Research Korner: Health Report Samples

Obesity in America: The Growing Epidemic

A REPORT ON OBESITY IN AMERICA: THE GROWING EPIDEMIC       THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS   <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%">What are the current medical definitions of your medical entity? </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%">What is the prevalence of the medical entity in the states and counties represented by the members of your study group?   </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%">Has the prevalence of the medical entity in those states and counties changed over the last 50 years? </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%">What age groups (infants, children, teens, young adults, middle aged, or elderly) have shown the greatest increase in the medical entity in the last 10 years?   </li>   STATE AND COUNTY INFORMATION ALABAMA:   What are the current medical definitions of your medical entity?   The medical entity, obesity, is defined as any adult with a BMI above 30.  The BMI is calculated by dividing a person's weight in kilograms by his/her height in m^2.  It is thought to provide an indication of one's health concerning excess body fat (). What is the prevalence of the medical entity in the states and counties represented by the members of your study group?  In 2003, the Alabama Center for Health published a report using statistics from the Behavior Risk Factor Surveillance System, which estimated Alabama to have an obesity percentage of 24.5, ranking them in the top 7 states in the nation in obesity.  Furthermore, 37.2 percent were found to be overweight. This study also included individual county studies of obesity, which demonstrated that counties in the lower third of the state had the highest numbers of obese people.  An estimated 26.6 to 31.8 percent of people in these counties were found to be obese.  Most of northern Alabama, as well as Baldwin and Geneva counties in south Alabama, had a percentage of obesity from 21.8 to 23.0 percent (). According to a 2005 Behavior Risk Factor Surveillance System, 29 percent of adults in Alabama are obese. The percentage of overweight people is 36 percent (Alabama Department of Public Health). In a more recent report published in 2006 and distributed by "Trust for America's Health" in Washington D.C., Alabama was ranked 1st in the nation in obesity with an estimate 28.4% of the adult population being obese ().   Has the prevalence of your medical entity in those states and counties changed over the last 50 yrs? The prevalence of obesity over the past 50 years has changed dramatically.  Data collected from an article entitled "Obesity in America," a 20 year obesity statistical recording listed that from 1985 to 2005, Alabama's percentage of obese adults increased by almost 20 percent.  In 1986, the percentage of obese people in Alabama was less than 10 percent.  By 1998, the percentage increased to about 20 percent.  From 2001 to 2005, the percentage fluctuated at around 25 percent and in 2006; Alabama became the most obese state in the nation, with about 28.4 percent of the adult population being obese (). Income levels have a correlation with obesity, and can possibly be one of the main factors that one should use when considering the source of Alabama's obesity. In Alabama, the prevalence of obesity in groups with less than or equal to $15,000 was 30.9 percent. People with incomes around $75,000 were 20.8 percent obese. Education also had an impact, showing 26.3 percent obesity for adults with only a high school education. This contrasted the 18.5 percent of college graduates in Alabama that were obese ().   What age groups (infants, children, teens, young adults, middle aged or elderly) have shown the greatest increase in the medical entity in the last 10 years?   The numbers of overweight youth in Alabama are rising fast as well. Data from the 2005 Youth Risk Behavior Survey shows that among high school students, 15 percent are overweight and 18 percent are at risk for overweight ().   CALIFORNIA (SAN DIEGO COUNTY):   What are the current medical definitions of your medical entity?   For adults, obesity is defined as having a very high amount of body fat in relation to lean body mass, or Body Mass Index of 30 or higher.  BMI is a measure of an adult’s weight in relation to his or her height i.e. the adult’s weight in kilograms divided by the square of the individual’s height in meters.  For children and teens, BMI ranges above a normal weight have different labels (at risk of overweight and overweight). The BMI ranges for children and teens are defined so that they take into account normal differences in body fat between boys and girls and differences in body fat at different ages (Wood County Health Department 13). What is the prevalence of the medical entity in the states and counties represented by the members of your study group?  The rate of obesity is climbing in the state of California and is consistent with national trends.  (2001) reported that there were more than 4.7 million obese adult Californians in 2001 with Marin County having the lowest proportion of obese adults. San Diego had lower percentage of obese adults compared to the general California percentage (2). According to the 2003  (CHIS), the prevalence of obesity among adults, age 18 and older, in California was 21 percent while the prevalence of obesity among adults in San Diego County was 18 percent (). Furthermore, in 2005, 33 percent of children in California are overweight and thus, are likely to become obese when not assisted (). In 2006, a third of California children and one in every four teenagers are either overweight or obese (). Approximately 28 percent of obese California children are in fifth, seventh and ninth grades .   Has the prevalence of your medical entity in those states and counties changed over the last 50 yrs? In the last 50 years, the overall prevalence of obesity has increased in California, even doubling for both men and women from 1990 until 2003 (). According to the CDC’s Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), in 1985 the prevalence of obesity among adults was less than 10 percent in California.  In 1988, obesity increased to 10-14 percent. In 1989, obesity dropped back to less than 10 percent. In 1991, it increased again to 10-14 percent and stayed within this range until 1997 when it increased to 15-19 percent.  In 2001, the prevalence increased to the 20-24 percent range. It dropped back to the 15-19 percent range in 2002. In 2003, the obesity prevalence increased to the 20-24 percent range and has remained in this range ( ). In addition, the obesity rate for men in 2003 increased by 23 percent while the rate for women recorded a 22 percent increase (). The  (NHANES) data show that the prevalence of overweight among children from 6-11 years old increased nearly four-fold between 1963 and 2000. Among adolescents from 12–19 years old, the prevalence of overweight increased more than three-fold between 1966 and 2000 ( ). In 2006, 14 percent of children in California who are between six and seventeen years old were obese, 15 percent of the same age group were overweight and 72 percent of fifth, seventh and ninth graders failed in the state standards of general physical fitness (Childhood Obesity). San Diego, which was once America’s Fittest City dropped to the 14th slot in the 2004 ranking as obesity continuous to heighten in the last 15 years - 50 percent in adults and 100 percent among children and adolescents (Obesity is Bad). Because overweight children are likely to become overweight adults, these children are more liable to suffer from cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes in adulthood—all chronic, but largely preventable diseases that already account for two-thirds of all deaths in California (). The high prevalence of overweight and physical inactivity is caused by many individual, social, and environmental factors. This epidemic is perpetuated by conditions including, but not limited to, the following: increasing portion sizes, increasing consumption of fast food and soft drinks, lack of funding for nutrition and physical activity programs, availability of soda and junk food on school campuses, poor physical activity infrastructures in schools and communities, limited compliance with physical education requirements in many schools, limited access to healthy foods in low-income neighborhoods, and advertising of junk food to children and their families (3).   What age groups (infants, children, teens, young adults, middle aged or elderly) have shown the greatest increase in the medical entity in the last 10 years?   In the past 10 years, according to the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, the years 1995, 2000, 2005 in the United States revealed that the age group that has shown the greatest increase in obesity is the 30-39 age group. This group showed an increase from an obesity prevalence of 14.3 percent in 1995 to 24.4 percent in 2005 (a 10.1% increase).  Males aging between 55 to 64 years old recorded an increase of 27.2 percent in 1988-1994 and 35.5 percent in 1999-2002 while 65 to 74 year-old females had the greatest increase in obesity from 26.9 percent in 1988-1994 to 39.3 percent in 1999-2002 (). California is facing a public health crisis in the form of obesity. Californians have gained 360 million pounds in the last 10 years. More than half of the state's adults are overweight or obese and more than a quarter of California's students are overweight, placing California's rate of childhood obesity higher than the national average. Poor diet and lack of physical activity are the second leading causes of death and disability, resulting in nearly 30,000 deaths each year in California. California's economic burden as a result of this crisis was $22 billion in 2000, and is expected to rise to $28 billion in 2005. Health officials predict that if these trends continue, this generation of children will be the first to have a shorter life expectancy than their parents (). According to the  (2007) unhealthy eating habits established in childhood, adolescence and late teens carry over to adulthood. Sedentary lifestyle coupled with decreased metabolic rate. Lifestyle changes due to technology such as elevators, cars, dishwashers, televisions, power lawn mowers, etc. Decreased metabolic needs and energy expenditure coupled with the same or increased food intake.   MARYLAND:   What are the current medical definitions of your medical entity?   The  (2006) overweight and obesity are both labels for ranges of weight that are greater than what is generally considered healthy for a given height. The terms also identify ranges of weight that have been shown to increase the likelihood of certain diseases and other health problems. For adults, overweight and obesity ranges are determined by using weight and height to calculate a number called the “body mass index” (BMI). BMI is used because, for most people, it correlates with their amount of body fat: an adult who has a BMI between 25 and 29.9 is considered overweight; and an adult who has a BMI of 30 or higher is considered obese.   What is the prevalence of the medical entity in the states and counties represented by the members of your study group?  Fifty nine percent of Maryland adults were overweight or obese in 2004. Twenty-two percent of non-Hispanic white adults, 31 percent of non-Hispanic black adults, and 19 percent of Hispanic adults in Maryland are obese. Furthermore, 29 percent of low-income children between 2 and 5 years of age in Maryland are overweight or at risk of becoming overweight ().   Has the prevalence of your medical entity in those states and counties changed over the last 50 yrs? The prevalence of obesity has increased over the last 50 years. The following statistics shows the percentages from different years:   <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-autospace: none"> 1987-88: 10-14% (highest percentage range)</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-autospace: none"> 1989-94: 10-14% (second highest range)</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-autospace: none"> 1995-96: 15-19% (highest percentage range)</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-autospace: none"> 1997-00: 15-19% (second highest percentage range)</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-autospace: none"> 2001-02: 15-19% (third highest percentage range)</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-autospace: none"> 2003-04: 20-24% (second highest percentage range)</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-autospace: none"> 2005: 20-24% (third highest percentage range)</li> </ul>   Overall, the prevalence of obesity increased in Maryland; the numbers indicate that the prevalence tended to reach a plateau for a few years and then increased ().   What age groups (infants, children, teens, young adults, middle aged or elderly) have shown the greatest increase in the medical entity in the last 10 years?   There has been an increase of 62 percent in the number of obese adults from 1990-2002 (No Children).     NEW JERSEY:   What are the current medical definitions of your medical entity?   The  (2006) states that obesity is “the excess accumulation of body fat and a growing health problem. Obesity is a known risk factor of numerous chronic diseases, including diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, gall bladder disease, arthritis, breathing problems, and some form of cancer.”   What is the prevalence of the medical entity in the states and counties represented by the members of your study group?  In 2004, obesity affected 21.9 percent of adults in the state of New Jersey. The United States national average was 23.2 percent. In 2005, New Jersey was still under the national average ().   Has the prevalence of your medical entity in those states and counties changed over the last 50 yrs? What age groups (infants, children, teens, young adults, middle aged, or elderly) have shown the greatest increase in the medical entity in the last 10 years?”   The following chart shows that in the state of New Jersey, 55 to 64-year-old individuals had the highest percentage of obesity. Almost one-third of this age group was obese ().   Moreover, the 2005  Health Survey found out that 12 percent of ninth to twelfth graders were overweight and another fifteen percent were at risk for becoming over weight. A study conducted in 2003 by the New Jersey Departments of Health and Senior Services and Education found that 20 percent of sixth graders evaluated were obese and another 18 percent were overweight. Higher obesity levels were observed among the sixth grade boys as compared to girls (). The following reports and figures are from the  (2005):     The above figures say that most students in New Jersey are “TV couch potatoes”. The figures reveal that 36 percent of New Jersey high school students spend three hours a day in front of the TV. It can also be deduced that male high school students are more likely to have obesity in New Jersey. Another interesting chart showed ethnic groups and percentages and how prevalent obesity was in each group follows:              Source: (2000). From the statistics in the figure below, it can be sorted out that there are about 385,000 New Jersey residents who are at the age of 60. From the figure above it can be said that 29 percent of this age group were obese ().     PENNSYLVANIA     TEXAS:   Total State Population:  22,859,968 (2005 estimate) Dallas County Population:  2,305,454 (2005 estimate)   What are the current medical definitions of your medical entity? According to the  (2006) overweight refers to increased body weight in relation to height, when compared to some standard of acceptable or desirable weight. Overweight may or may not be due to increases in body fat. It may also be due to an increase in lean muscle. For example, professional athletes may be very lean and muscular, with very little body fat, yet they may weigh more than others of the same height. While they may qualify as "overweight" due to their large muscle mass, they are not necessarily "over fat," regardless of BMI. The BMU of overweight people exceeds 25. Desirable weight standards are derived in a number of ways: (1) by using a mathematical formula known as Body Mass Index (BMI), which represents weight levels associated with the lowest overall risk to health. Desirable BMI levels may vary with age; and (2) by using actual heights and weights measured and collected on people who are representative of the U.S. population by the National Center for Health Statistics. Other desirable weight tables have been created by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, based on their client populations (). These sources are consistent with the U.S. Dietary Guidelines and with the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults. Obesity is defined as an excessively high amount of body fat or adipose tissue in relation to lean body mass. The amount of body fat (or adiposity) includes concern for both the distribution of fat throughout the body and the size of the adipose tissue deposits. Body fat distribution can be estimated by skin fold measures, waist-to-hip circumference ratios, or techniques such as ultrasound, computed tomography, or magnetic resonance imaging. BMI for overweight or obese is 25 or more (). According to the  (2005) obesity is a complex, multi-factorial chronic disease involving environmental (social and cultural), genetic, physiologic, metabolic, behavioral and psychological components. It is the second leading cause of preventable death in the U.S. Overweight and obesity are part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' health agenda that have steadily moved away from their established targets for improvement. Today, public health leaders recognize obesity as a "neglected public health problem." This fact sheet will demonstrate the impact of overweight and obesity on millions of Americans of all ages and both genders. What is the prevalence of the medical entity in the states and countries represented by the members of your study group?             Apparently that old saying that “everything is bigger in Texas” holds true for its residents as well.  According to the  (2006) in 2005, an estimated 10.4 million or 64 percent of Texas adults were overweight or obese. Also, a report released in 2005 found that Texas reported it had the 6th highest prevalence in adult obesity in the United States. Has the prevalence of the medical entity in those states and counties changed over the last 50 years? According to the  (2006) Texas dropped its state ranking from 6th to 10th.  Unfortunately, Texas dropped in the ranking because the prevalence of obesity increased in other states, not because the state of obesity had improved in Texas. If the current trends continue, 20 million or 75 percent of Texas adults might be overweight or obese by the year 2040, and Texas costs could quadruple from $10.5 billion today to as much as $39 billion by 2040. The (2005) cites that: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> There are no reports or statistics on American obesity prior to 1976.  The earliest data on American obesity was recorded between 1976 and 1980.  It was reported then that 46% of American adults were considered overweight and 14.4% were considered obese.  Since that time the percentage of overweight and obese Americans has increased dramatically.  The AOA last reported between 1999 and 2000.  At that time 64.5% were considered overweight and 30.5 were considered obese.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Early reported studies from the AOA do not give data for individual states and cities.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> In 1991 the AOA reported that 12.7% of Texas adults were obese.  In 1998 that number climbed to 19.9%.  In 2000 that number again increased to 22.7%.  The last reported statistic was in 2001 at 23.8%.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> In 2000 Dallas, Texas was reported as the 15th most overweight city in the United States.  In 2005 Dallas, Texas was reported as the 6th most overweight city in the United States. </li> </ul> What groups (infants, children, teens, young adults, middle aged, or elderly) have shown the greatest increase in the medical entity in the last 10 years?             The  (2006) reports the following facts: ·         Overweight and obesity are more pronounced among men, minorities and middle-aged adults. ·         The prevalence of childhood overweight was greater in Texas in 2004-2005 than the U.S. rates reported for the 2003-2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES).  The overall prevalence of overweight and at-risk for overweight in Texas schoolchildren was 42% for fourth graders, 39% for eight graders and 36% for eleventh graders in 2004-2005. ·         In 2000-2001, the percentage of overweight students in Texas was much higher among minorities, with the highest prevalence of overweight in Hispanic boys in all grade levels, Hispanic girls in fourth grade and African American girls in the fourth and eleventh grades. ·         30% of Texas high-school students are overweight or at risk of becoming overweight. ·         From 2000-2002 to 2004-2005, the prevalence of overweight increased among both eighth and eleventh graders, but slightly dropped among fourth graders in Texas from 25.6% to 23%. On the other hand, the American Obesity Association (2005) claims that about 15.5 percent of adolescents (ages 12 to 19) and 15.3 percent of children (ages 6 to 11) are obese as of 1999-2000. The increase in obesity among American youth over the past two decades is dramatic.   WEST VIRGINIA (KANAWHA COUNTY):   What are the current medical definitions of your medical entity?   Obesity is defined as an excessively high amount of body fat or adipose tissue in relation to lean body mass: BMI = [(wt in pounds)/(ht in inches)2] x 703. Obesity ranges are determined using weight and height to calculate the “body mass index” (BMI), usually a number between 18.5 and 30.  An adult BMI of 30 or higher is considered obese.   Height Weight Range BMI Considered 5’ 9” 124 lbs or less Below 18.5 Underweight 125 lbs to 168 lbs 18.5 to 24.9 Healthy weight 169 lbs to 202 lbs 25.0 to 29.9 Overweight 203 lbs or more 30 or higher Obese   Calculated BMI is age- and sex-specific and is often referred to as BMI-for-age (Overweight and Obesity: West Virginia). According to West Virginia Health Statistic Center (2005) “a single measurement that needs only two factors, weight and height, makes it possible to conduct surveillance on a worldwide basis. There are limitations to BMI, of course. It can be overestimated among persons who are very athletic and have large muscle mass, on the one hand, and underestimated among persons who have lost muscle mass, such as the ill and the elderly. It has been recommended that different BMI cutoff points be used to determine overweight and obesity in certain racial groups (25). In general, however, BMI is considered to be a reliable indication of total body fat content for most adults, regardless of sex.” Furthermore, obesity is multi-factorial, based on both genetics and behavioral factors. Obesity also can contribute to the following diseases: Type 2 diabetes, hypertension, stroke, myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, cancer, gall stones and gall bladder disease, gout, Osteoarthritis, Sleep Apnea, and Pickwickian Syndrome (Definition of Obesity). What is the prevalence of the medical entity in the states and countries represented by the members of your study group? In 2000, the obesity rate in West Virginia was 23.3 percent, an 8.2 percent increase from 1999.  From 1990-94 the prevalence of obesity in Kanawha County was 16.9 percent, ranking the county at 19 out of 55 counties. From 1995-99 Kanawha County had a 22.5 percent prevalence of obesity moving up to the 15th obese county in the state. Mineral County has also shown prevalence of obesity with an average of 37 percent compared to the US average of 33 percent. Obesity is increasing in all counties of West Virginia, but mostly a rise is being seen in the southern and western counties (which are the poorest counties), as well as the Eastern Panhandle (Obesity in West Virginia). “In 2002, West Virginia ranked first in the nation in the prevalence of obesity (27.6%) and 42nd highest in the prevalence of overweight (36.1%). More than 63 percent of West Virginians are considered overweight or obese.” (A Need for a Healthier West Virginia) Has the prevalence of the medical entity in those states and counties changed over the last 50 years? The prevalence of obesity has changed in Mineral County, West Virginia over the past 50 years. In 1985 10 to 14 percent of West Virginians were obese with a BMI equal or greater than 30 (). According to reporter in 2005 West Virginia was considered one of the worst states in the country with obesity problems. West Virginia is consistently among the top three states in the nation for obesity, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the State Bureau of Public Health.  The most current data, 2002, 28% of West Virginians were considered obese. West Virginia also leads the nation in hypertension and is fourth in the nation for diabetes (). What groups (infants, children, teens, young adults, middle aged, or elderly) have shown the greatest increase in the medical entity in the last 10 years?   Children, teens, and young adults have seen the most increase in obesity over the past 10 years (). For ages 18 years and above, the average weight for males and females in West Virginia has increased steadily from 1984 to 2000; the males rising from 177.2 pounds up to 194.0, and the women’s weight rising from 142.0 pounds up to 154.9 pounds (Obesity in West Virginia). The 1999 Youth Risk Behavior Study, conducted by the CDC over the telephone, shows the latest available data for the youth of WV and this age group’s obesity issues.  Using a BMI-for-age calculation formulated especially for children, whose BMI will differ according to sex and age during their developmental stages, the study showed that in 1999, 12.2% of West Virginia high school students in grades 9-12 were overweight, 15.8% being male and 8.3% being female, and that 15.9% of students were currently at risk of being overweight (Obesity in West Virginia). Sixty-four percent of West Virginia adults are obese or overweight while 29 percent of high-school students are overweight or at risk of becoming overweight. Moreover, 28 percent of low-income children between 2 and 5 years of age in West Virginia are overweight or at risk of becoming overweight (Overweight and Obesity: West Virginia).

Obesity in America: The Growing Epidemic

A REPORT ON OBESITY IN AMERICA: THE GROWING EPIDEMIC THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS What are ...

Violence on Television

The National Institute of Mental Health revealed in its 1982 report that violent programs on television lead to aggressive behavior by children and teenagers who watch those programs.  The said report was confirmed and agitated the General Surgeon to conduct and extended and earlier study. As a result of these and other research findings, the American Psychological Association passed a resolution in February 1985 informing broadcasters and the public of the potential dangers that viewing violence on television can have for children. Psychological research has shown that the children seeing violence on television may become less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others, more fearful of the world around them, and more likely to behave in aggressive or harmful ways toward others. Studies show that children who watch a lot of TV are less aroused by violent scenes than are those who only watch a little; in other words, they're less bothered by violence in general, and less likely to see anything wrong with it. For instance, in several studies, those who watched a violent program instead of a nonviolent one were slower to intervene or to call for help when, a little later, they saw younger children fighting or playing destructively. George Gerbner, Ph.D of the University of Pennsylvania has shown in his studies that children's TV shows contain about 20 violent acts each hour and also that children who too much exposed to television are more likely to think that the world is a mean and dangerous place. It was noted that children often behave differently after they've been watching violent programs on TV. A study conducted at the Pennsylvania State University a included 100 preschool children who were observed both before and after watching television.  Some watched cartoons that contained aggressive and violent acts in them, and others watched shows that didn't have any kind of violence. The researchers observed that real differences between the kids who watched the violent shows and those who watched nonviolent ones. Aletha Huston, Ph,D. of the University of Kansas revealed that 'children who watch the violent shows, even 'just funny' cartoons, were more likely to hit out at their playmates, argue, disobey class rules, leave tasks unfinished, and were less willing to wait for things than those who watched the nonviolent programs.' Laboratory findings are further supported by field studies showing the long-range effects of televised violence. Leonard Eron, Ph.D., and his associates at the University of Illinois, discovered that children who spent many hours watching TV violence when they were in elementary school were likely to show a higher level of aggressive behavior when they became teenagers. By observing these youngsters until they were 30 years old, Dr. Eron found that the ones who'd watched a lot of TV when they were eight years old were more likely to be arrested and prosecuted for criminal acts as adults. In the United States, violent crime is at its peak again, especially among the teenagers and it is noted that this trend is likely to continue. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention reports that between 1985 and 1994, there was a 40 percent increase in murders, rapes, robberies, and assaults reported to law enforcement agencies across the nation. What is even more alarming is the fact that despite their relatively low numbers in the population, the juveniles were responsible for 26 percent of this growth in violence. The Federal Bureau of Investigation reveals that in the years between 1985 and 1995 there had been a 249 percent increase in gun-related murders committed by juveniles.  Furthermore, the year 1992 had in its record that three-quarters of the killings already involved guns when murder became the second leading cause of death among males 15-24 in the United States.  It is worth noting that the rapid increase of death for black and white older adolescents are firearm murders. In 1994 alone, for example, juveniles were responsible for 14 percent of all violent crimes solved by authorities. The records show that they committed 20 percent of robberies, 14 percent of rapes, 13 percent of assaults, and 10 percent of murders.  With these numbers, taking of course the consideration of the fact that arrest rates recorded in 1992 remain constant, it is predicted that there will be a 22 percent increase in violence arrests for youth age 10-17 until the year 2010. What is even worse is that the National Center for Juvenile Justice foresees that the number of youth age 10-17, who are arrested for violent crimes is more likely to double by the year 2010 if arrest rates continue to increase as they did between 1983 and 1992.  This projected growth between 1992 and 2010 is expected to vary among categories such as murders + 142 percent; rapes + 66 percent; robberies + 58 percent; and assault + 129 percent.    Statistics shows that victims of violent crimes more likely involve youth age between 12 and 17 than any other age group except young adults age 18-24.  However, senior citizens, by contrast, are the least likely group to be victims of violent crime.  It is very disturbing that youth victimization is rapidly increasing but it is even more alarming to find out that the experience of being victimized by crime increases certain people’s inclination for perpetrating violence, juvenile crime, adult criminality, and adult violence toward family members.  Thus, if youth victimization is reduced youth violence will also be reduced as well.  It also has been found out that black youth, along with recent Asian immigrants and gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth are also likely to become victims of violence stemming from 'hate crimes.'  Rates of victimization for young Hispanics are slightly lower than those for black and higher than those for white youth. “In some areas of the country, it is now more likely for a black male between 15 and 25 to die from homicide than it was for a United States soldier to be killed on a tour of duty in Vietnam. ” New York Times, December 7, 1990. The American Psychology Association also says that “regardless of race or cultural group, violence is most prevalent among the poor. Thus, although violence in nonurban areas is increasing, children in poor, unstable neighborhoods are more likely to be assaulted than their counterparts in affluent or stable suburbs. The ultimate violence is murder. Homicide has been the leading cause of death among African Americans age 15-34 since 1978. The lifetime risk of violent death for young black males is 1 in 27 and for black females, 1 in 17. By contrast, 1 in 205 young white males and 1 in 496 white females are murdered.” In another angle, gang violence is important to be discussed, as juveniles are involved here.  Still in he United States, only a small percentage of youth join delinquent gangs, and relatively few gang members engage in violence. However, it is noted that in 3 out of 4 cases of murder and assault committed by juveniles, the perpetrators are likely to be gang members. Studies indicate that in the 70s and 80s, cases of gang violence had significantly increased in both level and type of violence in the United States. Gangs now operate in all 50 states and in suburbia as well as the inner city. A survey of 35 cities in 1989 revealed a total of 1,439 gangs but the estimate today has escalated to about 2,000 gangs, with as many as 200,000 members. Until the 1970s, most gang members were 12-21 years old.  Today they can be anywhere as young as 9 or as old as 30. The younger and older gang members are mere reflections of the increasing involvement of gangs in drugs. Male gang members outnumber females 15 to 1, but the gender gap is slowly narrowing. Today's gang violence is deadlier than in the 1950s, when 'turf tiffs' were usually settled with switchblades or chains. Today, weapons of choice are AK-47s or Uzis, and drive-by shootings have replaced schoolyard rumbles. Research findings show that three major national studies, The Surgeon General’s Commission Report (1972), The National Institute of Mental Health Ten-Year Follow-up (1982), The report of the American Psychological Association’s Task Force on Television in Society (1992), concluded that too much exposure on television violence is one of the most significant causes leading to social violence. The three studies assert that watching violence in the televised form of media bring about negative effects.  According to the studies, watching television violence increases the viewer’s fear of becoming a victim of violence, with a resultant increase in self-protective behaviors and increased mistrust of others, desensitizes the viewer to violence, resulting in a calloused attitude toward violence directed at others and a decreased likelihood of taking action to help a victim of violence, increases the viewer’s appetite for becoming involved with violence, often demonstrates how desirable commodities can be obtained through the use of aggression and violence. Sexual violence in X- and R-rated videotapes widely available to teenagers has also been shown to cause an increase male aggression against females. (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry) Also, the studies show that these effects are both short term and long lasting. A longitudinal study of boys found a significant relation between exposure to TV violence at 8 years of age and antisocial acts--including serious violent criminal offenses and spouse abuse--22 years later.  (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry) In the article of Jean Tepperman that was published in the January-February 1997 edition of the Children’s Advocate newsmagazine, Tepperman  said that as an American child turns 18, he will have viewed about 200,000 violent acts on television alone.  She also added that the level of violence during Saturday morning cartoons is higher than during prime time. Prime time includes between three and five violent acts per hour, while Saturday morning cartoons show between 20 and 25 per hour.  Tepperman goes further by emphasizing the assertion of media-violence expert Ron Slaby that the violence in media is really damaging to children below eight years because "they don't have enough real-world experience to have a good sense of what's realistic. When we see a guy's head blown off, older people know this doesn't happen often. But younger kids don't know that. They may assume it's probable."  The article also reveals that television rarely shows negative consequences of violence. Children's programs are the least likely to depict long-term negative consequences of violence. They frequently portray violence as humorous.  Moreover, Tepperman explains that the programming on the television news contributes to media violence. News shows in the U.S., for instance, spend more than twice as much time on violent stories as Canadian news shows and are much more likely to open with a violent story. The U.S. Surgeon General David Satcher recently released a report on youth violence which found that: "Exposure to violent media plays an important causal role in this societal problem" of youth violence, the draft report states. "From a public-health perspective, today's (media) consumption patterns are far from optimal. And for many children they are clearly harmful." According to the Liberal Journal, college students who played the violent video game "Marathon 2" generated 43% more aggressive responses in later tests than those who played a nonviolent game. And in another study, researchers found that young black men who watched a violent rap music video were more likely to endorse the use of violence in a hypothetical conflict situation than those who watched a nonviolent rap video." Maggie Fox, a Health and Science correspondent reported that adolescents who are exposed to television for more than hour are more likely to become violent than those who are not too exposed. In the report, it was found that only 5.7% of the adolescents who watched less than one hour of television committed aggressive acts against other people in later years, as compared to 22.5% of those who watched between one and three hours a day, and 28.8% (45% male - 12.7% female) who watched more than three hours daily. Male teenagers are the ones who are most influenced by it.             Jeffrey Johnson of Columbia University in New York claimed that there is a "tendency to imitate behavior that people see on TV. We are social beings and we tend to want to try out things that we see other people doing, especially if we see the person rewarded for what they did or portrayed as a hero for it." Johnson added that “viewing media violence leads to a desensitization effect. The more violence that they see, the less negative, the more normal, it seems to them."  (Science, March 2002) The National Television Violence Study, in its release on April 16, 1998, discovers that TV violence continues bring about risks of harm to children. The findings were able to come up with a conclusion that there was no change in the overall level of violence in reality programming across the three seasons. In the 1996-97 season, 39 percent of reality programs contained visually depicted violence compared with 37 percent in the 1995-96 season and 39 percent in the 1994-95 season.  Ratings based on age—like those used for movies and not television shows—actually increased children’s interest in restricted programs, but none of the content-based systems had this effect. Physical aggression is frequently condoned. Over 37% of violent programs feature "bad" characters who are never or rarely punished anywhere in the plot, and good characters are hardly ever criticized for violence. Seventy-five percent of violent scenes contain no form of punishment for the aggression. This glamorization of violence poses risks for the audience. Children will imitate violent characters who are heroic or attractive. Plots that can encourage aggression in young children are concentrated in programs and channels targeted to young viewers. In a typical week, there are over 800 violent portrayals that qualify as high risk for children below 7. Cartoons are primarily responsible.  Also, plots that can encourage aggression in older children and teens are concentrated in movies and dramas. Unlike younger children, adolescents are capable of discounting portrayals of violence that are highly fantastic, such as cartoons. Older viewers are susceptible primarily to more realistic portrayals of violence. In a typical week, there are nearly 400 episodes of violence that are considered high risk for teens. Most violence on television remains sanitized. Violence is typically shown with little or no harm to the victim. In fact, more than half of the violent incidents on television depict no physical injury or pain to the victim. (Liberation Journal) Dr. Jane Ledingham says that children begin to notice and react to TV very early. By the age of three, children will willingly watch a show designed for them 95% of the time and will imitate someone on television as readily as they will imitate a live person (Parke and Kavanaugh, 1977). The average time children spend watching television rises from about two and a half hours per day at the age of five to about four hours a day at age twelve. During adolescence, average viewing time drops off to two to three hours a day (Liebert and Sprafkin, 1988). Young children do not process information in the same way as adults. Nor do they have the experience or judgment to evaluate what they see. For example, children between the ages of six and ten may believe that most of what they see on TV is true to life. Since they watch a lot of TV, this makes them particularly vulnerable to the negative effects of television. The results of studies on the effects of televised violence are consistent. By watching aggression, children learn how to be aggressive in new ways and they also draw conclusions about whether being aggressive to others will bring them rewards (Huesmann and Eron, 1986). Those children who see TV characters getting what they want by hitting are more likely to strike out themselves in imitation. Even if the TV character has a so-called good reason for acting violently (as when a police officer is shown shooting down a criminal to protect others), this does not make young children less likely to imitate the aggressive act than when there is no good reason for the violence (Liss, Reinhart and Fredrikson, 1983). In an important study carried out in Canada, children were found to have become significantly more aggressive two years after television was introduced to their town for the first time (Kimball and Zabrack, 1986). Children who prefer violent television shows when they are young have been found to be more aggressive later on, and this may be associated with trouble with the law in adulthood (Huesmann, 1986). Strong identification with a violent TV character and believing that the TV situation is realistic are both associated with greater aggressiveness (Huesmann and Eron,1986). In general, boys are more affected by violent shows that girls are (Lefkowitz, Eron, Walder and Huesmann, 1977). Besides making children more likely to act aggressively, violence on television may have other harmful effects. First, it may lead children to accept more aggressive behavior in others (Drabman and Thomas, 1974). Second, it may make children more fearful as they come to believe that violence is as common in the real world as it is on television (Bryant, Careth and Brown, 1981). But television is not always a negative influence. There is strong evidence that children's shows that were developed to teach academic and social skills can help children to learn effectively. In fact, research suggests that the positive effects of educational children's shows probably outweigh the negative effects of exposure to TV violence (Hearold, 1986). If violence on television helps to make children more aggressive, it is still only a small part of the overall problem. Other factors in a child's life may be far more influential than TV. For example, pre-schoolers who were given guns and other "violent" toys to play with were found to commit more aggressive acts than pre-schoolers who had merely watched a television program with violent content (Potts, Huston and Wright, 1986). Another major factor that determines how aggressive a child will be is how his or her parents behave. If parents ignore or approve of their child's aggressive behavior, or if they lose control too easily themselves, a TV control plan will not help. Similarly, if parents themselves exhibit violent behavior, they serve as role models for their children. On the other hand, parents who show their children how to solve problems nonviolently and who consistently notice and praise their children for finding peaceful solutions to conflicts will have children who are less aggressive (Singer and Singer, 1986).  Television violence does have a direct link in the violence exhibited by young children as well as teenagers. The more TV watched in the lifetime of the individual will only reinforce the wrong (or right) in that person’s life.  Television is a great means for communication as long as it communicates good principles and ideas. But when television gets violent, it looses its communication and educational appeal and becomes a tool for all that is evil in our society. Parents should know when to say "When" when it comes to the amount of time children spend in front of the television. Works Cited American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Children and TV Violence. The Youth Violence Epidemic. April 1999. Bryant, J., R.A. Carveth and D. Brown. 1981. Television viewing and anxiety: An  experimental examination. Journal of Communication 31, 106-119. Children's Advocate newsmagazine, published by Action Alliance for Children. January- February 1997. Comstock, G. (1991). Television in America. Newbury Park, CA; Sage Publications. Dr. Jane Ledingham.  The Effects of Media Violence on Children. A Paper for The National Clearinghouse on Family Violence Hearold, S. 1986. A synthesis of 1043 effects of television on social behavior. In G. Comstock (Ed.), Public Communications and Behavior: Volume I. New York: Academic Press. Huesmann, L.R. Violence in the mass media, paper presented at the Third International Conference on Film Regulation, London, England, 1992. Huesmann, L.R. 1986. Psychological processes promoting the relation between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior by the viewer. Journal of Social Issues 42, 125-139. Huesmann, L.R. and L.D. Eron. 1986. Television and the Aggressive Child: A Cross National Comparison. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Huston, A.C., et al. Big world, small screen: The role of television in american society. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1992. Jean Tepperman. TV: The Violence Teacher. Just Hour of TV a Day Leads to Violence, Study Says - Maggie Fox, Health and Science Correspondent;     Reuters: March 28, 2002. The study, led by Jeffrey Johnson of Columbia University, was published in the journal "Science" during the last week of March, 2002. Lefkowitz, M.M., L.D. Eron, L.D. Walder and L.R. Huesmann. 1977. Growing Up to be  Violent. New York: Pergamon Press. Liebert, Robert, and Joyce Sprafkin. 1988. The Early Window. New York: Pergamon Press. Liss, M.B., L.C. Rienhardt and S. Fredrikson. 1983. TV heroes: The impact of rhetoric      and deeds. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 4, 175-187. McCall, R.B., R.D. Parke and R.D. Kavanaugh. 1977. Imitation of live and televised models by children one to three years of age. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 42, Serial No. 173. National Institute of Mental Health (1982). Television and Behavior: Ten Years of Scientific Progress and Implications for the Eighties, Volume 1. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Palmer, E.L. (1988). Television and America's Children: A Crisis of Neglect. New York: Oxford University Press. Potts, R., A.C. Huston and J.C. Wright. 1986. The effectsof television for and violent          content on boys' attention and social behavior. Journal of Experimental Child     Psychology 41, 1-17. St. Peters, M., M. Fitch, A.C. Huston, J.C. Wright and D.J. Eakins. 1991. Television and families: What do young children watch with their parents? Child Development 63, 1409-1423. Singer, D. and J. Singer. 1986 Family experiences and television viewing as predictors of children's imagination, restlessness, and aggression. Journal of Social Issues 42, 107-124.

Violence on Television

The National Institute of Mental Health revealed in its 1982 report that violent programs on television lead to aggressive behavior by ch...