Research Korner: Thesis Paper Samples

Teleconferencing as the Application of Telepresence_A Review Paper

Teleconferencing as the Application of Telepresence   Telepresence             Currently, the synthetic environment (SE) technology is gaining wide acceptance within the industrialized nations. SE features computer mediation of user interaction with an environment that is physically separated from the user. Thus, it focuses on projecting user’s perceptual, cognitive as well as psychomotor capabilities into distant, dangerous or even simulated environments (Draper, Kaber, & Usher, 1998). One of the most important subjects relating to SE is the telepresence that is also called as labeled presence, synthetic presence, virtual presence, social presence, ego presence. Each of the said terms pertains on the experience that involves displacement of the self-perception of the users towards the computer-mediated environment (Draper, Kaber, & Usher, 1998). Telepresence is a technique that is used in order to create a sense of physical presence at a remote location by using applicable multimedia including sound, vision and touch (Furht, 2008, 849).  Thus, it is considered as the combination of the three important technologies including robotics, telecommunications as well as virtual reality which helped to expand the radius of actions and experiences (Grau & Custance, 2004, 278). Thus, telepresence happens when the operational characteristics of the human-computer/human-telerobot interface are compatible with the behavioral-physiological performance capabilities and limitations of the human operator. Therefore, in terms of experiential aspect, telepresence can be defined as the mental state where in the user feels physically present within the computer-mediated environment or the sense of being physically present with virtual objects at the remote teleoperator site which can also called as illusion or state of consciousness towards feeling of being physically present at the remote site (Draper, Kaber, & Usher, 1998). Therefore, in general, telepresence can be described and defined as the human-computer-machine conditions in which a user (soldier) received sufficient information about a remote, real-world site (a battlefield) through a machine (a robot) so that the user feels physically present at the remote, real-world site. By applying telepresence, the physical presence (body) of the user exists at one location (home site), while he or she will have the ability to interact and connect with a remote, real-world environment which occurs at one or more places (remote site/sites). The said situation can be achieved by using advanced sensors, communications, remote action and feedback stimulus in order to enable the personnel to project their presence around the world through different remote sites, which give a user the capability to see, hear, touch, taste and even smell those sites. Thus, the soldiers who are using telepresence capabilities will be able to act and receive stimuli just as if they were present at the remote, real world location (Keith & Bruen, 2006). The idea of telepresence may come from different science fiction writers who described the concept of science virtual reality and telepresence for decades. The term telepresence was coined and used by Marvin Minsky in 1980 in describing the teleopertion systems of remote physical objects (Furht, 2008). The idea supported by Johnsen & Corliss (1971) who discussed the vitality of the process of designing controls in order to help the operator projects his own presence into the remote work spaces, at the same time, provide displays that will improve the identification of the operator with the task at hand. The said notions, a design philosophy was established that the best way of building efficient teleoperators is to make the experience of the users during teleoperation will be as similar as possible to the process of completing a mission by direct contact with the environment  (Draper, Kaber, & Usher, 1998). Telepresence is considered as a networked paradigm by nature, and multimedia communication is being used in order to be used for the transport of the information between the user and the remote site. The sense of presence will be achieved by generating sensory stimulus, in order for the operator to have the illusion of being present at a location that is far from the location of the physical presence. Telepresence is different from the idea of virtual reality, which focuses on the interaction and connection between people and remote site and enables people who are immersed in telepresence systems in order to act as well as receive input as they were at the remote site. Telepresence can be applied in different fields including telemedicine to remote surveillance, entertainment, education as well as other applications in different situations where in humans are exposed to different dangerous and unreceptive situations and environments. Thus, both of the telephone and video-conferencing enables limited types of telepresence because voice and video can be there without the person being their in physical manner. In addition, telepresence system can also be incorporated successfully with the force-feedback components which will be helpful for different applications including space operations. Robonaut is a robotic astronaut that is under development. With the help of telepresence system, robonaut can be positioned in difficult and hazardous situations with the replacement of an astronaut, while the operator will be safely housed on a nearby spaceship or even on the earth, controlling robonaut in fluid and intuitive manner (Furht, 2008).   Teleconferencing             Another important development in terms of cable, satellite technology is teleconferencing. The basic technology that is vital for teleconferencing has existed for some time; however, due to rising transportation costs, as well as the desire for increased productivity drove the growth of the said technology (Gagné, 268). According to the International Teleconferencing Association, teleconferencing industry had a total revenues of $2.3 billion in 1993 alone, showing a great increase of 31% compare with reported $1.75 billion during the previous year. The said amount had increased by $ 3 billion in 1994. Therefore, it can be said that teleconferencing as an industry is one of the fast growing, than what have been predicted. From the start, in a large-group corporate conference rooms, the said technology had been heartily embraced education (Gellerman, 2002). Teleconferencing is considered as the ability of three or more people to communicate and connect (Muller, 2002, 1024). It is an electronic communication between individuals or groups that are located at different places (Gagné). Thus, it is the collection of audio conferencing, video conferencing and data conferencing which include participants in a live real-time session (Furht, 2008, 837). Teleconferencing is also known as Multimedia Conference Service which consists of live real-time session between multiple participants with the ability to hear as well as see each other, which enable them to share data and applications. On the other hand, teleconferencing can also be thought as the combination of audio conferencing, video conferencing as well as data conferencing (Furht, 2008, 837). There are different types of teleconferencing systems that can be used in single or combination manner. Audio-conferencing enables different locations or points to talk with each other by using amplified telephone speakers. On the other hand, the freeze-frame or slow-scan teleconferencing focus on transmitting still images by using phone lines, microwave or even satellite, which can be photographs or hard copy. Furthermore, full motion or videoconferencing enables remote places or locations to interact or connect through one-way or two-way video or audio. The said technology enables to offer a pictorial quality that is similar to the broadcast television (Gagné, 268).             Teleconferencing can be done in different ways. For a fundamental telephone conference that involves limited number of participants, a telephone set with either a three-way calling feature on the line, or a conferencing feature supported by the PBX or key system, will be required. On the other hand, a teleconference can be set up by a system attendant. For a teleconference with more than three parties, the attendant console operator can set up the connections through the PBX and put in more participants to the call than can be contained from a single set (Muller, 2002, 1024). Another way to implement teleconferencing is to initiate a conference through the telephone company conference operator. Thus, a conference can be implemented at a prearranged time or it can be organized in order for the participant to schedule their time and be phone in to a pre-assigned toll-free number at a given time. After dialing the said number, users must enter the assigned conference code in order to join the conference. The code will serve for security purposes which guarantee the privacy of the conference. In some cases, where in individuals use their telephone in order to partake in a conference, different people at a specific location can also participate in the conference as a group, specialized equipment will be needed. The main and vital equipment that is required is the audio system which is consists of a control unit with an integral keypad, omni-directional microphone, together with the speaker that is typically positioned in the center of the table (Muller, 2002, 1024).             As a result, teleconferences enable to move meetings towards the people, which reduce the need for travel (Gagné, 268). This is the reason why it is applied in different field, particularly in the aspect of education and organizational efforts and activities. From the beginnings in a large group corporate conference rooms, the said technology has been vigorously embraced by education. As a result, teleconferencing can be seen in practicing distance learning, and with the aid of telecommunications, it had brought instruction to students as well as teacher in the world. Thus, teachers had been able to offer an instruction towards the students in different remote classrooms; therefore, one trainer, can offer and share information to employees and different sites in the different places or offices of an organization in the world  (Gellerman, 2002).   Advantages and Disadvantages of Teleconferencing             The major advantage of teleconferencing is that it is cheaper than transporting people around the country or around the world  (Spencer & Pruss, 1997, 8). As a result, it has a great potential of reducing the cost of group meetings. Studies showed that teleconferencing can help to reduce national business travel-associated costs by more or less 30% yearly, showing huge savings of $4.5 bilion. One of the biggest and good example is the teleconferece conducted by the Spruce Budworm Technology Trasfer (SBWTT) Program for theh Lake States Region-part of the Canada/United States Spruce Budworm Program. The said project study and compare the costs between a 14-person audio conference and a comparable face-to-face (FTF) meeting in St. Paul, Minnesota. The result of the study showed that the audio conference cost 42% less compare with the FTF meeting due to travel expenses  (Rogan & Simmons). In connection, teleconferencing enables faster or quicker communication and transfer of knowledge and data compare with the traditional FTF meeting, aside from the fact, that the conversation that had happened can be recorded (Spencer & Pruss, 1997, 8). In addition, follow-up to the earlier meeting can be implemented with ease and little expense, because the members of the meetings will just have to schedule for phone calls. Meetings are also shorter and more oriented to the primary and important purpose of the meeting, because socializing is minimal, compare with the FTF meeting. Aside from that, some routine meetings are considered as more effective because one can audio conference from any location that is equipped with a telephone. Aside from the fact that, communication between home office as well as field staffs will be maximized. Meetings can also be done inspite of severe climate or even the presence of unreliable transportation. And because, the members of the meeting will no longer have to travel, they will have more time to be prepared regarding the subjects of the meetings. Above all, group member can participate in equal manner compare with the FTF meeting  (Rogan & Simmons).             On the other hand, the main disadvantage of teleconferencing is the it will be hard for the chairperson to guarantee that all the members have their say, and that other people do not exceedingly control the discussions. Thus, there is loss of comprehension with connection to the loss of body language and eye contact that is important for negotiating and bargaining (Spencer & Pruss, 1997, 8). On the other hand, there are some inevitable and unexpected technical failures with the equipment such as connections that aren’t made that can affect the teleconferencing. Because teleconferencing is impersonal, it is less easy to establish an environment of group relationship and understanding. Another problem which will be faced or encountered in teleconferencing is the lack of participant’s familiarity and knowledge with the equipment, the medium itself as well as the meeting skills. Above all, informal and one-to-one interaction will not be possible (Rogan & Simmons).   Teleconferencing and Telepresence             Although teleconferencing, particularly video conferences services have been available in different countries in the world for many years; their uptake has failed to reach the levels that had been predicted by some experts (Clarke, 1990 cited in Muchlback, Bocker, & Prusog, 1995). One of the important reasons of the said disappointing event is the cost of equipment as well as lines, together with the technical limitations of those equipment that is being used in the current system, including those important aspect of FTF meetings including eye contact or binocular depth cues to be lost (Muchlback, Bocker, & Prusog, 1995).             The study conducted by the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute (HHI) which focused on the extent to which the said drawback can be lessen, and how telepresence in teleconferencing can be increased by employing advanced technologies. The study also investigated the possible advantages of enhanced spatial resolution with accordance to the HDTV standards; stereoscopic representation of persons and objects; the ability to individually address interlocutors by different nonverbal signals including eye contact; and the representation of motion parallax, that is, the relative shifts of objects in the visual field that result from the movement of the observers (Muchlback, Bocker, & Prusog, 1995). Thus, telepresence can be applied in teleconferencing by means of enhancing collaboration concepts.   True Eye Contact             Like what have mentioned, the lack of eye contact is considered as one of the disadvantages of teleconferencing is the lack of true eye contact, which is considered as a hindrance in effective communication. Eye contact is considered as the most vital aspects of face-to-face communication. It instill trust and help to promote an environment of cooperation as well as partnership. Alternatively, a lack of eye contact between meeting participants can help to generate feelings of negativity, discomfort as well as distrust  (WR, 2005). One of the best application is the scenario envisage by VIRTUE, a three-way single person isotrophic videoconferencing system with seamless mixture of virtual and real-world scene. The virtual scene and remote participants’ rendered images are presented in correct perspective and change dynamically relative to the view point or head position of the local participant, which is called the parallax effect (Turnbull & Garrett, 2003, 285).               Providing the natural feeling of eye contact during videoconferencing is in great demands for the participants to look directly into the camera. Unfortunately, traditional videoconferencing often fails in this because the participants tend to look at the video display and not at the camera. This can be solved by applying telepresence by physically positioning the camera behind the display, meaning when the local participants look at the display showing remote participants, they are also looking directly onto the camera, therefore providing true eye contact to the far end sites (WR, 2005).             An in-person meeting must offer the participants the best possible audio and video quality, and anything less than in-person represents some degree of compromise. Thus, the best way and key in offering an efficient teleconference experience is to offer a level of audio and video quality that would feel natural to the participants of the meeting. Although the said situation is somewhat easy, there are some technological as well as environmental factors that could prevent this from happening (WR, 2005).   Improved Audio Quality             There are studies which showed that poor audio quality measurably increases the stress level of the participants of the meeting. Thus, it is important to consider the four vital factors which contribute to the perceived quality during a conference which are: clarity or quality or consistency of sound, the latency or lag time, the synchronization between the sound and the images and the apparent location of the sound source. In that case, it is important to focus on issue of lip sync and latency. In order to provide the participants with the natural virtual meeting experience, lips and words are needed to be in sync. On the other hand, latency or the time between when something is said and something is heard is important. Latency below 50 ms is hardly audible, while 200 – 250 ms will be annoying. In order to come up with the said two factors, it will be very important to focus on two important factors which are: technology used in order to capture, compress and decompress the audio and video, as well as the network that is used in order to transmit signals (WR, 2005).   Improved Video Quality             Designers and integrators for teleconferencing and videoconferencing system is facing difficulties and challenges, and that is the offer the participants with the life-like audio and video connections to other locations in a way that it will still be cost-effective. Thus, it is vital to focus on three inter-dependent variables such as video resolution, frame rate and bandwidth. Video resolution is the amount of the information that is captured and displayed on the screen and usually measured in the number of horizontal or vertical picture elements. On the other hand the frame rate is the number of frames displayed per second. While the bandwidth is the network bandwidth that is required in order to transmit a video signal based on the amount of the information that has been provided. As a result, in order to improve the quality of video for the sake of the participants in the meetings, it will be important to focus on increasing the bandwidth as well as the resolution. This will help the participants to have the ability to distinguish shapes as well as objects at a given distances, therefore giving them the optimal visual activities (WR, 2005).   Bibliography   Draper, J., Kaber, D., & Usher, J. (1998). Telepresence. Human Factors , 40(3), 354+. Furht, B. (2008). Encyclopedia of Multimedia. Springer. Gagné, R. M. Instructional Technology: Foundations. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Gellerman, E. (2002). Teleconferencing Systems Facilitate Collaboration and Distance Learning. T H E Journal , 22(3), 16+. Grau, O., & Custance, G. (2004). Virtual Art: From Illusion to Immersion. MIT Press. Keith, A., & Bruen, T. (2006). Telepresence: Harnerssing the Human Computer-Machine Interface. Army Logistician . Muchlback, L., Bocker, M., & Prusog, A. (1995). Telepresence in Videocommunications: A Study on Stereoscopy and Individual Eye Contact. Human Factors , 37(2), 290+. Muller, N. (2002). Desktop Encyclopedia of Telecommunication. McGraw-Hill Professional. Rogan, R., & Simmons, G. (n.d.). Teleconferencing. Retrieved May 12, 2009, from Journal of Extensions, 22 (5): http://www.joe.org/joe/1984september/a4.php Spencer, J. L., & Pruss, A. (1997). The Professional Secretary's Handbook. Barron's Educational Series. Turnbull, J., & Garrett, S. (2003). Broadband Applications and the Digital Home. IET. WR. (2005). Emerging Technologies for Teleconferencing and Telepresence. Retrieved May 12, 2009, from Wainhouse Research: http://www.wainhouse.com/files/papers/wr-et4tctp.pdf

Teleconferencing as the Application of Telepresence_A Review Paper

Teleconferencing as the Application of Telepresence Telepresence Currently, the synthetic environment (SE) technology...

Teleconferencing as the Application of Telepresence_A Review Paper

Teleconferencing as the Application of Telepresence_A Review Paper

Teleconferencing as the Application of Telepresence Telepresence Currently, the synthetic environment (SE) technology...

A THESIS PAPER ON THE PRACTICE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS IN LEBANON

THE PRACTICE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS IN LEBANON 	 	  	 	 	______________________________________________________________________________ 	 	A Thesis 	 	  	 	  	 	Presented to the 	 	  	 	  	 	__________________________________ 	 	  	 	In Partial Fulfillment 	 	  	 	Of The Requirements for the Degree 	 	  	 	Master of Arts 	 	  	 	In 	 	  	 	Communications 	 	  	 	____________________________________ 	 	  	 	  	 	Approved by: 	 	  	 	  	 	____________________________                                                                	_____________ 	Committee 	Chair                                                                                	Date 	Department of Communications 	  	 	____________________________                                                                	____________ 	 Member                                                                                                   	Date 	Department of Communications 	  	 	____________________________                                                                	_____________ 	 Member                                                                                               	Date 	Department of Communications 	  	 	  	 	  	 	ABSTRACT 	  	 	This study described and analyzed the perceptions and 	practices of public relations in Lebanon. It focused specifically on media 	relations and was based on Grunig’s (1984) theoretical framework of four 	models of public relations: press agentry, public information, two-way 	asymmetrical, and two-way symmetrical.   A review of the literature was 	conducted that revealed a debate about whether public relations can be 	practiced the same way all over the world or if certain localized practices 	should be considered for each nation.  	 	The research design was a triangulated method.  Data were 	collected using a written survey questionnaire and telephone interviews with 	Lebanese public relations practitioners.  The results showed that all four 	of the Grunig models were practiced in Lebanon, with the two-way symmetrical 	model the most popular.  Evidence collected from this research supported the 	hypothesis of this study that public relations can be globalized despite 	cultural differences.    	TABLE OF CONTENTS 	 TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u 	 	 	LIST OF TABLES. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066654 \h iv 	 	 	LIST OF FIGURES. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066655 \h v 	 	 	CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY.. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066656 \h 1 	 	 	Introduction. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066657 \h 1 	 	 	The Problem.. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066658 \h 2 	 	 	Background of the Problem.. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066659 \h 3 	 	 	Lebanon: General Overview.. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066660 \h 4 	 	 	Communication Styles and Cultural Differences. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066661 \h 6 	 	 	Research Questions. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066662 \h 9 	 	 	Scope of the Study. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066663 \h 10 	 	 	Definition of Terms. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066664 \h 10 	 	 	Organization of the Remainder of the Study. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066665 \h 10 	 	 	CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW... 	PAGEREF _Toc16066666 \h 11 	 	 	Introduction. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066667 \h 11 	 	 	Theoretical Perspective. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066668 \h 11 	 	 	Globalization versus Localization. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066669 \h 13 	 	 	Advocates for Globalization. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066670 \h 13 	 	 	Advocates for Localization. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066671 \h 17 	 	 	Conclusion. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066672 \h 21 	 	 	CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY.. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066673 \h 22 	 	 	Introduction. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066674 \h 22 	 	 	Research Approach. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066675 \h 22 	 	 	Sample Population. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066676 \h 23 	 	 	Instrumentation. 	24 	 	 	Survey. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066678 \h 	Error! 	Bookmark not defined.24 	 	 	Qualitative. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066679 \h 26 	 	 	Qualitative Data Analysis. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066680 \h 28 	 	 	Summary. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066681 \h 30 	 	 	CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS OF THE STUDY.. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066682 \h 31 	 	 	Introduction. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066683 \h 31 	 	 	Quantitative Results. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066684 \h 31 	 	 	Qualitative Results. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066685 \h 38 	 	 	Answers to Research Questions. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066686 \h 39 	 	 	Chapter Summary. 	PAGEREF _Toc16066687 \h 40 	 	 	CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION.. 	4 PAGEREF _Toc16066688 \h 1 	 	 	Introduction. 	4 PAGEREF _Toc16066689 \h 1 	 	 	Public Relations Principles. 	4 PAGEREF _Toc16066690 \h 1 	 	 	Summary. 	4 PAGEREF _Toc16066691 \h 2 	 	 	Limitations. 	4 PAGEREF _Toc16066692 \h 3 	 	 	Suggestions for Further Research. 	4 PAGEREF _Toc16066693 \h 4 	 	 	REFERENCES. 	4 PAGEREF _Toc16066694 \h 5 	 	 	APPENDIX A: MODEL STATEMENT FREQUENCY CHARTS. 	51 	 	 	APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE COVER LETTER.. 	59 	 	 	APPENDIX C: QUESTIONNAIRE.. 	60 	LIST OF TABLES 	  	  	 		<li class="MsoNormal">Practice of the Two-way 		Symmetrical Model</li> 	 	Average 	Score             ……………………………………………………………………32 	  	 		<li class="MsoNormal">Practice of the Two-way 		Asymmetrical Model</li> 	 	Average 	Score             ……………………………………………………………………33 	  	 		<li class="MsoNormal">Practice of the Public 		Information Model</li> 	 	Average 	Score             ……………………………………………………………………34 	  	 		<li class="MsoNormal">Practice of the Press Agentry 		Model</li> 	 	Average 	Score             ……………………………………………………………………35 	  	 		<li class="MsoNormal">Ranking of the Top Five Survey 		Statements</li> 	 	Average 	Score             ……………………………………………………………………37 	  	  	  	  	  	LIST OF FIGURES 	  	  	 	1.         Average Survey Statement Scores by Individual Gruning Models 	…………………31 	    	  	CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 	TO THE STUDY 	  	Introduction 	  	 	Mucchielli, Buckley, and Cordell 	(1998) observed that people around the globe 	are more connected to each other than ever before.  Information and money 	flow more quickly than ever.  Goods and services produced in one part of the 	world are increasingly available in all parts of the world. International 	travel is more frequent. International communication is commonplace. This 	phenomenon has been titled "globalization." 	 	According to Rao (1998), globalization, privatization and 	liberalization have become dominant forces shaping societies and economies 	the world over.  Communication technologies have played a pivotal role in 	hastening the globalization process.  Communication technologies like 	satellite broadcasting have made it possible for a tiny incident that took 	place in any part of the world to reach the entire world instantly and at 	the same time.  The concept of “local news” no longer exists (McDowell, 	1997; Rao, 1998). 	 	As the world has grown smaller, the field of public 	relations has grown larger.  More than 60 national and regional public 	relations associations emerged before 1989 (Kruckeberg, 1995).  In the 	United States alone in 1989, there were 600 university departments offering 	graduate and undergraduate courses in public relations 	(Neff, 1989).  In a telephone survey 	conducted by the Delahaye Group in 1996 of 100 randomly selected United 	States public relations executives, 87 percent of the respondents thought 	that international public relations would be most important during the next 	three to five years (Paine, 1996). Turk and Scanlon (1999) noted that 	“Public relations in one country is not necessarily public relations in 	another” (p. 7) and presented 15 case studies that illustrate the evolution 	of public relations in different countries and describes how public 	relations can be practiced in other social, political, and economic 	systems.   	 	At the end of 2001, membership in the International 	Public Relations Association was over 900 members in more than 90 countries, 	representing a 20% growth from the previous year, according to IPRA 	President Jacques Dinan (2001 a year of sustained growth for IPRA, 	2003).   	 	Because of the increasing prominence of globalization and 	public relations in contemporary life, public relations practitioners and 	researchers are debating whether public relations can be practiced the same 	way allover the world (D’Jaen, 1998; Gruban, 1995; Grunig, Sriramesh, Huang, 	& Lyra, 1995; Hiebert, 1992; Hirsch, 1992; McCluhan & Powers, 1989; Murphy, 	1996; Roth, Hunt, Stavropoulos, & Babik, 1996; Sharpe, 1992; Wilson, 1990) 	or if certain localized practices should be considered for each nation 	(Botan, 1992; Clancy, 2000; Dwek, 1995; Epley, 1992; Sriramesh, 1992; 	Taylor, 2000; Taylor & Kent, 1999; Waisbord, 1998; Wheeler, 1998).  	 	 	The goal of this study is to enrich the body of knowledge 	in public relations and to augment the existing literature pertinent to 	whether public relations can be practiced the same all over the world by 	examining how public relations is practiced in Lebanon.  The problem 	statement of the study follows in addition to background information, 	purpose statement, research questions, scope, and definition of terms. 	  	The Problem 	  	 	As noted previously, the existing research on 	international public relations falls into two categories: research that 	argues for practicing public relations the same way all over the world and 	research that argues for localized public relations practices.  However, 	there appears to be no empirical research that addresses how public 	relations is practiced in Lebanon.  The problem of the study was to explore 	whether public relations in Lebanon was practiced as it is practiced in 	other parts of the world or whether its practices are more localized to fit 	Lebanon’s culture. 	  	Background of the Problem 	  	 	The International Monetary Fund (2000) noted that the 	term "globalization" came into common usage in the 1980s, reflecting 	technological advances that have made it easier and quicker to complete 	international trade and financial transactions.  Unprecedented changes in 	communications, transportation, and computer technology have given a new 	force to the globalization advocates, creating unity out of diversity, with 	companies such as Coca Cola, Disneyland, and MacDonald’s, whose products are 	known and consumed all over the world, symbolizing the process. 	 	According to Mucchielli et al. (1998), the world economy 	is becoming increasingly “globalized” with a touch of regionalism.  	Leontiades (1985) pointed to a number of factors that have contributed to 	globalization, the most important of which has been the impact of 	technology.  Leontiades (1985) argued that dramatic improvement in the means 	of communication and transportation has reduced the barriers of distance 	between countries.  	 	Perhaps the most profound observation is that of 	Friedman’s (1999), who noted that the forces of globalization and 	informatization have already redefined industries, politics, cultures, and 	the underlying rules of social order.  As a result, societies and 	communities have no choice but to participate in this “new international 	information order”, but the character of their participation is shaped by 	specific social, cultural, economic and political conditions.  This complex 	multi-level process of mediation between the global and the local promises 	to change not only the context, but also the nature of communication. 	 	            	Since public relations is a form of communication, there is a relationship 	between public relations and globalization.  Anderson (1989) used the terms 	global public relations to define public relations practiced in the 	same way throughout the world, and international public relations to 	define public relations customized for each culture: 	 	Global public relations superimpose an overall 	perspective on a program executed in two or more national markets, 	recognizing the similarities among audiences while necessarily adapting to 	regional differences. International public relations practitioners often 	implement distinctive programs in multiple markets, with each program 	tailored to meet the often-acute distinctions of the individual geographic 	market (p. 413). 	Taylor and 	Kent (1999) observed that public relations is mediated communication 	activities that emerged only a little over a decade ago and is used to teach 	multiple publics. 	 	In order to better understand the practice of public 	relations in Lebanon, one of the objectives of this study, it is important 	to have an understanding of the country.  The following section provides a 	general overview of Lebanon and its religious and cultural background.  	 	  	Lebanon: General Overview 	  	 	The Republic of Lebanon is located on the eastern shore 	of the Mediterranean Sea, surrounded by Israel from the south, Syria from 	the east and the north, and the Mediterranean Sea from the west.  Lebanon is 	one of the smallest sovereign countries in the world.  The length of the 	whole country is 220 kilometers (135 miles) from South to North and varies 	between 20-55 miles from East to West.  The area is 10,425 square kilometers 	(3,950 square miles) (Embassy of Lebanon, 2002).  Lebanon is a democracy 	based on a parliamentary democratic political regime.  Similar to Western 	democracies, the government consists of three branches: an executive, a 	legislative, and an independent judiciary.   The economy is a liberal 	capitalist one.  	 	Lebanon’s population of four million is divided between 	Muslims and Christians (CIA, 2002).  Thus, the country falls in the heart of 	the Middle East and the Arab world.  Despite cultural differences between 	Christians and Muslims, the country is still considered an Arab culture.  	Zaharna (1995) noted that the country is moving towards the Western culture 	and style of life, yet cultural differences still exist.  As Daniel (1974) 	observed, when these differences are not perceived as differences, they are 	perceived as right or wrong.  	 	Though the official language is Arabic and Lebanon is one 	of the founders of the Arab league, the Lebanese have been fighting for 	years for their identity (Library of Congress, 2002).  While the majority of 	the Muslims believe they are Arabs, the majority of the Christians claim 	that they are Phoenicians, a 3000-year-old civilization credited with 	inventing the alphabet.  In addition, Muslims are inclined toward a close 	association with Greater Syria and the Arab world. Christians opted for 	linking Lebanon culturally and politically to the Western world.  This 	contradiction in the search for identity was one of the reasons behind the 	civil war that destroyed the whole country for almost 20 years 	(Saad-Ghorayeb, 2002).  In recent history, the Muslim inclination to unite 	with the Arab world was well portrayed in 1958 after the merger between 	Egypt and Syria formed the United Arab Republic led by the Egyptian 	President Gamal Abdul Nasser.  Muslims in Lebanon looked to Abdul Nasser as 	their leader (Saad-Ghorayeb, 2002).   As a result, Lebanese authorities, 	most of which were Christians, insisted on maintaining the country's 	autonomy and cooperating with the West. Christians considered their friendly 	relations with the West their only guarantee of Lebanon's independence. 	 	Though these differences were very harsh, neither party 	in Lebanon wanted to change the political regime in any way that might 	jeopardize freedom in Lebanon, especially freedom of the press.  Before the 	civil war in Lebanon, the Lebanese press was one of the few free presses in 	the region (Hakim, 1996).  Later, the conflicting parties dominated the 	press, which was biased and forced to portray a certain image. 	 	The situation is changing since the end of the war over 	10 years ago.  The country is rebuilding itself slowly by reclaiming its 	supreme position in the Arab world.  Lebanon has now one of the highest 	levels of Internet users among Arab countries.  The entire country is being 	modernized and moving towards the Western culture and style of life, even in 	the Muslim culture (Library of Congress, 2002).    	  	Communication Styles and 	Cultural Differences 	  	 	There has been an increasing need for public relations 	practitioners to develop an understanding of not only how cultures differ, 	but also how cultural differences impact public relations practices.  	Western practitioners and scholars of Western audiences in Western settings 	have primarily introduced many of the modern public relations techniques.  	Unfortunately, the more refined a practice is for one culture, the more 	likely it is to produce different or even adverse effects in another culture 	(Zaharna, 1995). Just as multicultural groupings in the U.S. each have their 	own communication style, in Arab countries as well each country has its own 	communication style. Zaharna (1995) claimed that most intercultural 	researchers tend to view the Arab and American cultures as opposite.  These 	researchers have proposed several theoretical frameworks to distinguish the 	two cultures.  Some of these frameworks are the High-Context and Low-Context 	(Hall, 1976), Indirect and Direct, (Levine, 1985), Being and Doing (Okabe, 	1983; Stewart, 1972), Oral and Literate (Gold, 1988; Henle, 1962; Ong, 	1980), and Linear and Non-linear (Dodd, 1992).  	 	Hall’s (1976) high context-low context framework is the 	most well known.  Low-context cultures, such as the American culture, tend 	to place more meaning in the language code and very little meaning in the 	context. For this reason, communication tends to be specific, explicit, and 	analytical (Ting-Toomey, 1985). In high-context cultures, meaning is 	embedded more in the context rather than the code.  Thus, the audience must 	understand the contextual cues in order to grasp the full meaning of the 	message. 	 	Levine’s (1985) framework introduced the cultural 	variations of directness versus indirectness and clear (univocal) versus 	ambiguity in communication patterns. He pointed out that the American 	cultural preference is for clear and direct communication, as evidenced by 	their many common expressions: "Say what you mean," "Don't beat around the 	bush," and "Get to the point." Levine's description of univocal and 	ambiguous communication further highlights the differences: Univocal verbal 	communication aims for the precise representation of fact, technique, or 	expectation. Univocality works to strip language of its expressive overtones 	and suggestive allusions. Ambiguous communication, by contrast, can provide 	a superb means for conveying affect. By alluding to shared experiences and 	sentiments, verbal associations can express and evoke a wealth of affective 	responses (Levine, 1985, p. 32). 	 	Another dominant cultural divide stems from value 	orientations. One orientation focuses on activity, the other on being and 	becoming. Stewart (1972) called the activity orientation "doing." He noted 	that such features of "doing" cultures are characteristic of the American 	culture's emphasis on the importance of achievement, visible 	accomplishments, and measurement of achievement. Opposite of the "doing" 	cultures are the "being" cultures such as the Japanese or Arab cultures. 	Okabe (1983) contrasted the American "doing" culture to the Japanese "being" 	culture. He noticed that achievement and development are not as important in 	a traditional vertical society such as Japan where an individual's birth, 	family background, age and rank are much more important.  For an individual 	of the "being" culture, "what he is" carries greater significance than "what 	he does." In the Arabic culture, both "being" and "doing" carry similar 	weight with primacy given to "being" because the identity of the 	communicator is very important and significantly affects the way the message 	is perceived. 	 	In the Oral and Literate framework, the print or literate 	dominant society relies far more on the factual accuracy of a message than 	its emotional resonance (Ong, 1980). Gold (1988) identified numerous 	features of the oral tradition, including repetition as a means for keeping 	attention as well as making the speech "agreeable to the ear.”  In terms of 	message comprehension, Henle (1962) noted that auditors will "go to 	considerable lengths to make sense of an oral message" (p. 370). Thus, 	listeners play an integral part in constructing meaning within an oral 	exchange. 	 	Dodd’s (1982) Linear versus Non-linear framework is 	similar to the oral/literate framework.  According to Dodd, the linear 	orientation stresses unitary themes, beginnings, and ends of events.  It is 	object- rather than people- or event-oriented. The non-linear orientation 	has multiple themes, is expressed in oral terms, and is heightened by 	nonverbal communication.  The American culture is more representative of a 	linear thought framework, and the Arab culture is non-linear. 	 	In addition to studying cultural differences from the 	perspective of communication styles, cultural differences have been studied 	from the viewpoint of two contradicting views of the nature of human beings, 	collectivism and individualism (Angie et al., 1997; Briggs, 1998; Buda & 	Elkhouly, 1998; Hofstede, 1980, 1991; Ithator, 2000). The collectivism view 	holds that groups shape societies; the individualism view holds that 	societies are a collection of individuals.  In collectivism, achievement is 	the product of society; in individualism, individuals are the unit of 	achievement.  	 	After examining cross-cultural differences between the 	West and the East, Angie et al. (1997) observed that the Western culture is 	an individualistic culture, whereas the Eastern culture is a collective 	one.  Badawy (1980) classified all Middle Easterners as collectivists.  	Corroborating Badawy’s findings, Hofstede (1980) classified the United 	States as an individualistic culture, whereas the Arab countries were 	classified as collectivistic cultures.  The implication for this study is 	that having a general understanding of the far-reaching influence of culture 	on communication and communication styles is necessary for public relations 	practitioners to determine whether models of global public relations can be 	relevant to all cultures. This study examines whether Grunig’s public 	relations theory can be universally applied to a non-Western collectivist 	culture such as Lebanon. 	Research Questions 	  	To 	achieve the purpose of the study and resolve the study problem, the 	following research questions were posed:  	 	RQ1:  To what extent does public relations in Lebanon 	reflect globalization or localization? 	 	RQ2:  How is media relations practiced in Lebanon? 	 	RQ3:  What model of communication exists in Lebanon? 	 	For the purposes of analysis, the research questions were 	combined and translated into a null hypothesis: The practice of public 	relations in Lebanon fails to illustrate that public relations can be 	practiced the same way all over the world.  According to statistical 	authorities, the null hypothesis states that all the means are equal 	(Babbie, 1990). If statistical computations provide values that are 	significantly different, then the null form of the hypothesis is rejected 	and its alternative form is accepted (Zikmund, 1991). 	Scope of the Study 	  	 	Participants in this study were Lebanese public relations 	practitioners working in local public relations firms, departments, or as 	consultants.  No multinational companies were included to eliminate the any 	outside foreign influences on conducting public relations in Lebanon.  	 	Definition of Terms 	  	  	 	Globalization — refers primarily to the ways in which 	economic and industrial institutions (such as industries or corporations) 	interact in various locations throughout the world, with primacy given to no 	specific geographic location (Mucchielli et al., 1998). 	 	Informatization — the process primarily by which 	information technologies, such as the worldwide web and other communication 	technologies, have transformed economic and social relations to such an 	extent that cultural and economic barriers are minimized (Wang, 1994). 	 	Public relations —the distinctive management function 	which helps establish and maintain mutually beneficial relationships between 	an organization and the publics on whom its success or failure depends 	(Culbertson & Chen, 1996). 	Organization of the Remainder 	of the Study 	  	 	The study is divided into six chapters.  The first 	chapter defined the problem and its background.  Chapter two reviews the 	literature pertinent to globalization and localization of public relations.  	The methodology is discussed in chapter three.  Chapter four discusses the  	results of the study.  Chapter five closes the study with the conclusion, 	limitations, and recommendations for future research.  	 	  	  	  	CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE 	REVIEW 	  	Introduction 	  	 	The previous 	chapter introduced the study’s problem and purpose. The purpose of this 	chapter is to review the literature pertinent to the major variables of the 	study as expressed in the research questions. The first section reviews the 	literature related to the theoretical basis of the study.  The next section 	examines the debate between those who believe in the globalization of public 	relations practices and those who believe that a localized approach is more 	appropriate.  	Theoretical Perspective 	 	  	 	In searching for an appropriate theoretical perspective 	upon which to base this study, the researcher determined that Grunig & 	Hunt’s (1984) four models of communication is the most appropriate.    	Heibert (1992) asserted that the only theory that describes reality now is 	the pragmatic theory.  The "who says what to whom with what effect" model 	that started with Harold Lasswell in the 1940s is a simple model compared to 	today’s communication models, which are more sophisticated.  However, 	according to Heibert (1992), communication is not successful unless the 	message is effective.  Today’s communication models, though still calling 	for a circular process starting from a source through a medium to a 	receiver, include feedback as essential for the success of the communication 	process.  Heibert further provided support for pragmatic communication 	theory by quoting public relations practitioners stating that public 	relations is a "two-way street", or a "two-way symmetric" process. 	 	Grunig and Hunt (1984) identified four typica1 models of 	public relations practice in North America. These models are press agentry, 	public information, two-way asymmetrical, and two-way symmetrical. Press 	agentry and public information are one-way models. They form a continuum of 	craft public relations, which ranges from propaganda (press agentry) on one 	end to journalism (public information) on the other. The two-way models make 	up a continuum of professional public relations, which ranges from 	persuasion on one end (two-way asymmetrical) to conflict management (two-way 	symmetrical) on the other. 	 	Craft public relations                          	Professional public relations 	 	Press agentry (propaganda)                 two-way 	asymmetrical (persuasion) 	 	Public information (journalism)          two-way 	symmetrical (conflict management) 	 	Press agentry and public information are not based on 	research and strategic planning. 	The press 	agentry model can be summarized as public relations programs aimed to get 	favorable publicity for an organization in the mass media, such as in 	publicity for sports, movie stars, products, politicians or even managers.  	The public information model is the dissemination of information through the 	mass media and controlled media such as newsletters, brochures and direct 	mail. 	 	The other two models are more professional, sophisticated 	and effective. The two-way asymmetrical model uses social science research 	to identify attitudes and to develop messages that appeal to those 	attitudes.  This model works when there is no conflict between the 	organization and the public.  When conflict arises, the two-way symmetrical 	model appears to be the most efficient model, because it assumes that both 	the organization and practitioner may change their behavior as a result of a 	communication program.  Grunig and Hunt’s research shows that the 	professional continuum, with emphasis on the symmetrical model, is the most 	effective practice for organizational public relations. 	 	It should be noted that in addition to these four models, 	another model was found in some countries that was not used in the United 	States.  Public relations firms operate on behalf of international clients 	in the United States by the personal influence model.  It is formed from 	former government officials who use their personal contacts to solicit good 	connections for the company.  Some of the disadvantages of this model are 	the unethical practices that are connected with manipulating personal 	contacts (Botan, 1992).  This model will not be considered in this study. 	Globalization versus 	Localization 	  	 	The Grunig and Hunt (1984) models appear to represent 	Northern American public relations.  These models have proven to be a 	realistic approach to study the practice of public relations.  They are also 	used and applied by researchers who study international public relations.  	Reagan, Summer and Hill (1992) tested the models in the state of Washington 	in the United States.  Ekachai and Komolsevin (1996) researched public 	relations in Thailand in relation to these models.  Grunig et al. (1995) 	used these models to study public relations in India, Greece and Taiwan.  	 	 	Vercic, Grunig, and Grunig (1996) argued that a normative 	model of global public relations could be relevant to not only Western 	cultures but also too non-Western cultures.  Some other public relations 	scholars suggested, however, that public relations should be culturally 	relevant (Banks, 1995; Botan, 1992; Epley, 1992; Reed, 1989). In the 	following sections, viewpoints advocating a global perspective versus a 	local perspective of public relations practice will be examined. 	 Advocates 	for Globalization 	  	 	Proponents of globalization believed in the ability to 	create a "global village". According to a 1985 study, most U.S. companies 	are either doing business in a foreign market or are examining the 	possibility of establishing a presence in a location outside the United 	States.  Similarly, a survey of Chief Executive Officers revealed that 	global competition and globalization of operations were the greatest 	challenges facing firms in the 1990s (Fitzpatrick & Whillock, 1993).  Murphy 	(1996) stated that telecommunications are the major supporting factor in 	paving the way for globalization by building the global information 	infrastructure. 	 	In the area of public relations, Hiebert (1992) deemed 	old communication theories based on political ideologies “ridiculous” after 	the fall of the Soviet Union and advocated a global theory.   Hiebert 	believed that because of new communication technologies the public could not 	be forced to one point of view.  As noted previously, Hiebert believed in a 	pragmatic theory.  Unfortunately, Hiebert did not take a strong stand in 	supporting his theory.  This uncertainty led to the notion that this might 	be more a personal opinion more than an idea based on scholarly research 	(Bender & Druckrey, 1994). 	 	For decades, the U.S. dominated the practice of public 	relations.  However, Hirsch (1992) described how Turow and Carveth mapped 	out the change in institutional and economic environments since the 	explosion of domestic and international media acquisitions in the late 	1980s.  Major changes in the goals and strategies of the largest media 	corporations were made.  The first change was to define the audience more 	globally than locally.  Second, corporations sought projects with more 	public relations potential, for example, contracting with book authors for 	possible movies and a sound track.  	 	Carveth traced the decline of American media's dominance 	through the lens of economics and business strategy.  The Australian 	publisher Rupert Murdoch dominated newspapers and television.  Polygram from 	Holland and Sony from Japan became two of the three largest American rock 	music-recording companies. 	 	Not only were other countries becoming involved in public 	relations to a greater degree, but also it appeared that principles of the 	practice of public relations were the same worldwide despite 	country-by-country differences in public relations focus.  Based on his 	personal travels to South America, Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and 	North America, Sharpe (1992) concluded that conflict shapes the face of 	public relations differently country by country, even though the principles 	as to what public relations is and can do remain the same worldwide.  Sharpe 	observed, "public relations can be practiced in a wide variety of cultures, 	not only in an American type of democracy" (p.103).  His strongest case was 	Nigeria, where he found that though Nigeria is very different from the 	United States, public relations practice was one of the most impressive.  	However, it must be noted that the British colonial background of Nigeria 	and the democracy that exists there is similar to American democracy.  Thus, 	the conclusion that public relations can be practiced the same worldwide 	based on Sharpe’s observations of Nigeria may be an erroneous one. 	 	 	A common characteristic of research on public relations 	and globalization is the dominance of qualitative research.  Another 	characteristic is the various perspectives of globalization.  Several 	researchers focused on public relations roles.  Wilson (1990) focused on 	issue management, noting that there are universal images and reputations 	that destroy an organization no matter where the company is located in the 	world.  Wilson asserted that the nature of the international operations and 	public relations efforts of multinational corporations made it too expensive 	for such organizations to be only concerned with local or national image 	within the U.S. or only the economically developed Western nations.  	According to Wilson,  “A multinational chemical company must be concerned 	with issues of pollution in all locales of operation and on a global level, 	not just from the perspective of dealing with political activists near its 	U.S. headquarters or using headquarters personnel to implement issues 	management in locations around the world" (p.50). 	 	D'Jaen (1998) was concerned with factors that help 	companies establish a strong corporate reputation and found that these 	factors are consistent across international borders.  As an illustration of 	the global nature of corporate reputations, she described a trip to Vietnam, 	where she noticed an old episode of the U.S. Oprah Winfrey television show 	being broadcast that featured a fast food chain controversy that had been 	resolved a year ago.  However, in Asia it was new information that was as 	damaging to the company's reputation as it had been in the U.S. a year 	before.      	 	Roth et al. (1996) examined the existence of ethical 	values that are shared all over the world during their search for a 	universal code of ethics for the practice of international public 	relations.  The researchers argued that while not all public relations 	practitioners may agree to a specific code of ethics there might be 	agreement to a set of principles that contain enough ambiguity to allow for 	differing interpretations and practices.  Hunt and Tirpok proposed "to put 	forth a general code and let its interpretation and use suggest further 	refinements that will help adopt it to the nuances of the global 	community".  Kruckeberg (1996) observed that "cultural relativism is not 	problematic for a universal ethics code" and that "globally . . . there is a 	plentitude of shared ethical values, and those which are within differing 	areas of moral taste can be discussed, universally accepted or negotiated” 	(p. 182).  	 	Gruban (1995) believed in the existence of generic 	principles in public relations that have been proven global and are 	therefore applicable to most cultures and political systems.  If these 	principles were employed with caution, he added, they could facilitate the 	transformation of political systems and social culture.  As noted 	previously, Sharpe (1992) contended public relations principles and roles 	are the same worldwide and, therefore, public relations can be globalized. 	 	Three major themes regarding the globalization 	perspective of public relations emerge in the literature.  First, the 	research purports that certain public relations principles are the same all 	over the world, particularly since the fall of the former Soviet Union 	(Hiebert, 1992).  Second, ethical values that organize the practice of 	public relations are shared even in different cultures (Hunt & Tirpok, 	Kruckeberg, 1996; Roth et al., 1996).  Third, globalization advocates agree 	that the world is heading towards becoming a “global village”.  Corporations 	are implementing issue management that is globally accepted and not just 	related to their national identity (Hirsh 1992; Wilson, 1990). 	 	There are, however, a number of researchers who are 	convinced that globalization in public relations can never succeed due to 	cultural differences and beliefs, not just with the West and the rest of the 	world but within countries (Banks, 1995; Botan, 1992; Taylor & Kent, 1999; 	Waisbord, 1998).   These proponents of localization believe that public 	relations should reflect cultural practices.  In the next section, the 	viewpoints of advocates of localization are discussed.  	Advocates for 	Localization 	 	  	 	Taylor and Kent (1999) found that many of the assumptions 	that guide Western theories of public relations and public relations 	practices are not applicable in other regions of the world.  Based on their 	case study on the practice of public relations in Malaysia, they found the 	Western assumption that the practice of public relations targets a variety 	of organizational publics was not true because in many developing nations 	government officials are more important than the general public in making 	public relations more effective.  Taylor and Kent (1999) maintained that to 	create theories and practices that can be followed on an international 	level, scholars should examine how theories developed.  For instance, 	American public relations theories have their roots in democracy and 	capitalism (Pearson, 1990).   European theories started with the social 	critic Max Weber (Nessmann, 1995). In Asia, eastern theology and hierarchic 	relationships formed public relations. 	 	Taylor (2000) conducted a case study of the reaction 	towards the Coca-Cola scare in Europe when children became ill from drinking 	Coca-Cola.  She found that national culture affects the behavior of the 	public toward threat and that countries with close cultures reacted in the 	same manner to the threat. Waisbord (1998) analyzed national and regional 	cultures in Latin America and concluded that, "the existence of a globally 	mediated public sphere is not synonymous with shared concerns, cultures, and 	identities.  While technology lessens distance and fuels new consciousness, 	identity-shaping entails a more complex process by which mass populations 	are mobilized and integrated and identities are created and maintained" (p. 	396). 	            	During fieldwork in Kuwait and the Gulf area, Wheeler (1998) discovered that 	"local cultural frameworks play an important and underrecognized role in the 	kinds of practices that are enabled by networked communications and 	adaptations to the global economy" (p. 360).  Wheeler noted that the big 	difference between the West and the rest of the world is that the West 	monopolizes technology.  He posed the question, What about the countries 	that do not have satellites or complete free Internet without censorship.  	Western culture is rejected as imperialistic morally bankrupt and harmful to 	local identity.”  (p. 361).     	 	Sriramesh (1992) hypothesized that public relations 	variable that are currently known may not explain Indian public relations 	practice and thus emphasized the use of the ethnographic research 	methodology.  Though it has been over a decade since this research was 	conducted, Sriramesh’s findings are still relevant today for two reasons.  	First, because very little information was available regarding public 	relations in India, this research paved the way for further studies.  	Second, the finding on how societal culture affected public relations was 	well elaborated. 	 	Dwek (1995) found that European public relations style is 	different from the United States style. European public relations style does 	not have a universal approach to conducting press conferences.  Their press 	conferences take longer time than U.S. conferences because they demand more 	details and information to make their decisions.  Because of their lack of a 	universal language, European countries must print their press material in 	the national language and its local dialects. 	            	After a multi-year project of comparing approaches to public relations from 	around the world, Botan (1992) concluded that an international public 	relations is also intercultural public relations.  Botan discussed the need 	to understand the assumptions that shape public relations through the 	world.  Botan, citing Sattler (1981) noted that public relations in the U.S. 	originated from the media, especially journalism.  He also noted that while 	many African countries, for example, also trace their public relations 	practice to journalism and the media, their practices are not similar to 	those of the U.S.  Thus, Botan advocated localized rather than globalized 	public relations.         	            	After consulting with 30 senior practitioners in international public 	relations, Epley (1992) concluded, "no matter how small the globe shrinks, 	it is still made up of many tiny segments each with its own unique culture, 	language, politics, and idiosyncrasies.  Global public relations are local 	public relations" (p. 112).   Epley’s study is relatively old and one has to 	be cautious in generalizing about such a small sample.  However, the 	findings have been cited in many newer studies and have applicability. 	 	As with research supporting globalization, 	research-supporting localization is also characterized by qualitative 	approaches.  Another characteristic of the localization approach is that it 	is more current.  Today’s public relations researchers are less interested 	in international public relations than they were in 1992 (Hiebert, 1992).  	 	 	In addition to being more current, localization research 	seems more focused and more integrated.  As evidenced in this review, a 	number of researchers have focused on cultural differences and case studies 	done all over the world, with two themes emerging.  The first is the 	tendency towards localization.  Clancy (2000) conducted qualitative 	interviews with senior executives, in which one executive, a vice president 	of a national e-commerce services company, stated, “localization is a large 	issue" (p. 28).  Another executive of another multimillion international 	e-commerce American company told Clancy that the company was receiving many 	orders from Japan.  As a result, the company had to launch a localized 	version of its website because of cultural differences between the American 	and Japanese credit card purchases over the Internet. The executive noted, 	"While many U.S. consumers are comfortable using credit cards, this is not 	the case in Japan" (p. 28). Although Clancy's findings cannot be generalized 	because of the small sample of interviewees, they can be considered a good 	starting point for research on international marketing and consumers’ 	purchasing habits.  	 	As discussed previously, Dwek (1995) found differences in 	the practice of public relations even within similar cultures such as the 	United States and Europe. Taylor’s (2000) case study concluded that national 	cultures affect the behavior of the public to threats.  The existence of a 	globally mediated public sphere does not mean shared concerns, according to 	Waisbord (1998).  Botan (1992) observed that the uneven growth between 	nations is an obstacle in the way of globalizing the practice of public 	relations, further, even in countries where public relations had the same 	origin; different practices were detected (Botan, 1992). 	Conclusion 	  	 	In reviewing the literature on the practice of public 	relations in undeveloped countries that are similar to Lebanon in culture 	and economy, it appears public relations is practiced in these countries 	based on the press agentry and public information models rather than the 	two-way models.  The literature shows a lack of focus on the elements 	necessary to create a global practice for public relations, such as same 	language, same culture, same economic structure, or same religion. For 	example, clear answers to the questions Can public relations can be 	practiced the same way in Western countries with democratic capitalist 	regimes.  Moreover, can public relations be practiced the same way in 	all countries that live by the Islamic religion?  Remain unanswered.  	 	In 	Chapter three the details of the study's methodology will be presented.  An 	explanation of the settings and participants, the test instrument, and 	method of data collection will be included. 	 	  CHAPTER THREE: 	METHODOLOGY 	  	Introduction 	  	 	Previous chapters introduced the problem and purpose and 	reviewed the literature pertinent to models of public relations practices 	and the globalization versus localization of public relations practices 	debate.  The purpose of this chapter is to present and discuss the research 	methodology that was used to achieve the study’s objectives. The first 	section presents the research approach.  Subsequent sections explain the 	sample population, data collection procedures, and method of data analysis. 	 	Research Approach 	  	 	Researchers, in designing and preparing 	their investigations can use both quantitative and qualitative methods to 	carry out their respective studies. Qualitative research is primarily 	concerned with collecting and analyzing information (Leedy, 1997). It tends 	to focus on finding and exploring as many details as possible. As explained 	by Blaxter, Huges, and Tight (1996) and Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998), the 	objective of qualitative research is to achieve depth rather than breadth. 	Quantitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with the collection 	and analysis of data in numeric form. This type of empirical methodology 	tends to emphasize relatively large-scale data collection to examine or 	prove social reality by employing statistical analysis (Rea & Parker, 1997). 	 	 	According to Bogdan and Biklen (1992), 	Eisner (1991) and Merriam (1988), qualitative researchers study things in 	their natural settings, where the researcher is a key instrument in data 	collection. Data is collected as words or pictures and the outcome is 	generated as a process rather than a product.  Data should be analyzed 	inductively with attention to particulars.  In addition, qualitative 	research focuses on the participants’ perspectives and their meaning.  In 	other words, a key difference between qualitative and quantitative methods 	is that quantitative researchers work with few variables and many cases, 	whereas qualitative researchers rely on a few cases and many variables 	(Ragin, 1987). 	            	The goal of this study was to create a comprehensive image of how public 	relations is practiced in Lebanon by analyzing in-depth why public relations 	are practiced the way they are in Lebanon.  Therefore, a triangulated 	approach using both quantitative and qualitative research methods was used. 	Triangulated methods helped test and ensure research reliability and 	validity (Kirk & Miller, 1986). 	  	Sample Population 	  	 	The sample population for this study consisted of 	Lebanese public relations practitioners working in local public relations 	firms, departments, or as consultants.  Both 	samples for the written questionnaire and the interviews were selected 	randomly and differed from each other.  The rationale of simple random 	sampling was that using random samples rather than convenience or 	availability samples allows researchers to gather information from a variety 	of participants rather than from those who may share similar attitudes, 	opinions and lifestyles.  In addition, most procedures used to ensure 	external validity relate to sample selection (Wimmer & Dominick, 1997).  	 	 	To obtain the sample, the researcher first contacted the 	Labor Ministry in Lebanon and the Chamber of Commerce and asked for a list 	of PR, advertising, or marketing companies, but this was unsuccessful.  	However, the researcher was directed to a website (mbnetwork.net) that had 	an extensive list of companies in all categories.  These companies were 	contacted and participants were selected based on the IRB recommendations. 	 	  Quantitative Data 	Collection and Analysis 	Instrumentation 	  	 	In order to collect information pertinent to the purpose 	and objectives of the study, a structured questionnaire (see Appendix A) was 	used to gather quantitative data about participants’ practice of a 	particular model of public relations and the number of models practiced. One 	hundred public relations practitioners were invited to complete a 	questionnaire that was mailed to them by regular mail. 	 	The questionnaire consisted of 16 statements based on the 	Lyra and Huang model presented by Grunig et al. (1995), in which the model 	was used to measure the practice of public relations in Greece and Taiwan 	(see Appendix A?).  Each Grunig model was given four statements.  The 	statements addressed the purpose of public relations, public relation 	activities, perceptions of management toward public relations objectives, 	and audience research activities. 	            	The statements were developed using a Likert scaling technique.  According 	to Wimmer and Dominick (1997), the Likert scale is one of the most commonly 	used in mass media research.  The questionnaire asked participants to rank, 	on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = strongly disagree, 5= strongly agree) their degree 	of agreement with the statements.      	 	The 16 questions were divided into four categories.  Each 	category represented one model of the four Grunig models.  Questions 3, 5, 	11, and 13 represented the press agentry model. Questions 1, 8, 10, and 14 	represented the public information model.  Questions 2, 7, 12, and 16 	represented the two way-asymmetrical model.  Questions 4, 6, 9, and 15 	represented the two-way symmetrical model. 	Data Collection 	 	The questionnaire was mailed in July 2002, to 100 public 	relation practitioners working in local public relations firms, departments, 	or as consultants in Lebanon.  One month later, a reminder letter was sent 	along with a second questionnaire to be completed if prospective 	participants had not already done so.  The responses were returned by 	regular mail to the researcher in the United States in postage-paid 	envelopes.  Twenty-five surveys were returned, providing a 25 percent 	response rate.  ***Move this last sentence to results.*** 	 	Quantitative 	Data 	Analysis 	 	Point scores from the 16 statements in the four 	categories—the press agentry model, the public information model, the two 	way-asymmetrical model, and the two-way symmetrical model—were averaged to 	provide a numerical index.  Statement score averages were measured in two 	ways:  arithmetic mean and percentage frequency distribution.  The 	arithmetic mean shows the central tendency of the level of agreement within 	each statement (Blaxter et al., 1996).  This information was contrasted with 	a percentage frequency distribution to show a curve of congruity, or lack 	of, in a particular statement’s response results. 	 	The point scores from the questionnaire (see Appendix A) 	were designed to indicate trends.  For example, if the majority of the 	responses indicated strong agreement for question 3, “We determine how 	successful a program is from the number of people who attend the event or 	use products and services,”  question 5, “In public relations, we mostly 	attempt to get favorable publicity into the media and to keep unfavorable 	publicity out, question 11, “For this organization, public relations and 	publicity mean essentially the same thing,” and question 13, “The purpose of 	public relations is quite simply to get publicity for the organization,” it 	could be concluded that public relations in Lebanon is practiced according 	to the press agentry model.  Or, if the majority of the responses indicated 	that every model was practiced in Lebanon, the researcher could conclude 	that public relations in Lebanon is practiced the same way as it is 	practiced in Western culture and thus can be globalized. After the 	questionnaire data were collected and analyzed, interviews based on themes, 	significant trends, and issues that emerged from the questionnaire responses 	were conducted.  	 	Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis 	 	Instrumentation 	 	Qualitative data were obtained through interviews of 	participants to gain a better understanding of why certain public relations 	models were used and how they were used. Qualitative data were obtained 	through interviews of participants to gain a better understanding of why 	certain public relations models were used and how they were used. 	Approximately 50 practitioners were asked by phone or email to voluntarily 	participate in the interviews.  The interview questions (see Appendix D) 	numbered 10 and were all open ended.  The first set of questions began with 	nonthreatening questions, such as "How did you become interested in public 	relations?" to create an atmosphere of trust.  The second set focused on 	general questions about the organization; for example, "Would you define 	public relations from your personal every day practice?" The purpose was to 	create a picture of public relations practice in Lebanon and to compare 	these findings to the Grunig models.  The third set of questions were 	probing questions concerning the relationship between the public relations 	practitioners and the media, whether PR professionals believed public 	relations can be practiced the same way all over the world, and why. For 	example, participants were asked, "Can public relations be practiced the 	same way all over the world?  The following section describes the data 	collection procedures for the interviews. 	Data 	Collection 	 	Approximately 50 practitioners were asked by phone or 	email to voluntarily participate in the interviews. Practitioners at 	Lebanese public relations firms were asked by phone or email to voluntarily 	participate in the interviews.  Participants were asked to sign a statement 	of informed consent return it to the researcher.  All participants were 	promised a copy of the study after it was completed and approved.  	 	 	Those who agreed to participate were interviewed by 	phone.  The interviews lasted from 15 minutes to one hour, with an average 	of a half hour for each interview.  Ten practitioners were interviewed.  	Each interview started with a general description of the study.  	Interviewees were assured that there were no right or wrong answers to the 	questions.  It was explained to all participants that the goal of the 	interview was for the researcher to establish an accurate presentation of 	how the participants practice public relations and their philosophy of how 	it should be practiced. 	 	As the interviews proceeded, more probing questions were 	asked.  For example, when a participant indicated that the two-way 	symmetrical model was used in the practice of public relations, more 	questions relating to that statement were asked, since, according to Grunig 	and Hunt (1984), that model is considered the highest professional model in 	the practice of public relations.  Questions about the use of research or 	audience feedback as a public relation tools were also addressed.  After the 	interview was completed, any participant concerns were addressed and further 	questions were allowed. 	 	When all the data have been collected, 	the researcher will use statistics to analyse all the data. 	 	The 	statistical formulae to be used in the survey questionnaire will be the 	following: 	 	 	1.        	Percentage – to determine the magnitude of the 	responses to the questionnaire. 	 	            n 	 	% = -------- x 100         	;           n – number of responses 	 	            	N                                 N – total number of respondents 	 	  	 	  	 	  	 	2.        	Weighted Mean 	  	 	            f1x1 	+ f2x2  + f3x3 + f4x4 	 + f5x5 	 	x = 	---------------------------------------------  ; 	 	                        xt 	 	  	 	where:             f – weight 	given to each response 	 	                        x – 	number of responses 	 	            xt – total 	number of responses 	 	  	Data Analysis 	  	 	The interview findings were analyzed using a thematic 	analysis approach.  According to Aronson (1994), thematic analysis is used 	to analyze data gathered from interviews.  It is based on identifiable 	themes and patterns of life and/or behavior.  This approach was determined 	to be appropriate for this research because Grunig’s four models of public 	relations were used as bases for classifying the themes.  After collecting 	the interview data, certain patterns were set and all data relating to the 	patterns were collected together.  The data were then combined and the 	related patterns were catalogued into sub-themes or units.  The author of 	this thesis was the sole analyst of the interview data. 	 	Name of the interviewee, the company, and the date of the 	interview coded the interview data.  The data were then organized into a 	preliminary category system.  The categories were derived from Grunig and 	Hunt’s four models of public relations.  The constant comparative technique 	was used.  After the data were prepared for analysis, each unit of analysis 	was grouped into the appropriate models.  As each unit was examined, it was 	compared to other units previously assigned to that category to determine if 	they fit together.  Some categories had only one or no incidents assigned to 	them while others had larger numbers.  If some units did not fit any model, 	new categories were created.  The next step was to search for relationships 	and common patterns across the categories and thus generate assertions that 	can explain and clarify the practice of public relations in Lebanon. 	  	Summary 	  	 	This chapter described the research design and 	methodology of the study to achieve its objectives and answer the key 	questions of the study posed in the first chapter.  To best meet the goals 	of the study, a triangulated approach that incorporated both quantitative 	and qualitative research methods was used.  Quantitative data were gathered 	from the administration of a survey questionnaire.  Qualitative data were 	gathered through telephone interviews of participants.  The next chapter 	analyzes and discusses the findings of the study. A discussion of responses 	will be provided and results noted. 	 	                                    	 	  CHAPTER FOUR: 	RESULTS OF THE STUDY 	  	Introduction 	 	  	 	The purpose of this chapter is to present and analyze the 	data collected through administration of a questionnaire to determine 	whether public relations can be practiced the same all over the world by 	examining how public relations is practiced in Lebanon.  Analyzing the 	questionnaires and interview results from the sample of study participants 	derived the answers to the following research questions: 	 	RQ1:  To what extent does public relations in Lebanon 	reflect globalization or localization? 	 	RQ2:  How is media relations practiced in Lebanon? 	 	RQ3:  What model of communication exists in Lebanon? 	Quantitative Results 	  	 	A total of 25 questionnaires were completed and 	returned.  The questionnaire consisted of 16 statements that asked 	participants to rank, on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = strongly disagree, 5= 	strongly agree) their degree of agreement with the statements. Due to the 	limited number of survey participants, the questionnaire results did not 	provide statistical significance. 	 	The average scores for all questions ranged from a high 	score of 3.79 to a low score of 3.05.  As indicated in Figure 1, the two-way 	symmetric model (Questions 4, 6, 9, and 15) was the most practiced in 	Lebanon, followed by the two-way asymmetric (Questions 2, 7, 12, and 16), 	press agentry (Questions 3, 5, 11, and 13), and the public information model 	(Questions 1, 8, 10, and 14). 	 	   	Figure 1 	Average 	Survey Statements Scores by Individual Grunig Models 	  	 	            	The two-way symmetric model had the highest average score of 3.79.  This 	model was ranked number one in use and was most favored among public 	relations practitioners in Lebanon.  Average scores for statements relating 	to this model ranged from a high of 4.20 to a low 3.44. The highest score 	was for question 4, “The purpose of public relations is to develop mutual 	understanding between the management of the organization and the publics the 	organization affects.”   The lowest score 3.44 was for question 15, “The 	purpose of public relations is to change attitudes and behavior of 	management as much as it is to change the attitudes and behaviors of 	publics.”  The two-way symmetrical models’ average score results are shown 	in Table 1. 	 	   	Table 1 	Practice 	of the Two-Way Symmetrical Model 	  	 		 			 			 			Statement                                                       			 			 			 			Average score 		 		 			 			  			4. The purpose of public 			relations is to develop mutual understanding between the management 			of the organization and the publics the organization affects. 			  			 			  			  			  			  			  			4.20 		 		 			 			  			6. This organization 			believes public relations should provide mediation for the 			organization to help management and publics negotiate conflicts. 			  			 			  			  			  			  			  			3.96 		 		 			 			  			9. Before starting a new 			program, we do surveys or informal research to find out how much 			management and our publics understand each other. 			  			 			  			  			  			  			3.56 		 		 			 			  			15. The purpose of public 			relations is to change attitudes and behavior of management as much 			as it is to change the attitudes and behaviors of publics. 			  			 			  			  			  			  			3.44 		 		 			 			Average Model Score 			 			3.79 		 	 	  	 	The second highest average score was for the two-way 	asymmetrical model.  The average score for this model, shown in Table 2, was 	3.45.  Question 7, “Before beginning a program, we do research to determine 	public attitudes toward the organization and how they might change” had the 	highest average score (3.52), as did question 12, “Before starting a public 	relations program we look at attitude surveys to make sure we describe the 	organization in ways our publics would most likely accept.”  The lowest 	average score (3.32) was for question 2, “In public relations, our broad 	goal is to persuade publics to behave as the organization wants them to 	behave.” 	 	  	Table 2 	Practice 	of the Two-Way Asymmetrical Model 	  	 		 			 			Statement 			 			Average Score 		 		 			 			  			2. In public relations, our 			broad goal is to persuade publics to behave as the organization 			wants them to behave. 			  			 			  			  			  			3.32 		 		 			 			  			7. Before beginning a 			program, we do research to determine public attitudes toward the 			organization and how they might change. 			  			 			  			  			  			3.52 		 		 			 			  			12. Before starting a public 			relations program, we look at attitude surveys to make sure we 			describe the organization in ways our publics would most likely 			accept. 			  			 			  			  			  			  			3.52 		 		 			 			  			16. After completing a 			public relations program, we do research to determine how effective 			the program has been in changing people’s attitudes. 			  			 			  			  			  			  			3.44 		 		 			 			Average Model Score 			 			3.45 		 	 	  	 	   	  	            	Surprisingly, the press agentry model ranked number three; with an average 	score of 3.19 (see Table 3).  The highest score was 3.92 for question 5, “In 	public relations we mostly attempt to get favorable publicity into the media 	and to keep unfavorable publicity out.”   Question 11, “For this 	organization, public relations and publicity mean essentially the same 	thing,” had the lowest score (2.36).          	  	Table 3 	  	Practice 	of the Public Information Model 	  	 		 			 			Statement 			 			Average Score 		 		 			 			  			1. In public relations, we 			disseminate accurate information but we do not volunteer unfavorable 			information. 			  			 			  			  			  			3.08 		 		 			 			  			8. In this organization, 			public relations is more of a neutral disseminator of information 			than an advocate for the organization or a mediator between the 			management and publics. 			  			 			  			  			  			  			3.56 		 		 			 			  			10. Keeping a clipping file 			is about the only way we have to determine the success of a program. 			  			 			  			  			3.16 		 		 			 			  			14. In public relations, 			nearly everyone is so busy writing news stories or producing 			publication that there is no time to do research. 			  			 			  			  			  			2.40 		 		 			 			Average Model Score 			 			3.05 		 	 	  	 	The public information model, which was anticipated to 	rank higher than the press agentry model, received the lowest ranking (3.09) 	and was the least favored or used model.  The average scores ranged from 	3.56 for question 8, “In this organization, public relations is more of a 	neutral disseminator of information than an advocate for the organization or 	a mediator between the management and publics” to 2.4 for question 14, “In 	public relations, nearly everyone is so busy writing news stories or 	producing publication that there is no time to do research” (see Table 4). 	 	  	Table 4 	Practice 	of the Press Agentry Model 	 	  	 		 			 			 			Statement                                                       			 			 			Average score 		 		 			 			  			3. We determine how 			successful a program is from the number of people who attend the 			event or use products and services. 			  			 			  			  			  			3.52 		 		 			 			  			5. In public relations, we 			mostly attempt to get favorable publicity into the media and to keep 			unfavorable publicity out. 			  			 			  			  			  			3.92 		 		 			 			  			11. For this organization, 			public relations and publicity mean essentially the same thing. 			  			 			  			  			2.36 		 		 			 			  			13. The purpose of public 			relations is quite simply to get publicity for the organization. 			  			 			  			  			2.96 		 		 			 			Average Model Score 			 			3.19 		 	 	 	  	            	Though the two-way symmetric model received the highest average score 	(3.79), the results showed a distinct interest in certain aspects of the 	remaining models (see Table 5).  Certain statements in the two-way 	asymmetric, public information, and press agentry models received high 	scores as well.  In the two-way asymmetrical model, the statements “Before 	beginning a program, we do research to determine public attitudes toward the 	organization and how they might change” and  “Before starting a public 	relations program, we look at attitude surveys to make sure we describe the 	organization in ways our publics would most likely accept” received high 	scores (3.52).  The same is true with the press agentry model.  The 	statement “In public relations, we mostly attempt to get favorable publicity 	into the media and to keep unfavorable publicity out” received a score of 	3.92. For the public information model, the statement “In this organization, 	public relations are more of a neutral disseminator of information than an 	advocate for the organization or a mediator between the management and 	publics” scored 3.56. 	 	   	Table 5 	Ranking of 	Top Five Survey Statements 	  	 		 			 			 			Statement                                                       			 			 			Average score 		 		 			 			Two-way Symmetrical 			 4. The purpose of public 			relations is to develop mutual understanding between the management 			of the organization and the publics the organization affects. 			 			  			  			  			  			4.20 			  		 		 			 			Press Agentry 			5. In public relations, we 			mostly attempt to get favorable publicity into the media and to keep 			unfavorable publicity out. 			  			 			  			  			  			3.92 		 		 			 			Public Information 			8. In this organization, 			public relations are more of a neutral disseminator of information 			than an advocate for the organization or a mediator between the 			management and publics. 			  			 			  			  			  			  			3.56 		 		 			 			Two-way Asymmetrical 			7. Before beginning a 			program, we do research to determine public attitudes toward the 			organization and how they might change. 			12. Before starting a public 			relations program, we look at attitude surveys to make sure we 			describe the organization in ways our publics would most likely 			accept. 			  			 			  			  			  			3.52 			  			  			  			3.52 		 	 	  	  	 	Qualitative Results 	 	The set of questionnaire that the author has been used as 	a tool for gathering data comprised of underlying implications respective to 	the existing models used on public relations. In the context of the study, 	those used include the two-way symmetrical, press agentry, public 	information and the two-way asymmetrical models. The questions used to gauge 	the responses of the respondents regarding their position and preference on 	certain models is summarized in the table above. Table five provides a 	visual digest of the respondents’ top five responses. The highest rated 	entry is the fourth inquiry in regarding the development of reciprocated 	understanding between the top level management of the organization and the 	public that it directly influences. The entry garnered an average score of 	4.2 from the respondents. The question reflects a two-way symmetrical model. 	The second highest entry is the question that suggests a major influence of 	the press agentry model. The entry indicated the preference of acquisition 	of positive publicity and to maintain unfavorable publicity in an arms 	length. The entry obtained an average score of 3.92. On the other hand, the 	entry on the Public Information model placed third on the top five responses 	of the population. According to the entry, public relations in the context 	of the study, is more of an independent tool that provides information to 	the public unconstrained by the biases of the organization. And lastly, the 	two-way asymmetrical model placed two entries from the questionnaire. The 	last two earned a similar average score of 3.52 and insinuate a slightly 	similar virtue of looking into the trends of the attitudes and behavior of 	the public prior to the development of a program. 	  	Answers to Research Questions 	  	RQ1:  To 	what extent does public relations in Lebanon reflect globalization or 	localization? 	 	Both the quantitative and qualitative data collected 	showed consistent results.  Responses to questions about whether public 	relations can be globalized varied.  Some practitioners believed that public 	relations could be practiced the same way all over the world.  Others stated 	that this is not yet possible due to the cultural differences between 	nations.  However, an interesting theme emerged whereby some practitioners 	believed that globalization depended on the situation; that is, some issues 	can be globalized and others cannot.  For example, according to this group 	of practitioners, today’s communication technology allows the practice of 	public relations to be globalized, but cultural differences still prevent 	total globalization.  However, a number of respondents speculated that with 	the way the world is heading one day these cultural differences will be 	eliminated. 	 	  	RQ2:  	How is media relations practiced in Lebanon? 	 	The interviews also affirmed that in practicing public 	relations, a wide gap existed between what the client wants to do and can 	afford to do and between what the public relations practitioner wants to do, 	mainly because of monetary constraints.  While big organizations with huge 	budgets were the only organizations that implemented research before and 	after launching a public relations program, smaller organizations with lower 	budgets were cutting down on research after launching a program or even 	before beginning a program depending on how much research they could 	afford.  Thus, based on the responses, research was considered important, 	and the only obstacle was money. 	 	  	RQ3:  	What model of communication exists in Lebanon? 	 	  	 	The results of the survey questionnaire and the 	interviews indicated that the two-way symmetric model was the most 	predominant public relations model practiced in Lebanon.  However, the 	results showed a distinct interest in certain aspects of the remaining 	models and indicated that all four models of public relations were being 	practiced in Lebanon, though not to the same degree.  Accordingly, the null 	hypotheses, the practice of public relations in Lebanon fails to illustrate 	that public relations can be practiced the same way all over the world, is 	rejected and its alternative accepted.  	 	  	            	Chapter Summary 	  	 	The purpose of this chapter was to provide a presentation 	and analyze the data amassed through administration of a questionnaire to 	ascertain whether public relations can be practiced the same all over the 	world by examining how public relations is practiced in Lebanon. The 	discussion evolved around the five models indicated in the earlier parts of 	the study: the two-way symmetrical, press agentry, public information and 	the two-way asymmetrical models. The chapter also provided tables in order 	to provide a visual summary of the data that has been collected after it has 	been statistically treated. Moreover, these tables helped in providing 	clarity on addressing the problem statements stated in the first chapter of 	this study.     	CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION   Introduction The goal of this research was to explore how public relations in Lebanon were practiced in relation to Grunig’s four models of public relations.  The majority of the responses to the survey questionnaire and the interviews suggested that the two-way symmetrical model is the predominant model of public relations practice in Lebanon.  However, responses showed that more attention was given to changing the attitude of publics rather than changing the attitude of the organization’s management.  Though public relations in Lebanon is not practiced the same way as in the Western world, there are indications that the practice is heading this direction.  As Lebanon prepares to become part of the European Union, it appears that the profession of public relations will follow suit.  The applicable principles that emerged from this study are discussed below.  Public Relations Principles   Both the quantitative and qualitative data collected in this research indicated that Grunig and Hunt’s (1984) four models of public relations are being practiced in Lebanon as of early 2002.  Although the results were close, each measure reflected a certain aspect.  The quantitative measure reflected more of an ideal model, and the qualitative measure was more descriptive and explained the actual practice.  The quantitative data were objective, whereas the qualitative data were more subjective in showing that research was not always done by all organizations.  Companies with large budgets conducted a lot of research, whereas companies with smaller or no budgets were less research oriented.  These findings appear to be contradictory and reflect a problem that exists in Lebanon of conflicting forces in Lebanese business society between what businesspeople aspire to be and do and the reality of the business world.  However, the qualitative data clarified a measure that may be appeared to be contradictory.  Lebanese public relations practitioners and the business community in Lebanon understand the importance of research and science in today’s contemporary society, particularly as they prepare to become part of the European Union. This puts pressure on Lebanese businesses to compete with the rest of the advanced Western world.  At the same time, Lebanon is laboring under a huge burden of financial trouble left over from more than 20 years of civil wars that drove the country to the edge of bankruptcy.  Research is expensive, and many Lebanese organizations, unable to afford such expenses, are forced to sacrifice research despite its importance. Summary   This thesis fulfilled its goal by adding to the existing research and body of knowledge in public relations regarding whether public relations can be practiced the same all over the world.  The study provided additional evidence that the four models of public relations are being practiced in a culture that differs from the American culture, that of the Lebanese culture. This evidence is important to the field of public relations for two reasons.  First, research about public relations in Lebanon is scarce; this study shed some light on this profession in that part of the world.  Second, proving that Grunig’s four models of public relations are being practiced in Lebanon has significant meaning.  If a culture that is different from the Western culture is practicing public relations in the same way as the Western culture, this suggests that public relations could be practiced the same way all over the world to a certain extent and within certain limits.              Another significant finding from this research is the fact that the two-way symmetrical model is the most preferred model among practitioners in Lebanon.  However, as discussed previously, this model may not be the most implemented because of financial restrictions.   Nevertheless, Lebanese public relations practitioners and their clients both understand the importance and value of research.   This indicates that the practice is mature and in the right circumstances will evolve to a respectful stage.             Limitations   The lack of research on the practice of public relations in Lebanon hindered this study and required the author of this study to build from zero.  In addition, the researcher has been away from Lebanon for the last ten years and has little idea of what the practice of public relations looks like there. Another hindrance was the geographic remoteness of the participants.  The researcher resides in the United States while the participants reside in Beirut, Lebanon.  Therefore, the personal interviews that were intended to be face-to-face interviews became telephone interviews.  This disadvantage caused the researcher to lose the flexibility of the face-to-face interview and the ability to detect facial expressions and body language of the interviewees.  In addition, soliciting and recruiting interviewees over the phone was difficult.  Fewer were willing to participate and none were willing to sign the consent form.  Those who did participate did not sign the consent form.  There was also a limitation in the interpretation of the interviews.  The author of this thesis conducted all coding and analysis.  No professional help was provided.  Multiple coders and analyzers might have had different perceptions and might have detected different themes and patterns. Finally, the biggest limitation to the study was the “demand effect”, described by Grunig et al. (1995) as the tendency for respondents to answer the question the way they think it should be answered rather than give their true response.  Wimmer and Dominick (1997) defined this limitation as “the premise that participants’ awareness of the experimental condition may affect their performance in the experiment” (p. 474).  This might have been the case for the survey results.    Suggestions for Further Research   Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, the following suggestions for further research are made: 1.                  More research is needed on public relations practice in Lebanon and other countries that share relatively the same social and cultural characteristics so that there is more potential to generalize research beyond the results of this study.  It is necessary for further studies to be conducted so that the results can be compared and generalizations made.   2.                  Personal interviews, rather than telephone interviews, should be conducted with questionnaire participants to probe the true reason behind certain answers.  This method will also help eliminate or lessen the “demand effect”. 3.                  More research is needed about the clients of the public relations practitioners that participated in this study to collect more evidence on the truthfulness of the practitioners and to make sure that they understand their clients’ needs and aspirations. 4.                  In general, more international public relations research is needed.  Comparison between different cultures and the way they practice public relations is highly recommended.  Comparing the practices of public relations within similar cultures would also be greatly beneficial.   REFERENCES   Anderson, G.  (1989). 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For this organization, public relations and publicity mean essentially the same thing.     13. The purpose of public relations is quite simply to get publicity for the organization.       APPENDIX A (continued)   Public Information Model   1. In public relations, we disseminate accurate information but we do not volunteer unfavorable information.         8. In this organization, public relations are more of a neutral disseminator of information than an advocate for the organization or a mediator between the management and publics.       APPENDIX A (continued)     10. Keeping a clipping file is about the only way we have to determine the success of a program.     14. In public relations, nearly everyone is so busy writing news stories or producing publication that there is no time to do research.     APPENDIX A (continued)   Two-way Asymmetrical Model   2. In public relations, our broad goal is to persuade publics to behave as the organization wants them to behave.     7. Before beginning a program, we do research to determine public attitudes toward the organization and how they might change.         APPENDIX A (continued)   12. Before starting a public relations program, we look at attitude surveys to make sure we describe the organization in ways our publics would most likely accept.     16. After completing a public relations program, we do research to determine how effective the program has been in changing people's attitudes.       APPENDIX A (continued)     Two-way Symmetrical Model   4. The purpose of public relations is to develop mutual understanding between the management of the organization and the publics the organization affects.     6. This organization believes public relations should provide mediation for the organization, to help management and publics negotiate conflicts.         APPENDIX A (continued)   9. Before starting a new program, we do surveys or informal research to find out how much management and our publics understand each other.     15. The purpose of public relations is to change attitudes and behavior of management as much as it is to change the attitudes and behaviors of publics.      APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE COVER LETTER     Dear Public Relations Practitioner,   Hello, I am a graduate student from California State University, Fullerton Department of Communication.  I am conducting a study for my thesis in public relations.    Enclosed is a brief survey regarding the practice of public relations in Lebanon.  It will not take to fill it out more than few minutes of your time.  After you are done with it please mail it back to the address on the stamped envelope enclosed.   There is no write and wrong answers, just respond to the best of your knowledge. Your prompt respond is essential and your cooperation his highly appreciated in this matter.     Thank you     Sincerely      APPENDIX C: QUESTIONNAIRE     Survey Public Relations Practices   On a scale of 1 to 5, please rate the following statements by circling the number. Marking one indicates the lowest agreement and marking five indicates the highest level of agreement. Your answers should represent your personal practice of public relations in Lebanon.   1. In public relations, we disseminate accurate information but we do not volunteer unfavorable information.   1 2 3 4 5   2. In public relations, our broad goal is to persuade publics to behave as the organization wants them to behave.   1 2 3 4 5   3. We determine how successful a program is from the number of people who attend the event or use products and services.   1 2 3 4 5   4. The purpose of public relations is to develop mutual understanding between the management of the organization and the publics the organization affects.   1 2 3 4 5   5. In public relations we mostly attempt to get favorable publicity into the media and to keep unfavorable publicity out.   1 2 3 4 5   6. This organization believes public relations should provide mediation for the organization, to help management and publics negotiate conflicts.   1 2 3 4 5   7. Before beginning a program, we do research to determine public attitudes toward the organization and how they might change.   1 2 3 4 5     APPENDIX C (continued)     8. In this organization, public relations are more of a neutral disseminator of information than an advocate for the organization or a mediator between the management and publics.   1 2 3 4 5   9. Before starting a new program, we do surveys or informal research to find out how much management and our publics understand each other.   1 2 3 4 5   10. Keeping a clipping file is about the only way we have to determine the success of a program.   1 2 3 4 5   11. For this organization, public relations and publicity mean essentially the same thing.   1 2 3 4 5   12. Before starting a public relations program we look at attitude surveys to make sure we describe the organization in ways our publics would most likely accept.   1 2 3 4 5   13. The purpose of public relations is quite simply, to get publicity for the organization.   1 2 3 4 5   14. In public relations, nearly everyone is so busy writing news stories or producing publication that there is no time to do research.   1 2 3 4 5     15. The purpose of public relations is to change attitudes and behavior of management as much as it is to change the attitudes and behaviors of publics.   1 2 3 4 5   16. After completing a public relations program we do research to determine how effective the program has been in changing people's attitudes.   1 2 3 4 5        APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE     1.                  How did you become interested in public relations?   2.                  Can you define public relations?   3.                  Can you define public relations as seen by journalists?   4.                  Would you define public relations from your personal every day practice?   5.                  Do you think the way you practice public relations is the right way?  Or there has to be a better way.   6.                  Is research or audience feedback, being used as a public relation tool in your work?   7.                  Do you think culture has an effect on the practice of public relations based on your personal experience with the profession?   8.                  What are the barriers and challenges that face the profession in Lebanon?   9.                  Can public relations be practiced the same way all over the world?   10.              What is the emerging trend that is affecting the present practice of public relations in Lebanon and might be shaping the future practice?

A THESIS PAPER ON THE PRACTICE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS IN LEBANON

THE PRACTICE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS IN LEBANON _____________________________________________________________________________...