Research Korner: Research Article Critique

Ethnographic Research Article_Scholarship and practice: the contribution of ethnographic research methods to bridging the gap

Ethnographic Research Article     The Article   Title: Scholarship and practice: the contribution of ethnographic research methods to bridging the gap. Authors: Lynda J. Harvey (Harvey Strategic Information Management, Sydney, Australia); Michael D. Myers (Department of Management Science and Information Systems, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand) Article location: Information Technology and People, Vol. 8 No. 3, 1995, pp.13-27. MCB University Press, 0959-3845   Describe the purpose of research   The purpose of research is to bring in ample awareness and understanding of research methods from within contributions of ethnographic research from the context formation of scholarship and leadership. The purpose of putting valid and reliable integration of ethnographic research from such methods use upon linking to the process of information systems, the need to assume and acquire in-depth encounter and detailed application of information system, found within effective knowledge development. Thus, to value some of the changes towards information patterns and to inform the society that a wider context of ethnographic research will expose actual situations as there effects towards comprehensive utilization of research methods. Thus, it was noted that the proponents did concentrate on the conflicts of objectives between scholars and practitioners as stakeholder groups in information system investigation, the article have helped in showing areas of ethnographic integration and thus, assume good points in terms of choosing essential research methodology. Agreeing that the one ideal assumption of the article is the recognition of several gap or issues seen from within the knowledge process, its generating aspect which are duly administered by some well minded researchers. The assimilation of cognitive reasoning as there implies as to how ethnography provide principles to support stakeholder groups in the reality sense of learning to bridge the gap in research paradigm. Based on the core basis of the article content formation, there represent clear purpose of research through the article that is, to be able to show how the ethnographic research methods can generate knowledge being useful towards practice as well as scholarship.   Identify the key informants mentioned in the research article   The key informants mentioned in the research article thus basically refer to the two authors of the article, Lynda J. Harvey and Michael D. Myers, also the key informants comprising to certain anonymous reviewers of the article, the IFIP TC8AUS Open Conference on Business Process Re-engineering: Information Systems Opportunities and Challenges during May 1994. Aside, all of the cited proponents found in the article does also serve as key informants since, the authors of the article have reviewed and acknowledge their ideas and concepts in forming the article information in full. For example, Lee (1991), as he indicated that, “qualitative techniques do make reference to numerical representations of the contextual elements under observation and many ways that the distinction between qualitative and quantitative can be contrived”   Identify the culture that is specially studied in the research article   The culture studied in the research article ideally represents an ethnographic culture valuing the ideals of critical hermeneutics upon which there assumes reflective critique of interpretation being gradually applied by the researcher and the offering of insights about how understanding comes into the process, having awareness of awareness of dialectic text involving aspect of ethnographic culture as there goes beyond information systems and research methods and pressing in modern hermeneutics of research evaluation and degree. The culture then provide effective insights into the human, social and organizational aspects of information systems development and application forming in hermeneutics culture stature. Thus, development of such practical knowledge fostering information research to be realized in efficient domain. The making of the ethnographic approach, upon bridging the gap of scholarly known knowledge as well as the development of collaborative driven practices.         Citation:   Harvey, L. and Myers, M. (1995), Scholarship and practice: the contribution of ethnographic research methods to bridging the gap. Information Technology & People, Vol. 8 No. 3, pp.13-27. MCB University Press, 0959-3845   Reference:   Lee, A.S. (1991), Integrating positivist and interpretive approaches to organizational research, Organization Science, Vol. 2 No. 4, pp. 342-65.

Ethnographic Research Article_Scholarship and practice: the contribution of ethnographic research methods to bridging the gap

Ethnographic Research Article The Article Title: Scholarship and practice: the contribution of ethnographic research m...

Research appraisal

Q.1 Goodacre et al’s article is an example of a secondary research while that of Ferrera et al’s research combines primary and secondary researching.  The researchers draw conclusions based on the findings of previous researches in various journals about deep vein thrombosis from 1981 to 2005 and conducts sensitivity and specificity analyses. As well, the researchers followed a structured process of identifying cohort studies, searching databases and screening bibliographies and invited independent reviewers in order to avoid observation error. Statistical analysis of the screened studies was conducted. On the other hand, Ferrera et al conducts a survey of a patient and thematic content analysis of the reviewed literatures. Surveys are the most common form of research method for collection of primary data which purports on describing a particular issue. The first article ranks on the systematic reviews and meta-analyses while the second on case reports. Evidently, the fist article conducts the study based on definitive methodology with criterion as the basis and the researchers presented a concise documentation on the p-value analysis. Although the first article has cohort studies, we cannot consider it as a legitimate cohort study because cohorts recruited are limited with prevalent DVT. Thereby, the sample size is limited and the findings are subjected to personal bias where the conflict of interest is evident on the subjectivity of the researchers. Greenhalgh maintains that cohort studies begun on subjects who may or may not develop disease. The second has an inherent practical difficulty in recruiting subjects. The second article is tricky because it can be a case series as it features 90 cases of cervical pregnancy treated with local therapy and also a case report because it describes a particular event. As such, the article describes more than one case, though the researchers draw from a single case. Greenhalgh asserts that “case reports are often run together to form a case series, in which the medical histories of more than one patient with a particular condition are described to illustrate an aspect of the condition, the treatment, or, most commonly these days, adverse reaction to treatment.” Based on this assertion, we will classify Ferrera et al’s research as case report in the hierarchy of evidence. Further, instead of literature review, Ferrera et al should categorise the secondary research as meta-analysis because of the fact that they rendered a quantitative analysis. Meta-analysis refers to the method of synthesizing data of more than a single study for the purpose of producing summary statistic.   Q.2 The article about the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasonography for deep vein thrombosis has a higher clinical significance compared to that of consecutive cervical pregnancy with transvaginal local approach. Today, improving ways on how to image leg veins in order to reveal blood clot and the extent of the thrombosis is an important undertaking. Such situation only manifests that ultrasonography could still be developed in order to provide more accurate diagnosis for the purpose of distinguishing required therapy. The implication is that when there are no clear diagnoses of DVT, there will be no accurate therapies for the patient. DVT occurs in 1 per 1000 persons annually and about 1 to 5% of the total population affected by DVT will die because of complications. Medical ultrasonography is used to visualize muscles and internal organs as well as their size, structures and possible pathologies. The diagnostic and therapeutic importance of accurate ultrasonography could facilitate interventional procedures. What makes ultrasonography as an acceptable process in medicine lies on its useful delineation between solid and liquid spaces and there are no side effects in implementation. Nonetheless, the diagnostic accuracy is also dependent on the utilized technique: proximal versus optimal whereby it can produce inaccurate diagnosis. Considerably, ultrasonography would experience difficulty in penetrating bone structures and so it cannot provide for accurate probability and accurate configuration of the DVT. The limited depth of penetration will be a problem then. The implication on practice is when ultrasonography could not provide accurate diagnosis of DVT, then support diagnosis must be conducted. If possible, for ultrasonography to better perform in aspect of accuracy in diagnosis, the implication is on developing the machine and educating those who will be using it especially that ultrasonography is highly operator-dependent. The validity of the paper is on considering that results could vary between homogenous and heterogeneous population. The relevance on practice will be about the prognosis and causation wherein longitudinal cohort study and/or the effects of inaccurate DVT diagnosis must be given priority with emphasis on vigilance in interpreting results.   Reference   Ferrera, L, Gandhi, M, Jacobs, A and Rebarber, A 2007, Successful Management of a Consecutive Cervical Pregnancy by Sonographically Guided Transvaginal Local Injection, American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine, vol. 26, pp. 959-965.     Goodacre, S, Sampson, F, Thomas, S, van Beek, E and Sutton, A 2005, Systematic review and meta-analysis of the diagnostic accuracy of ultrasonography for deep vein thrombosis, BMC Medical Imaging, vol. 5, no. 6.   Greenhalgh, T 1997, How to read a paper: getting your bearings (deciding what the paper is about), BMJ, vol. 315, pp. 243-246.

Research appraisal

Q.1 Goodacre et al’s article is an example of a secondary research while that of Ferrera et al’s research combines primary and secondary ...

Social Influence and Buying Behavior: A Reflection Of Cultural Values in Multicultural Markets by Kritika Kongsompong

Social Influence and Buying Behavior: A Reflection Of Cultural Values in Multicultural Markets by Kritika Kongsompong   One of the factors that must be given emphasis by different companies is the buying behavior of their consumers.  There are many literatures and articles that have been written to determine the factors that influence the buying behavior of the people. In the research done by Kritika Kongsompong (2007), the researcher intended to investigate the consumer-decision making endeavors in different countries like Indians, Taiwanese, Thais, Americans and Australians. In this research, the author uses the Hofstede framework or model in the entire research. Herein, the paper argues that the cultural dimensions influence the consumer decision making process.   This research has been able to work on three hypothesis based on the relevant literature reviewed and used by the author.  These hypotheses have been related to the social influence and collectivism context and this is uses for testing in consumption –related situation. The first hypotheses assume that Indians, Thais, and Taiwanese are characterized by relatively high levels of collectivism while Australians and Americans are characterized by relatively high levels of individualism. The next hypotheses assume that the relative collectivists are more subject to social influence in purchasing decisions than are relative individuals. The last hypotheses assume that the people in collectivist’s cultures will exhibit more susceptibility to social influence in buying situations than will people in individualist cultures. In order to test the hypotheses, the author uses the date from five countries mentioned above. The author has used the ten-item scaled which is constructed through collectivism/individualism and social influence literature. The author has also been able to use the social influence scenario and scale of Lee and Green to be able to identify independent variable in the study. Herein, the scale used has captured the degree of social influence that four others have on purchase decision which include close friend, parents, boyfriend/girlfriend and salesperson.  The mean and the standard deviation were also used for the analysis of the result of the scenario testing. Based on the data gathered and its analysis through the use of statistical approach, the author has found that Indians, Thais and Taiwanese are typically more collectivist than the westerners (Americans and Australians). In line with the second hypothesis, the hypotheses asserts that across the five nations considered in the sample, those individuals with a collectivist orientation have found out to be more susceptible to social influences in their purchase decision than those consumers with an individualist orientation. The author have divided the entire sample into two sub groups based on the respondents summed score on the ten-item collectivism scale. In terms of the third hypotheses which states that consumers in the collectivist would show more susceptibility to social influence than consumers in the two individualist countries. The findings of the data gathered have shown that the hypotheses can be partially accepted because in the cases of the Americans and Thais, the relationship remains. In the findings, the analysis revealed that across virtually all the sources of social influence, Indian consumers showed more social influence than Taiwanese, Americans, Australians and Thais. Based on the analysis of the data gathered, it can be said that the research ahs been able to achieved the objective of the research in terms of providing insights into the relationship between social influence and collectivism in buying situations. The author noted that the two are positively related as supported by the result of the findings from five diverse nations. The article revealed that social influence and collectivism is significantly relevant to each other to a more limited extent within diverse nations. Although this study has been able to achieve its objective, there are still some questions that arise based on the result of the study and this is concerning the factors that might serve to modify the relationship of social influence and collectivism. The limitation of the study, as stated by the researcher, served as the main reason why the findings cannot be generalized. The sample articles used for the research are too small to represent a general idea; hence, the researchers suggested that future researches should be conducted. In addition, the finding of this research cannot be generalized as the variables themselves involved several factors and conditions. It is difficult to consider a research finding as general when various affective factors could affect the result. Nonetheless, the research done by Kritika Kongsompong can interest and benefit a number of groups, particularly in the business, management, and educational field. The companies and other business organizations for instance, can learn that there are a number of factors affecting the consumer decision making process and consumer behavior. As business industries play a significant role in this important outcome, the management can then encourage considering the behavior of the consumers in their business strategy. Managers and the consumers per se s can also learn from this article. In particular, different individuals will realize that there are factors that can influence them in buying or purchasing specific products. All in all, this research has been able to provide insightful details regarding social influence and buying behavior of the consumers. The consideration of consumers from different countries like Taiwan, Thailand, USA, India and Australia is essential to identify the influences in a multicultural setting. The result is very significant for all companies in the global market to know the difference between the buying behavior of people with eastern and western orientation. Generally, this research suggests that those marketers must give enough consideration to the collectivist orientation of a culture when implementing marketing strategies.  By and large, this research has been able to open the minds of many marketers on the importance of knowing the social influence of buying behavior and how they can be able to market their products with people in different orientations.   Reference Kongsompong, K. (2007). “Social influence and buying behavior:A reflection of cultural values in multicultural markets”, at the 5th International Business Research Conference 2007 held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, during 26-27 April, 2007

Social Influence and Buying Behavior: A Reflection Of Cultural Values in Multicultural Markets by Kritika Kongsompong

Social Influence and Buying Behavior: A Reflection Of Cultural Values in Multicultural Markets by Kritika Kongsompong One...

Critique of research article:Shifting Supervision: Implications for Safe Administration of Medication by Nursing Students

Part A Rationale for Research Area             Medication error is serious problem that is affecting. Patients are at great health danger because of medication error. Studies have revealed that 59 percent of the Australian population use prescription medications and this increases to about 86 percent for those over 65 years of age. This entails that many Australians in healthcare facilities require medication in some form or another and may be at risk of harm as a result of a medication error made by a healthcare professional.             The Institute of Medicine (IOM) defines an error as a failure of a planned action to be completed as intended or the use of the wrong plan to achieve an aim. There are different types of errors according to the IOM – these are errors of omission and errors of commission. An error of omission is something that was supposed to happen but did not. An error of commission means a patient gets something that he or she was not supposed to receive. The Institute of Medicine further defines an active error as an error that occurs at the level of the frontline operator and whose effects are felt almost immediately and a latent error as an error in design, organization, training, or maintenance that lead(s) to operator errors and whose effects typically lie dormant in the systems for lengthy period of time (Janine 2004).             Medication errors made unintentionally by nurses continue to be a major concern in hospitals, medical centers and aged care facilities in Australia. Numerous researches and studies aid in identifying the factors that contribute to nurses making errors. On the other hand, there is a scarcity in studies that focus on the factors that may contribute to errors made by nursing students. The Australian Council for Safety and Quality in Healthcare developed safety strategies to prevent medication errors involving collaboration between different professional groups as mishaps occur at all stages of medication administration process. This collaboration includes the medical practitioner who has the responsibility in prescribing safely, the pharmacist in dispensing and finally the nurse in administering the medication to the patient. Reports have shown that undergraduate nursing students in health care setting can be involved in medication error. These students are trained both on-campus and off campus in medication administration. In the on-campus setting, the students are taught the skills and knowledge in medication administration. In the off-campus setting however, students face real patients using real medications. A study conducted by Wolf et al (2006) in the United States reported 1305 medication errors by nursing students over a five-year period.             The paper aims to explore the process of medication administration for nursing students when in the off-campus clinical setting. The training and experience that undergraduate nurses get from the off-campus clinical setting are very significant in equipping them with the knowledge, skills and abilities in medication administration. It is therefore important to identify the process of medication administration in the off-campus clinical setting and determine the factors that lead to medication error by undergraduate nursing students. The research on this subject will add to the scarce literature on medication error by undergraduate students and will provide significant information for educational institutions, healthcare organizations, regulating bodies and ultimately students regarding medication error.    Methodological Approach             There are two kinds of research methodologies used in social sciences: quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative paradigm is based on positivism which takes scientific explanation to be nomethetic (i.e. based on universal laws). Its main aims are to measure the social world. To test hypotheses and to predict and control human behavior (Newman and Benz 1998). Quantitative research is based on the assumption that the world can be investigated using scientific method and that there is an independent reality. Quantitative research is based on the belief that measurable influences (independent variables) affect measurable outcomes (dependent variables) in a cause-effect manner. Quantitative research is generally conducted in a controlled environment, such as laboratories, or using anonymous data such as statistics collected through surveys, questionnaires, structured interviews or tests. Quantitative studies are studies in which the data can be analyzed using conventional statistical methods (Peat 2001). As its name implies, quantitative research is concerned with quantities – how to measure phenomena and how to express those measurement. A researcher who takes a quantitative approach to investigating a topic aims to learn more about it. Taking a quantitative approach to research implies asking questions about the phenomena that can be counted. Researchers who take a quantitative approach often work within positivism, as this paradigm frames the world as a collection of apparently independent phenomena to be counted, measured and otherwise catalogued as the prelude to deducing the rules or laws underlying them and giving them coherence (MacNaughton et al 2001).               On the other hand, the qualitative paradigm stems from antipisitivistic, interpretative approach, is idiographic, thus holistic in nature, and the main aim is to understand social life and the meaning that people attach to everyday life (Peat 2001; Darlington and Scott 2002; Hansen 2006). According to Newman and Benz (1998) a qualitative research involves an interpretative, naturalistic approach of the subject matter. Qualitative research is about studying things in their natural settings. A researcher conducting qualitative research attempts to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meaning people bring to them. Qualitative research involves different methods of gathering and collecting of empirical materials such as case study personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactions, and visual texts. Qualitative methods in health research are now becoming popular among researchers. One reason for this is because qualitative research methods are well suited for investigating the meanings, interpretations, social and cultural norms and perceptions that impact on health-related behaviors, medical practice and health outcomes (Jordens and Little 2004; Sayre 2000). Qualitative research methods also allow researchers to explore issues from the perspectives of the individuals directly involved in the experiences. In qualitative research, behaviors, understandings, actions and experiences are not measured using statistical analysis as in quantitative research (Devers 1999; Sofaer 1999). Instead, detailed written descriptions and explanations of the phenomena under investigation are produced. Qualitative methods are those that collect data in the form of talk, words, observations, visual images and documents.                The article “Shifting supervision: Implications for safe administration of medication by nursing students” is an example of a qualitative research. The researcher made use of in-depth interview as a mode of collecting data. The article is a qualitative research because it focuses on the experiences of undergraduate nursing students in medication administration in healthcare settings. Qualitative research is described by Hardey and Mulhall (1994) as people-centered and frequently provides rich descriptions of an area of human behavior. Because of its people-centeredness, qualitative research was chosen as the mode of conducting the research because it allows the participants to give their opinions without a high degree of prestructured prompting. Individual in-depth interviews using semi-structured approach were chosen as the primary means of data collections. The researchers made use of open-ended questions as they allow issues to be discussed more freely than would occur with closed or structured questions (Adler and Rodman 1997). The research uses ‘grounded theory’ as a research strategy. It has been suggested that grounded theory makes its greatest contribution when used to investigate areas where little research has occurred. As such, this strategy is very appropriate as it allows the study to be well placed to generate theory grounded in data.     Part B Problem Definition             The statement of the problem according to Mauch and Park  (2003) is a short section of a research, but perhaps the most important. The statement of the problem section lays down a guide to follow in all that comes after. A problem according to Creswell (1994) might be defined as the issue that exists in the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study.               In the article, although the researchers do not present a statement of the problem, the beginning of the article and the succeeding discussion emphasizes the issues in medication administration concerning undergraduate nursing students. The researchers opened the discussion with the problem of medication error that led to the pointing out of the scarcity of literature regarding medication administration by undergraduate students in off-campus settings. The researchers are able to make the problem stand out and make the readers recognize it. From reading the context of the research one is able to recognize the problem. The problem is presented within the context, which is provided and briefly explained. The researchers are successful in presenting the problem to the readers. Through the discussion of the research context, the researchers are able to answer the question “Why does this research need to be conducted?”   The purpose of the research is evident in the summary at the beginning of the articles. The readers will also get what the researchers want to find out just by reading the title. As stated by the researchers, there is a lack of previous researches regarding the topic. The researchers decided to use grounded theory in order to come up with a research that will focus on medication administration by undergraduate students in off-campus settings.   Literature Review             The literature review is one of the longest sections in research which aims to analyze and evaluate what other researchers have done in the past. By reviewing the works of others in the chosen topic or field, the researcher is able to present to the readers the current state of knowledge and justify the research being conducted by showing what has not yet been done. Through the literature review, the researcher is able to identify the gap in knowledge.               The researchers, at the beginning of the paper state that there is limited information on the subject of medication administration by undergraduate nursing students in off-campus settings. The researchers assert that the present work will give way to new knowledge which focuses on medication administration by undergraduate nursing students and the different issues such as medication error. In this regard, the paper serves as a new stream of research.             The research is structured as a grounded theory research and as such there is no review of the literature in the area of the study before data collection. The rationale for this argument is to avoid biasing the researchers’ attempts to develop concepts and ideas from the data that actually fit. In grounded theory studies, researchers typically collect data in the field before reviewing the literature. As the data are analyzed, the grounded theory begins to take shape, researchers the turn to the literature, seeking to relate prior findings to the theory. Grounded theory researchers defer the literature review, but then determine how previous research fits with or extends the emerging theory (Pollit and Beck 2004).             In the case of the paper entitled ‘Shifting Supervision: Implications for Safe Administration of Medication by Nursing Students’, the researchers did not present a literature review before the data are collected. However, the readers will be aware that in the ‘discussion’ section, the researchers compared their findings with the existing research on the topic.   Research Design             The research design according to Mauch and Park (2003) is a total plan for carrying put an investigation. A completed research design shows the step-by-step sequence of actions in carrying out an investigation essential to obtaining objective, reliable, and valid information. The completed design also indicates how the resultant objective information is to be used to determine conclusions about the accuracy of a hypothesis, a theory, or the correct answer to a question (Dillman 2000 cited in Mauch and Park 2003, p. 123).              In the article of Reid-Searl et al, the grounded theory approach was used. The researchers argued that this approach is appropriate in their research as there is little research on the investigated area. This research design originated with Glaser and Straus. The main feature of the grounded theory research design is the development of new theory through the collection and analysis of data about a phenomenon. The researchers were successful in their use of the grounded theory research design. They were guided by their chosen research design in conducting their research. The grounded theory research design helped the researchers in coming up with a new theory regarding a topic that has little attention.   Sampling             The researchers used the theoretical sampling approach. The researchers used this sampling approach to in order to decide what data to collect and which people to include in the research.             The aim of the research is to explore the process of medication administration for nursing students when in the off-campus clinical setting. It is  evident that from this aim, the researchers need to look for undergraduate nursing students who have experiences in medication administration in the off-campus clinical setting. The researchers started with a target population which was the final-year undergraduate nursing students from a university in Queensland, Australia. The reason for selecting this population is because these students were about to experience their final clinical placement before becoming registered nurses. This group of people will receive supervision from registered nurses. The researchers were also aware that these students can contribute to the research as they will be gaining experiences in medication administration in off-campus settings. Following conformation of ethical clearance from the university human research ethics committee (HREC), which function in accordance with the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) guidelines, approval was sought from the Dean of the Faculty to access student names. A package was then sent to 135 final-year university students enrolled in a Bachelor of Nursing programme inviting them to participate in the study.             Using the theoretical approach, the researchers were able to identify the 28 students who will be included in the research. The theoretical approach according to Glaser (1978) is the process of data collection for generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes and analyzes the data and decides what data to collect next and where to find it, in order to develop the theory as it emerges.   Data Collection             As mentioned, the researchers sought the approval of the Dean to access the names of the fourth year nursing students in a university in Queensland. After the names have been accessed, the researchers sent a package to 135 final-year students inviting them to participate in the study. The researchers made use of individual in-depth interviews using a semi-structured approach as the primary means of data collection for the study. Open-ended questions allow issues to discussed more freely. The researchers also stated that interviews were audio-taped with permission of the participants. In the grounded theory approach, it is important that the researcher, follow a systematic procedure in data collection and data analysis. In the data collection procedure, the researchers collected information through in-depth interview. The individual participant’s responses (including all explanations, discussions, and clarifications) to every question are transcribed by the researchers. The researchers also recorded every interview in an audio-tape. This is important as grounded theory relies heavily on the data that is collected by the researchers as the foundation of developing a new theory. Re-reading and listening to the recorded interviews are important.             The investigator believes that the data collection method employed by the researchers was appropriate for the study. In order to make sure that the respondents are free to answer and discuss their experiences in medication administration, the researchers used open-ended questions. The answers of the respondents were transcribed and audio-taped making the data collection method more effective and allowing the researchers to fully understand and to identify the emerging theory.     Data Analysis             The grounded theory approach used by the researchers compels the researchers to conduct thematic analysis. Grounded theory according to Glaser and Straus is an approach designed to allow researchers to generate or discover theory.             In the article, the researchers used systematic coding procedures known as open coding, axial coding and selective coding. Open coding is the first stage of coding. It involves breaking the data into identifiable properties, categories and dimensions. The researcher searches for differences and similarities between events, actions and interactions and applies labels to them. The next stage in the analysis is axial coding. This type of coding is about making connections between categories. During the selective coding, the analyst attempts to integrate and order their analysis, using core headings (Hansen 2006).             In the research, the researchers used the grounded theory approach to develop a theory regarding the process of medication administration by undergraduate nursing students in off-campus clinical setting. The data were collected through in-depth interview with final-year nursing students because they are the ones who have experienced supervision from registered nurses in off-campus clinical setting. Open coding began after the first interview was transcribed and continued with consecutive interview transcripts until no further categories could be identified and saturation of categories was achieved. Axial coding involved the identification of connections between the categories and sub-categories observed during the open-coding stage by examining the context and conditions in the occurrence of incident and events within the data and identifying connections between them. In the selective coding stage, the researchers were able to identify the central category which is “Supervision”.   Interpretation of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations             The researchers identified ‘supervision’ as a central category. The central category was used by the researchers to identify a problem that students encounter in administering medications. The researchers were able to come up with a central problem ‘shifting levels of supervision’. This means that the level of supervision the students encountered from registered nurses when administering medications moved from being close to no super vision at all. The levels were labeled as ‘being with’, ‘being over’, ‘being near’ and ‘being absent’. Being with is defined as a level of supervision where the registered nurse is with the student during the process of medication administration. Being over is defined as level of supervision where the registered nurse was in close contact but stood ‘over’ the students. Being near is the level of supervision described most commonly where the registered nurse was within visual range when administering medication but not beside the students. Being absent is when the registered nurse provided no supervision.             The interpretation stage is very critical in the grounded theory as it is where the researcher lays down the results of the research and their interpretation of it. In the case of the research done by Reid-Searl et al, the interpretation stage made the whole research clear and it pointed the investigators attention to the new theory that the researchers developed. In the interpretation stage, the investigator became aware of the path that the grounded theory research has taken. It became clear that ‘supervision’ from registered nurses in the off-campus clinical setting causes problem for undergraduate nursing students in medication administration. The researchers were successful in pointing the effect of level of supervision that the students get when administering medication to the occurrence of medication error.   References Adler, R B and Rodman, G 1997, Understanding Human Communication, Harcourt Brace, Forthwith.   Berntsen, K J 2004, The Patient's Guide to Preventing Medical Errors, Praeger, Westport CT.   Creswell, J W 1994, Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.   Devers K 1999, How Will We Know “Good” Qualitative Research When We See It? Beginning the Dialogue in Health Services Research, Health Services Research, vol. 34, no. 5. pp. 352-356.   Dillman, D A 2000, Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method, Wiley, New York.   Hansen, E C 2006, Successful Qualitative Health Research: A Practical Introduction, Allen and Unwin, Crows Nest, NSW.   Hardey, M and Mulhall A (eds) 1994, Nursing Research: Theory and Practice, Chapman and Hall, London.   Jorden, C F C and Little, M 2004, In This Scenario I Do This, For These Reasons: Narrative, Genre and Ethical Reasoning in the Clinic, Social Science and Medicine, vol. 58, no. 9, pp. 1635-1645.   Mauch, J E and Park, N 2003, Guide to the Successful Thesis and Dissertation: A Handbook for Students and Faculty, Marcel Dekker, New York.   Polit, D F and Beck, C T 2004, Nursing Research: Principles and Methods, by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.   Sayre, J 2000, The Patient’s Diagnosis: Explanatory Models of Mental Illness, Qualitative Health Research, vol. 10, no, 1, pp. 71-83.   Sofaer S 1999, Qualitative Methods: What are They and Why Use Them?, Health Services Research, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 461-183.

Critique of research article:Shifting Supervision: Implications for Safe Administration of Medication by Nursing Students

Part A Rationale for Research Area Medication error is serious problem that is affecting. Patients are at great health dang...

A Nursing Research Critique: Lui, L Y Y, So, W K W and Fong D Y T (2008) Knowledge and attitudes regarding pain management among nurses in Hong Kong medical units. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 17(15): 2014??021.

The research report caters to the study presented by Lui, L Y Y, So, W K W and Fong D Y T (2008) Knowledge and attitudes regarding pain management among nurses in Hong Kong medical units. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 17(15): 2014??021.   Introduction             The research deals to pain management implying in knowledge and attitudes placed by several nurses at HK medical units and that research is on the right notion as there shows factors influencing nurses’ attitude and knowledge about pain management. Agreeing to the proponents of the research report that pain assume such common symptom for patients in medical units and be ideally relieved through effective pain management and supporting to the assumption that nurses play a crucial role for executing pain management with effectiveness and realizing the fact that these nurses should be able to integrate solid foundation of knowledge as well as attitude towards pain management in a positive manner. Supporting to the statement that, nurses should have solid foundation of knowledge about pain management and develop positive attitude towards it to assess patients’ condition and to deliver individualized care to each one so as to reduce discomfort and enhance the quality of life.             The wider methods capacity is being found into application of descriptive statistics and stepwise regression as used in achieving research data analysis. The detailed research analysis and report have to be detailed for the readers to learn and nursing practice research does incur methodological approach which affirms accurate and reliable findings of the situational patterns being studied from where outcomes does adhere to greater heights of validity stance. The arguments about merits of qualitative research, varieties of qualitative methods, the lack of clear boundaries between quantitative and qualitative research, the tendency to evaluate qualitative research against conventional criteria of rigor and core features of qualitative inquiry.   Discussion, Critique and Analysis             The methodology can possibly be mixed up with several case study situations from wherein narrative inquiry towards pain management are being assessed accordingly, as there arguments that pain management are being known from within use of several research methods as grounded into comprehensive theoretical and pragmatic framework in nursing research and findings are to be discussed, analyzed and at the same time be interpreted with consistency of information and research evidence implying to the success of research undertaken for a more meaningful nursing care practice. Furthermore, outcome analysis can take place at several degree wherein research theories and paradigms are combined and integrated in order to form innovative research design and process endeavors. In addition, case study can be ideal in research for pain management noted by the nurses, as the researcher will have to uncover more variables than he have on research data points, making statistical control a possibility and the identification of causal influence as being operationalized into the study, (Creswell, 1994, p. 144) also helpful in generating hypotheses and theories in developing comprehensive research towards pain management in knowledge and attitudes inquiry of nurses at medical units.               The research design found in research maybe fine but it does not come up to the appropriate method to used according to research focus, as the design is just limited to some type of cross sectional study, even though self administered survey is of ample relevance when utilized mostly for health and medical study purpose, as primary research will not be noted properly without secondary information support, there was enough organization and administration of the methods incorporated in the report wherein there places to the nurses’ knowledge and attitudes survey regarding pain Chinese version (NKASRP-C) as being completed by 143 nurses working at medical units in HK public hospital. For instance, in the report acknowledging Dix et al. (2004, Lui, So and Fong, 2008, p. 2014) have evaluated the prevalence and severity of pain in the general medical setting. There was about 887 patients reporting pain, 52% (Lui, So and Fong, 2008, p. 2014) were patients on medical wards, 20% (Lui, So and Fong, 2008, p. 2014) reported severe pain and 12% experienced unbearable pain. Thus, Strohbuecker et al. (2005, Lui, So and Fong, 2008, p. 2014) evaluated the prevalence of pain in 561 hospitalized patients. Truly, pain management assume essential aspects of patient care and is relevant to the nurses, Cohen (1980, p. 1, Lui, So and Fong, 2008, p. 2014) noted that ‘although medical staff are accountable for prescribing analgesia, much of the responsibility for the comfort of patients rests with the nurses’.             The one issue may recognize that few of HK nurses does really understand patients’ needs for pain management such as during and after hospitalization as there increases to awareness of how nurses in medical units should deal and communicate to patients in order to achieve effective management of pain. The research design needs to be revealed as some of the nurses may determine unmet needs in managing pain according to care and mode of service to patients as the report findings motivated the critical importance of nursing research. There needs to be utilization of several pilot study for overall theme assimilation and linkage of conceptual as well as theoretical framework, there can be several research noted concerns for example, the need for in-depth knowledge and method information as well as the finding in of appropriate literature resources.             Furthermore, research specifications does reinforce the critical aspect of certain comprehensive pain management upon addressing the needs of possible underserved nurses population and that, those nurses responsible for pain management  will need awareness of the risk factors such as hospitalization, adverse effects of medication and the lack of evidence based knowledge and methods paradigm. Thus, the report may have used limited sample size and arising of challenging issues in pain management occurs promoting in patient safety and ideal care service. There must be detailed research literature (Steward, 2004, p. 495) and evidence points in order to help inform that research design is of vital structure of every nursing research being put in spontaneous practice and methods application. The need for a more organized and systematic literature support of pain management as the literature does provide comprehensive account of research done in support to the journal, being imperative to integrate critique of a particular report engaging enough amount of research significance, rationale as well as relevance regarding knowledge and attitude of nurses towards pain management. Supporting in effective utilization of research methods in form of qualitative and quantitative resources, there is sort of descriptive research and process along with the inclusion of self administered questionnaires for possible analysis and conforms to the high end primary research (Creswell, 1994).             In addition, responses may linked into possible agreements and disagreements of the survey as the research outcomes presented did show standard frequencies and percentages of the results analyzed from the methods found in research context, although certain sample sizes are too vague to interpret in specs but there can be medium to research contribution into professional nursing work and practice.  There has to be recommendations that research design as well as methodology should be able to facilitate the discovery of quantifiable information as in methods triangulation, as argued that if nursing scholars limit themselves to one method of enquiry, possible restrictions will be placed on the development of nursing knowledge from the composed studies about shift work and its related domains (Steward, 2004). For nursing practice manifested into the journal being critiqued, the arguments into nature of knowledge recognized by applied methods and how such nursing related articles/journals should be critiqued in whole sense as it is not possible to judge qualitative research by using conventional criteria also conclusion and agreeing that, there needs to be in operational stature in order to take account distinctive purpose of the articles in research form.             The journal chosen contribute positively to nursing research from which current studies are significant from professional viewpoint and that nurses management of pain are manifested as one better factor to deal about patient care success in medical units and healthcare setting nowadays and because the proponents concepts are of positive stature, nursing research emphasize a better foundation of nursing practices and its underlying professional domain, improving in Hong Kong medical care areas, the inclusion of research approach from where reliable observations and study information is being emphasized into logical and acceptable manner allowing in appropriate research base of pain management as connected within the totality of nurses service and HK care practice. The need for enough generalizability and better research domains as ideal settings for the sample size to respond well from within clear methodological organization, presence of valid, reliable research instruments as utilized impeding in causal issues among nurses ethical formation and service commitment despite pain management problems integrating in useful critical thinking as there found good reasoning and reflective, rational thinking based on literature knowledge and there is enough analysis of the available information and ideas. Nursing practice mandates the use of extensive critical thinking skills within the nursing process as it enhances clinical decision making, helping to identify patient needs and to determine nursing actions towards pain management.             Research spontaneity is effective factor for recognizing systematic accounts of the factors to support research studies from methods used and be objective for undergoing empirical research as shortages into the nursing practice can truly be a sad reality put into subjective terms. In addition, most methods found utilized to achieve representative samples depend, in some way, on the process of random assignment. Random sampling is the selecting of random sample such that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected (Creswell, 1994). Thus, surveys fall into analytical and descriptive from where article’s inclusion of research rigor will allow effectiveness of results. In contrast, descriptive surveys tend to use an inductive approach, often using open-ended questions to explore perspectives. Descriptive technique may be quite ethnographic in character, it is important to establish the research’s frame of reference. Nurses maybe amenable to answering personal and delicate questions through such anonymous medium (Creswell, 1994), it is possible that answers may be more honest than when faced by an interviewer, whom they may be tempted to impress by exaggerated responses and from socially desirable response.             Aside, questionnaires should be used when they fit the objectives of the research from the articles known, several data analysis of closed questions is relatively simple and questions can be coded quickly in order to recognize the responses of nurses and presence of feasibility posits in order to ensure appropriateness of content reflecting in research assimilation (Creswell, 1994). Ideally, it is necessary to integrate research methods into evidence posed by findings as due to engaging techniques of collating points from wherein surveys, questionnaires and interviews adhere to methods triangulation and are found as better choices into the overall contribution of knowledge into nursing practice in desirable research foundation. The proponents are good critical thinker as the authors used reality based deliberation to validate the accuracy of research from within reliability of resource; indicative interpretations are good enough to determine pain management significance from the methods used, conducting of qualitative studies places desire to collect information to capture article elements to make it in interpretive validity as attributed to certain responses made by selected nurses and the extent to which findings can be generalized beyond nursing care as generated.   Conclusion             In conclusion, there was better understanding of pain management factors that affect nurses’ knowledge and attitudes and of the discrepancy between research and evidence do provide useful information to be included in nursing education programs and to inform policies into managing pain pathways. There assumes learning that nurses must use critical thinking skills in the nursing care, regardless of actual care as patient situation is viewed as dynamic as there imposes tabulated interpretations of research, allowing nurses to focus on factors that are relevant and significant to pain management in lieu to organized plan of action. Truly, research evidence is to have valid literature points as the study deals to adverse physiological and psychological effects of shift work and the inclusion of certain situations such as health problems and diminished performance at work.             Therefore, agreeing that the report did provide what is thought to be primary information about the knowledge and attitudes in relation to pain management of the nurses working in HK medical units and it is a fact, that knowledge deficit among nurses in pain management is presently alarming indeed, diverse strategies is to be realized to achieve quality of life. The critique did provide ample basis for good research positions as for instance, diverse methods recognized in the articles found to have strength in parallel to research context and paradigm as when executed, will add innovative nurse perspectives to pain management for further investigation. The kind of knowledge presented hereunto, should not be seen as ranked but as fairly valid and necessary to achieve appropriate illustration of pain management provided by nurses as there are issues to determine and resolved through research idealism.   References Cohen FL (1980) Post surgical pain relief: patients’ status and nurses’ medication choices. Pain 9, 265–274   Creswell JW (1994) Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage   Dix P, Sandhar B, Murdoch J & MacIntyre PA (2004) Pain on medical wards in a district general hospital. British Journal of Anesthesia 92, 235–237.   Lui LY, So WKW and Fong D Y T (2008) Knowledge and attitudes regarding pain management among nurses in Hong Kong medical units. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 17(15): 2014??021   Strohbuecker B, Mayer H, Evers GC & Sabatowski R (2005) Pain prevalence in hospitalized patients in a German university teaching hospital. Journal of Pain & Symptom Management 29, 498–506   Steward B (2004) Writing a Literature Review. British Journal of Occupational Therapy 67(11), 495-499.

A Nursing Research Critique: Lui, L Y Y, So, W K W and Fong D Y T (2008) Knowledge and attitudes regarding pain management among nurses in Hong Kong medical units. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 17(15): 2014??021.

The research report caters to the study presented by Lui, L Y Y, So, W K W and Fong D Y T (2008) Knowledge and attitudes regarding pai...