the Chilean government. Aside from this, previous performance of various government contractors can also be viewed from the site, thereby increasing accountability (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Strong Political Leadership</li></ul> An effective e-government project needs to have an equally effective leader who would implement it.  Thus, it is essential that public administrators and officials assigned to handle e-government initiative have sufficient knowledge and skills on technology, policy development and change management. The significance of effective leaders for e-government had been demonstrated in the case of Korea and India. In Korea, the determination of Seoul’s mayor to eliminate corruptive behavior in the government led to the success of the OPEN system. India on the other hand, developed training programs in order to ensure that all its public officials assigned to e-government processes are highly-skilled. E-government success and strong leadership are indeed very much related. Leadership enables the effective management of resources. Considering that implementing e-government initiatives require considerable funding, an effective leader is then useful for optimizing all available resources. This can also be used to ensure cooperation among contrasting factions. Having a strong political leadership also helps in making e-government development more organized. Most importantly, leaders ensure that the objectives of applying e-government are effectively met. In order to develop a strong leadership to support e-government initiatives, an office designated for handling these systems should be created. With all e-government officers and staff working together, organization during the planning and implementation phase will be ensured. Central government support for each initiative implemented should also be provided to make sure that all relevant agencies are working on it (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). Using the President’s influence to the press, Estonia is able to access the internet as well as use various e-government services. Local community internet centers had continuously grown in number to facilitate the internet needs of the country’s 1.5 million citizens. This has been initiated mainly to support the promulgation of internet access as a human right in Estonia. Other departments of the government are also acting to support this legislation. The Ministry of Education for instance, had developed an e-government program wherein every school in the country should have an internet connection. This program aims not only to enable young users to avail to various internet services but also to increase the level of computer literacy in the country. By means of the active advocacy of the country’s president, Estonia is able to progress in the technology aspect (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Resource Management</li></ul> For governments who have limited resources, it is essential that proper resource management techniques are used. Not only will this make the project less costly but it will also ensure the timely implementation and use of the designed project. In this key success element, it is emphasized that selecting e-government initiatives should not only depend on their features but also the resources that they require. Among other features, the cost-effectiveness of an initiative should be the top priority; e-government projects should not cost much as an investment but it should also provide the benefit the government expects from them. In order to save on important resources, developers should assess the features of each initiative. For this purpose, benchmarking is one of the common steps undertaken. With benchmarking, governments can constantly assess the efficacy and progress of their e-government investments especially in terms of their ability to meet their governance objectives. Evaluating the progress of e-government initiatives is actually a challenging and tedious task; nonetheless, this must be done to ensure project success. There are several ways on how benchmarking can be done for e-government systems. For instance, quantitative or qualitative measures can be used. Specifically, the governments can monitor the number of transactions handled by the system within a specific time duration, the number of complaints or good feedbacks received from the users, the level of savings incurred since the system’s application, the number of citizens participating in government activities, the number of voters during elections as well as economic and revenue growth. In order to monitor the progress of an e-government system, governments must identify a definite mean or strategy for evaluation; methods to collect and analyze data for assessment should be identified beforehand so that ICT tools or infrastructure that will be needed for this can be installed during the implementation phase. A definite schedule for checking the project’s progress should also be designated. It is important that an office will be assigned to carry out the benchmarking responsibilities; funds to support the assigned office should also be provided for continuous and effective operation (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). In 2003, the Top of the Web survey was introduced in the European region. The purpose of this survey is to provide webmasters with immediate feedbacks regarding the quality of their e-government services. Using standards and carefully selected criteria, European e-government developers can determine which websites are considered the best. The results of the assessment are placed on a website and disseminated during European e-government meetings. Through this benchmarking strategy, European e-governments will be aware of the best practices in delivering e-government services and apply them to improve their own systems. Some nations apply their individual benchmarking strategies. In the United Kingdom for example, the country’s National Audit Office is the one in charge of producing a report which discusses in detail the progress of each British e-government effort. Should there be problem areas identified in the report, recommendations for improvement are also provided. This is a very detailed and specific report as it provide goals in numerical forms; for instance, it provides the exact dates when e-government changes should be done or when certain services should be delivered. Through this feature, all developments are based on a specific schedule, making the change process organized and well-planned (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). It has also been suggested that goals should be well-defined to manage the resources. By means of having clear goals, e-government developers will be able to identify clearly what they can develop and what the people need. Along with the assessment of each initiative, the available resources of the government like funds and personnel should all be identified clearly as well. This can facilitate easier e-government decision-making. It is essential also that plans are not only good for short-term benefits. E-government developers should plan ahead for the future and make intelligent predictions; this can help in making preparations for possible future enhancements, expansions or expenditures. A specific team in charge for planning and budgeting should also be designated (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). There are a number of e-government examples that emphasized the importance of making good investments through strategic management and planning. One is the computerized interstate checkpoint system in Gujarat, India. This Indian state is major road network where about twenty-five thousand trucks enter for business and trade. With the lack of system, the collection of toll fines becomes a tempting source for corruption. Moreover, the unorganized collection leads to major traffic as well as accidents. Indeed, corruption and delays have become a major issue in the state’s toll checkpoints. In order to address this, the authorities of Gujarat thought of investing on an e-government system that would facilitate effective toll collection. Thus in 1998, an electronic system had been used in the checkpoints; through these systems, trucks entering can easily be assessed and the right toll fines are paid. Moreover, corruption is no longer a problem as truck drivers pay the toll through credit card payment. The project has resulted to major improvements to Gujarat; within a short period of time, the toll system had already provided several benefits. This has been considered an important investment as it is the result of strategic planning and management (e-gov, 2006). The e-government system applied in Gujarat led to the increase of tax collection by three times two years after it has been implemented. Considerable revenue growth was also accomplished through this project, allowing the government to achieve return of investment in the span of only six months. Traffic problems had also been addressed as vehicles entering the province are cleared within two minutes rather than 30. Business operators are also happy to know the exact date and time their trucks passed in the check posts; this helps in monitoring all transportation schedules. As this system uses the pre-paid card system, owners need not give large amounts of cash to their drivers either. While the development of this project is more on resource management, its success was also dependent on other factors. One of which is the strong and skillful leadership of Gujarat’s bureaucrats and chief minister. The departments operating within the province also collaborated effectively, enabling fast and successful e-government application (e-gov, 2006). <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Team-Building</li></ul> It is difficult to achieve e-government success when no e-government coordination is observed. With a disjointed e-government system, it is likely for one project to be successful while the rest are at the brink of failure. In applying e-government, implementers should note that stronger relationships and new partnerships should be developed among different government agencies. These will further ensure the accessibility and quality of e-government services. In order to succeed, the traditional reluctance of government agencies to work as a team should be taken out. Aside from collaborating with other government agencies, constituents like the private sector and non-governmental organizations can help the policy makers in developing useful reforms and support the effective implementation of e-government projects. The private sector is well-versed on subjects like technology, networking and e-commerce; thus, using their expertise for e-government application can be very helpful in achieving project efficiency and public satisfaction. To effectively create teams among involved parties, a consultation process should be included in the planning stage of e-government; here, the ideas and opinions of the business sector and other agencies can be raised. Through this, important recommendations or suggestions can be generated, making the project more effective. Rather than make government-centered plans, the expertise of other sectors should be utilized; if possible, incentives should be offered to these sectors in order to encourage them to participate more in e-government planning and implementation. Rather than notice the differences of each government agency, all departments should act in a way that will maintain cooperation and unity; this will not only help in creating a better e-government project but less conflict can hasten the entire project development (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). The efficacy team-building can bring to e-government initiatives have been demonstrated in the case of Kenya’s health sector. In order to improve the health services provided to the Kenyans in the rural area, the AfriAya, a system that allows private and public information exchange, has been developed. Through a small coordinating center, all updated health information are organized and provided to the public through online access. These centers are distributed all over Kenya’s rural areas where eighty percent of its population is found. Aside from the public, caregivers and doctors can easily access important medical information and statistics, thus, allowing the enhancement of health services provided (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). In 1992, the United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro emphasized the development of a program called the Agenda 21 among the delegates that attended the conference. The aim of this program is for the countries to develop actions that would promote sustainable development for the 21st century. It has been stressed in this programs that countries should create programs that would enhance present living standards without sacrificing the needs of future generations. Agenda 21 is basically focused on bringing about economic development changes for all human beings; this is not only concentrated on environmental protection but also the generation of development opportunities as well as human equality (United Nations, 2003). One of the countries that had actively responded to this challenge was China. In order to implement Agenda 21, the government established a leading sector an affiliated group under the supervision of the State Science and Technology Commission as well as the State Planning Commission. The Chinese Agenda 21 was completed in 1994 and consisted of 78 program areas and 20 chapters; these areas can be categorized into four main divisions. These include the development of comprehensive policies and strategies for sustainable development, the promotion of social sustainable development, the creation of economic sustainable development and the effective management of resources. In the first division, the aim of the government was to establish various means and policies for sustainable development including education, science and technology advancement, installation of information systems and improvement of funding sources. It is also the goal of this division to motivate minority groups, children, women, general workers and science experts to take part in the government’s various sustainable development activities (United Nations, 2003). For the second division, the improvement of people’s well-being was the primary focus. This included sustainable development activities on disaster preparedness, poverty eradication, population control, health care, infrastructure construction, social service provision as well as development of human settlement. The economic development of China’s Agenda 21 on the other hand was centered more on livelihood improvement. In particular, policies that would promote sustainable development in the country’s energy, telecommunication, transportation, business and agriculture sectors were enforced. Finally, the last division of China’s Agenda 21 was focused on the preservation of the country’s natural resources, protection of biodiversity and atmosphere and pollution control (United Nations, 2003). Clearly, China’s Agenda 21 involves the action of various government sectors, including those in the social, economic and environmental sectors. Through team-building or collaboration of these different sectors, China was able to develop programs that would promote sustainable development. With collaborated efforts, nations worldwide can then develop e-government systems that are focused on a single objective but address multiple governance issues. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Public Cooperation</li></ul> The collaboration of relevant agencies is not only the necessary key in the success of an e-government project; as the public will be the main beneficiaries of most e-government initiatives, their support for the change in systems is very critical. It has been mentioned that in planning e-government efforts, the public as their main user should be considered as an important factor. In order to achieve the cooperation of the public fro e-government initiative, the government should not only relay the details of the developed projects to involve parties but to the recipients as well. If the project will involve the use of new technology, it is important that the public are given sufficient education on how to use them. Citizens should also be given the contact details in case they have further queries about the system change. In general, communication is an important aspect in this key success factor.  The cooperation and support of the public can be achieved by certain recommendations. One is by developing projects that is public-oriented; the public can easily support a change that will directly provide important benefits. The demographic details, characteristics and other important features of the target population should also be considered when designing e-government projects. It is also essential to consult people-oriented or service-centered departments when making project decisions. This will ensure that the plans are made for the intended users. In South Africa, the abuse of the environmental resources had been a major issue. In order to protect its environment, the government developed an online system where environmental issues can easily be reported. Through the participation of the public, environmental priorities and core issues including waste management, environmental health, pollution and resource conservation had been identified and addressed. The site for online environmental reporting is still obtaining inputs from the public to continuously protect the environment of South Africa. This system clearly showed how public cooperation can make an e-government initiative work effectively (Center for Democracy and Technology & infoDev, 2006). 6.2       Implementation Plan for Greece             In order to ensure success in e-government application in Greece, it is essential that a definite project plan is created. Within the plan, the developments each project will undergo, where they will be applied, how will they be assessed and who will be in charge of their management. Using the four stage model, the following steps and actions can be done to support the country’s e-government efforts: <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Stage I: Presence</li></ul>             In relation to Greece’s issues on ICT and e-government, the first stage should focus on two important aspects. One is to redesign the existing political system in the country and the other is to improve its technical or IT infrastructure. It has been mentioned in the overview that the existing hierarchy in Greece’s political environment hinders the country from applying e-government initiatives that would promote inter-operability. Considering that this is among the main goals of e-government application, the Greek government should then exert effort in redesigning it systems that is appropriate for e-government. To do this, an e-government office or team who will be in charge of the planning, implementation and monitoring phase for all projects should be designated. Aside from managing the projects, this office will be the one who will bind individual government offices together. The presence of this team can help in educating government staff or officers how their services can be delivered more efficiently by collaborating with other departments. With a specific e-government office, conflict on who would lead the application of e-government initiatives will be prevented; equality and unity among government agencies will also be observed.                          It has been mentioned that Greece is facing several IT issues including the low presence of internet access especially in the public sector and low rate of broadband service availability. As the presence stage is the phase where online services are just about to be introduced, this should be the time when e-government developers in Greece should concentrate on increasing the presence of internet services in the country. The government should allot considerable funds to support this purpose. Moreover, public facilities that offer online services; teaching of basic computer skills should also be integrated in schools to increase computer literacy among young users.             At this stage, focus should first be on the delivery of government information through online means. As e-government is a people-oriented project, the government should provide information that will benefit both the private and public sector. For instance, human resource and labor government agencies should provide online contact details for employment concerns, issues or needs. The requirements necessary to apply for various certificates or licenses can also be made available online; this will be useful for locals completing their job employment needs. The departments that cater to the needs of various business industries should also be the main focus of this stage. For example, as Greece takes pride of its tourism sector, information regarding the country can help in attracting tourists from all over. This in turn can benefit hotel operators as well as travel agencies in the country.              <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Stage II: Interaction</li></ul> In the second stage, users can not only acquire valuable government information online but also exchange data with another user. This is the stage where connections between related government departments should be strengthened. For example the labor department should be connected with the agriculture, tourism, trade and other relevant industries to address the countries problem on unemployment. By collaborating with these individual departments, the labor agency can interact with online job seekers and provide available work opportunities. It is essential that when collaborating government departments during the interaction stage, departments that could address the country’s major issues and problems should prioritized. In addition to unemployment, issues in Greece include its social security system, privatization plans, tax system, bureaucratic inefficiencies, fiscal deficit reduction and economic growth (Wikipedia, 2006). Aside from government to government interaction, public users can also directly communicate with certain agencies by sending electronic mails, chatting or posting messages in the forum. The aim at this stage should be the provision of fast and accurate responses to the different needs of the public. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Stage III: Transaction</li></ul> This stage enables e-government users to conduct fast and easy transactions via online means. This makes the accomplishment of several e-government goals more possible, which include increased government transparency and less corruption. Similar to the explanation given in the second stage, the Greek government should start increasing the level of e-government initiatives in agencies that directly address the country’s significant issues. Considering that e-government projects require significant amounts of resources, it would be best to concentrate on projects that would bring greater impacts to the government and its constituents. For the public users, the government should initially allow the online transaction to apply for various certificates and licenses. This will greatly benefit the public as they no longer need to go from one agency to another, endure long waiting lines and go through unscrupulous public servants. <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Stage IV: Transformation</li></ul> In the final stage of e-government evolution, the goal of the government should be the development of a one-top shop for the users. This means that a single site is developed to provide multiple services. This puts the interoperability feature to its maximum level where almost all government agencies are collaborated into one. To achieve this level, the Greek government should consider first its existing e-government projects and systems; it is important that the country’s e-government initiatives enable easy interaction between the government and its constituents. It is also essential that fund to support this major development is accessible.             Applying e-government is not an easy task. Aside from the fact that it is difficult to design an appropriate system, making the system fit the available resources and the needs of the users make this an even greater challenge. However, through strategic planning and implementation, even countries with limited funds can start their own e-government initiatives and eventually develop them to more beneficial systems. Aside from following a step by step process, there are other important things that should de followed by e-government developers. One is to measure their progress. It has been cited that benchmarking an e-government project is a key to success. For Greece, this can be done by the following: Identify specific performance measures. This should be defines by the assigned e-government office or teams. Initially, the Greek government can start on assessing two major performance measures: one that evaluates the level of e-government in the country and the other measures the impact these initiatives had on the users. For each criterion, the government can consider the following specific measures of performance: First Criterion: E-government Level <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Volume of online visitors or transactions handled by the system</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">The response time allotted for each inquiry or transaction</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">The number or type of new e-government services offered</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">The number or type of problems encountered by the system</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">The scope of territorial coverage of the e-government service</li></ul> Second Criterion: E-government Effect <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Increased/Decreased user convenience in service delivery</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Increased/Decreased costs for the government and its constituents</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Increased/Decreased public trust</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Increased/Decreased public participation for other government projects</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Increased/Decreased reports on corruption</li></ul> Over time, when the government had already implemented several e-government initiatives, more specific performance standards can be used. Moreover, rather than using general measures, project-based assessment criteria can be developed. For example, if the Greek government will be putting up a system for providing online health information, progress can be measured by assessing the number of health services in the covered areas or the level of public awareness towards health issues. The outcome of e-procurement projects on the other hand can be evaluated by measuring the administrative costs saved since its application or the time spent to manage various procurement processes. Plotting the milestones of project success is also a good strategy for evaluating e-government outcomes. Here, the assessor should indicate the projects and the specific dates of their development. This can be useful for comparing previous project outcomes from the present. Comparing one e-government initiative to another can also be done to improve existing projects or design new ones. The e-government initiatives applied in other countries can also be used for comparison and evaluation. The e-government monitoring team can also make use of online polls, e-mailed feedbacks or surveys to acquire relevant information for benchmarking. Build Effective Partners. Aside from monitoring the success of e-government projects, the Greek government should also consider establishing effective partnerships with the private sector to ensure success. It was cited earlier that the country is encountering problems on ICT development and use resulting to low internet access. By partnering with the private sector, companies that are well-experienced in various technological applications can assist the government in pursuing various ICT-based projects. Moreover, when it comes to delivering online services, local companies are likely to be more knowledgeable on the specific needs of certain users. This will make the designed projects more service-orients and customer-appropriate. With this recommendation, the aim is to recognize the strengths of each party and make the most of the resources each can offer. Plan for Risk Management. In any project, risks and problems should be expected. Thus, the government should prepare countermeasures to address future e-government issues. These can be in the form of communication problems, public complaints and human resource issues. The preparation of risk management actions can ensure the continuous success of an e-government initiative. Addressing these issues can help also help promote e-government support and satisfaction among users. 7.0       Conclusion             This review of literature has emphasized the role of e-government in the political, social and economic development of a country. By applying e-government projects, increased government transparency, increased government information access, better public participation, collaboration among government agencies as well as faster government transaction processes can be achieved. Due to the advantages this ICT-based system can provide, several nations all over the world have been developing their own e-government initiatives. However, it should be noted that certain requirements would have to be met in order to successfully apply e-government. These include a strong IT infrastructure, highly skilled personnel, appropriate system design and sufficient funds. In the case of Greece, while the country has already applied its own e-government projects, there are still problems that hinder their successful implementation.             Based on the outcomes encountered by several nations, it has then been suggested that the four-stage model can be used by Greece to pursue its other e-government plans. Moreover, integrating various key elements for success should also be done. Most importantly, it is essential that the Greek government should act first on the factors that prevent e-government success in the country. Through this better e-government outcomes can be expected in the future.

E-Government: Effects, Models and Application

1.0 Introduction The introduction of information and communication systems had brought several developments to countries worldwide. Through these innovations, prod…

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