Research Korner: Sample Thesis Chapter 2

Thesis Chapter 2 on The critical success factors for implementing e-learning programs in institutes of higher education

Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE   This chapter shall provide a discussion and earlier analysis and evaluation collated from past and current articles on e-learning, education journals and studies. The discussion of the collected secondary data would be among the basis for the formulation of sound conclusions and recommendations. This in turn would be the setting in attaining the research goal: to provide a comprehensive high quality work, that would add up to the literature in explaining the dynamics of e-learning; its factors, issues, prospects and challenges.   Learning Online E-learning is defined as "the acquisition and use of knowledge distributed and facilitated primarily by electronic means." (Wentling and Park, 2000). Online Learning was defined by Berge (1998) as activities limited to primary delivery by computer-mediated online instruction, as opposed to delivery systems such as audio or video/TV.         Additionally, it is the kind of instruction in which the course interaction is conducted completely online, or significantly online (i.e., where, at the minimum,. 50% of the graded part of the course is online) (Berge, 1998). Based on this definition, e-learning would be evolved to systems consisting of a variety of channels and technologies and can take the form of courses as well as modules and smaller learning objects and may incorporate synchronous or asynchronous access and be distributed without geographical limits.   Moreover, e-learning using technologies and computers to improve learner's skill and knowledge has the following advantages (Wentling and Park, 2000): space is not needed; learners do not need to wait until a class is available; learners can complete training when it is least disruptive to their schedule; and the methods can increase learner's interesting, deliver contents clearly, and feedback students easily. Due to these advantages of e-learning, the popularity of e-learning has dramatically increased over the past few years.   The Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) have made the process of obtaining an education without regard to time or location easier for the student. (Levy, 2001) In e-learning, not only does the instruction occur via a computer system, usually over the Internet, but other educational processes occur via the computer as well. These educational processes are student services, training, and support. The transition to online distance learning, primarily driven by social change, is creating a paradigm shift in the way colleges are viewing teaching and learning (Rogers, 2000). Administrators, faculty, staff, and students realize that in order to successfully implement e-learning, their colleges will need to reassess their programs.   In a study made by Jones (2000), it advances the principle of using e-learning to offset the conditions imposed by the increase in enrollment and the decrease in financial assets, and explores the requirements associated with distance learning, and compares those requirements to those of traditional education. According to the study, the growth in Internet based education is changing the face of traditional education. The technology advances allow educators to eliminate space and physical facilities requirements, and to eliminate class size limits. The study noted that several researches on distance learning and Internet based education is in the early stages of development. Many terms are used to refer to e-learning such as distance education, distance learning, and e-learning.   Jones (2000) cited the work of Weigel (2000), which stated that, the ‘no significant difference’ theory. According to the latter, the said theory may represent the most egregious application of benchmarking in the past 20 years. The latter’s article discussed the tradeoff between richness and reach in distance education. He defines "richness" as the overall quality of information provided such as variables like currency, accuracy, interactivity and relevance. He utilized the term "reach" to refer to the number of people involved in the exchange of the information. In traditional education, the tradeoff between richness and reach is cost. The institutions must balance the cost of richness, or depth, of the traditional course with the cost associated with expanding the reach outside of the traditional area market. With Internet technologies, the additional costs of expanding the reach outside of the traditional market are reduced.   Moreover, other education professionals also have indicated negative results in studies conducted on Internet based educational programs. One such study urged caution in the development and advancement of distance learning programs and platforms (Jones, 2000). They expressed the concern that the high technology and development cost may impact on the traditional academic programs. Their study reported perceptions of students in the distance learning setting were less favorable than the local setting for traditional classes.   Furthermore, the process of e-learning has been defined as providing a structured learning environment that involves the separation of parties over distance and/or time (Carter, 2001). Student success in distance education depends on the quality of course design, instructor presentation, course interaction, equipment and technology. One of the major issues in developing an effective Internet based course is the ability of current faculty to perform in this environment. Internet technologies have been growing since the early 1990’s. Moreover, there exist different levels of computer skills and abilities in all faculties. The levels of computer and technology efficiency in most universities are inversely correlated with faculty age and academic experience. (Lan, 2001) Faculty technology experience can be used as a predictor of potential participation in technology based instruction.   History of E-learning The roots of e-learning is highly ingrained in the development of distance learning throughout the centuries. In 1840, the English inventor of shorthand, Sir Isaac Pitman, came up with an ingenious idea for delivering instruction to a possibly limitless audience through correspondence courses by mail. His concept was so hot that within a few years he was corresponding with a legion of far-flung learners (Phillips, 1998). Within a few decades, regular, and in some cases, extensive programs were available in the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States and Japan (Curran, 1997).   Consequently, by the 1900s, the first department of correspondence teaching was established at the University of Chicago. In Australia, the University of Queensland established a Department of External Studies in 1911. Before 1969, distance teaching had developed into an important sector of higher education in quite a few countries. The founding of United Kingdom's Open University (OU) in 1969 marked a significant development of the second phase of distance learning, with its mixed-media approach to teaching (Curran, 1997). The OU sent learning materials to students by mail, which included carefully constructed texts and audio, and video materials. These were accompanied with conventional broadcast radio and television. Each student was assigned a tutor who tutored over the telephone and in-group sessions in the evenings or on weekends. The British Open University pioneered distance education on a massive scale (D.N. 1997). The OU and other open universities were important in raising the profile of distance education, effectively bringing distance teaching from the margins closer to the center stage of higher education (Curran 1997).   On the other hand, at roughly the same time as the founding of the OU, satellites were moving into commercial use. The PEACENET in the Pacific Basin was founded in 1971 and used in the first ever application of satellites in distance education (Hall, P. 1996). Moreover, distance education is first and foremost a movement that sought not so much to challenge or change the structure of higher learning, but to extend the traditional university and to overcome its inherent problems of scarcity and exclusivity. Second, distance education developed as a creative political response to the increasing inability of the traditional university structure to grow larger (Hall, J. 1995). Distance education dealt with the problem of too many students in a single physical space. The university could, in effect, reach out, offering not seats, but the opportunity to learn.   In the two decades following the opening of the British Open University in 1969, four open universities were established in Europe, and more than 20 were established in countries around the world. There was considerable growth over the ensuing decades. In the United States, by the mid-1980s, more than 300,000 students were enrolled in university-taught distance education courses. In Canada, some 19 conventional universities were active in distance teaching. In Australia, the University of Queensland initiative had grown to some 3,000 students by the late 1960s. By the mid-1980s, some 40 institutions had an enrollment of external students equivalent to approximately 12% of higher education students. In the Soviet Union, where distance teaching was adopted in the late 1920s, all 61 universities eventually offered education by correspondence, and it is reported in the former German Democratic Republic that approximately one quarter of the university and technical college graduates attained their qualification by means of distance education. It is clear that distance education had developed into a substantive sector of higher education in quite a few countries (Curran 1997).   Furthermore, in 1994 the OU was teaching more than 200,000 students, including young men and women in Russia, Hungary, the Czech and Slovak republics, Bulgaria and Romania. There are now OU offices located in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Ireland, Spain and Switzerland (Peck 1995).In a number of cases, particular open universities have a student population that is bigger than that of the median-size university in the same country, and in a few cases bigger than the largest traditional university. Nonetheless, in many countries the substantive student population is made up of enrollment in distance teaching programs provided by many individual universities and colleges. The widening over time of the range of programs provided and the kinds of student populations served has, in both cases, reinforced the trend toward further growth (Curran 1997).   Potentials of E-learning In the advent of modern technological advancement, a notable number of educational institutions have started to acquire the online method of providing education. Regardless of the technology used for delivery, effective e-learning still requires students and teachers to engage in discussions and dialogue (Jones, 2000). The communication process required for on-line courses is no different from that of traditional classes. The process requirements include access, motivation, socialization, and information exchange. Universities must also be aware of the effects of technology, constraints, and the reputation of their schools on the effectiveness of distance learning. This requirement is often not addressed in the initial development and implementation of the distance learning process. As technology advances, the student – teacher contact will become more important. Moreover, by establishing e-learning courses, universities can position themselves to overcome the barriers imposed by the current economic conditions, and eliminate the requirement to construct new or additional classrooms and support services to accommodate the increased enrollment. This paper recommends that distance learning, or Internet based courses, be offered to supplement the traditional classroom instruction, not replace it.   Concurrently, as the number of students enrolled increases, the need to offer additional sections of core classes will increase. (Jones, 2000) To reduce the additional amount of facility requirements, sections of each core course could be offered, on line, in addition to the traditional classroom. Using this system, a student may in fact have a mixture of in-class and on-line courses during the semester. The academic faculty could also have a mixture of traditional and on-line courses. Moreover, the student could benefit by taking the online courses that provide the most comfort, while benefiting from the in-class experience in their other courses. Students that have a higher level of maturity, and are comfortable using computer technology would benefit most from these courses. For students that find they need additional information, they have the same availability to the instructor as traditional classes.   Furthermore, this method provides some benefits to the instructor as well. The instructor may be able to identify students that have mastered the subjects early, and could concentrate on those that require additional assistance. In addition, the student still benefits from the traditional social environment that is required for advancing social responsibilities and peer networks (Armstrong, 2000). In addition to the possibility of gaining new students outside their area of influence, institutions could benefit by avoiding the cost of acquiring new facilities. Even if funds were available, the time frame for most major construction projects is extensive. In most cases, the predicted bubble in enrollment will be declining prior to the completion of the construction process.   In order to effectively measure the impact of the potentials of e-learning in the academe, this study found it vital to cite the work of Whalen and Wright (1999) regarding the cost-efficiency and cost-effectiveness of e-learning. First of all, one should define the two stated concepts. Cost-efficiency and cost-effectiveness are two similar terms related to financial performance. Even though they have slightly differentiated meanings, they have been used without clarification. Efficiency means the ratio of output to input and effectiveness is concerned with only output. Stated differently, efficiency focuses on "how much output was obtained from the input," that is, the quantity and effectiveness focuses on "how relevant the output is," that is, the quality. According to their work, the e-learning method is relatively cost-efficient in the case that its outputs cost less per unit of input and it is cost-effective if its outputs not only spend less cost than others but also are relevant to learner' needs.   Inroads to Online Learning The establishment of an e-learning program does, however, involve some cost (Threlkeld & Brzoska, 1994). Development and implementation cost will vary across universities, based on their current technology programs. Among its costs is the technology, which include the hardware and software requirements; the transmission, which is the on going expense associated with transmission systems; the maintenance, which includes the repair of equipment as well as the lifecycle cost; the infrastructure, this includes the network and telecommunications infrastructure on campus; production such as the technological and personnel support required to develop teaching materials; the support which may be classified to miscellaneous expenses, administrative cost, and overhead cost; and the personnel which constitute the staff support for all functions.   Moreover, these costs could also be associated with traditional education courses. (Jones, 2000) Most institutions now have the technology, infrastructure, support and personnel to accommodate the development of distance learning courses. In addition, most universities have both Internet and intranet services online, supported by full service IT departments. With the advance and popularity of software packages, software development cost is no longer a major issue. In addition, these software packages can be fully utilized with little formal training. Once developed, most courses can be offered again and again with little modification, thereby lowering development cost. The maintenance and transmission cost could increase, based on usage of the systems. These costs, along with other miscellaneous support and overhead cost, would be directly proportional to student enrollment and use.   Among other considered inroads include faculty availability and training, course development cost, copyright laws, course enrollment limits, technology availability to students, and course selection. (Jones, 2000) Moreover, colleges and universities are compelled to provide sufficient technological resources to support students. This support ranges from sufficient computers and workstations to allow student access, to help desk and support services. Most colleges and universities have student computer labs, library computer labs, and other support services that provide technical and support services.   Another variable that has been considered is the inability of distance education to influence the social growth of students (Armstrong, 2000). Armstrong provides a strong argument that traditional education provides an important function in the social growth of students. Armstrong also advances the theory that Internet based distance learning is more attractive to continuing professional educational adults and students looking for a quick and efficient way of completing their degree.   Factors to Consider in Instituting E-learning In a study made by Levy (2001), she gave several variables to take into account in instituting the method of e-learning. The first factor is the need of a vision and a plan. She cited Hache (2000) wherein it was made clear that when college faculty, staff, and administration start with a vision, it is necessary for them to understand that this vision will result in a change in the organizational culture. Moreover, it must be considered that e-learning programs cannot be molded into the image of existing campus-based programs (Miller, 1998) in which administrative and support systems were built for the traditional on-campus student. Administrative support structures, student services, technology support, and faculty training and support needs are all areas that need to be analyzed and perhaps changed in order to successfully implement e-learning processes. On the other hand, the WWW has caused the biggest change in education and learning since the advent of the printed book a little over 500 years ago (Draves, 2000). It is often difficult for people to adapt during times of rapid change. People tend to defend their methods, values, and beliefs and are not willing to take risks, so a solid resistance to the changes that may be created by implementing an e-learning program should be expected.   Draves (2000) declared that the rate of adopting e-learning processes would improve if revised policies and procedures and strategies to address critical issues existed. Therefore, understanding how to plan a successful program will be essential to their success. Instruction is shifting from a model of individual use of technology to an integration of instruction and student services through technology.   Another variable provided by Levy (2001) is the curriculum. The e-learning method is more than a teaching mode or method; it is a distinct and coherent field of education (Keegan, 1986), focused on new delivery methods and pedagogical philosophy. Moreover, many instructors do not want to change their style of instruction. Some feel that interactive lectures, small group activities, or closed labs are the only way that a subject can be taught. Others have not yet adapted their lectures to the advances provided by technology such as PowerPoint presentations and multimedia demonstrations and do not want to change their teaching style. These deeply held beliefs and long-established practices will be changed as courses are moved online, requiring new ways of thinking about teaching and learning.   Another variable is the need of staff training and support. (Levy, 2001) Instructor training is particularly needed to support faculty in a field that is rapidly changing. In addition, providing technical support for faculty is challenging for many colleges because of limited resources. Traditionally, faculty has received support from three different areas of the campus: libraries, computing centers, and faculty development centers. Institutions need to strive to provide access to technology and tools that help members of the campus community reach their goals. In order to gain the knowledge necessary to implement online curriculum effectively, instructors must have the necessary training, mentoring, and support, preferably on the equipment they will use. Faculty training must be considered when institutions plan for an online distance learning program.   Moreover, Levy (2001) also pointed out the need of an efficient provision of student services. Regrettably, colleges face a dilemma in planning for e-learning because they are torn between wanting to serve students online and the need to continue to support their traditional student services (Collis et al., 1993). Yet, it is important for administrators to consider the student who will never come to campus, and to provide the essential student services for that student. In addition, Inglis et al. (1999) stated that delivering courses online at a distance calls for a reorganization of the ways in which support services are provided. This is important to ensure that the highest standard of support is provided for the resources available as well as to avoid the possibility of costs escalating.   The last aspect, according to Levy (2001), is the protection of copyright and intellectual property. Institutions need to protect their interests while maintaining academic freedom for their instructors. Therefore, establishing a copyright/intellectual rights policy is necessary to deal with issues before a problem occurs (Gasaway, 2002).   In addition, Savery and Duffy (1995) also provided several requisites for the success of the e-learning process. They placed importance on the dedication of the participants to learn. As active participants in the learning process, students affect the manner in which they deal with the material to be learned. Learners must have a sense of ownership of the learning goals. They must be both willing and able to receive instructional messages. Moreover, the mental effort that a learner will invest in a learning task depends on his own perception of two factors. First is the relevance of both the medium and the message, which it contains; and second, his ability to make something meaningful out of the material presented.   On the other hand, authors also placed importance on the effectiveness of communication. Shneiderman (1992) cautions all instructional designers to begin with an understanding of their intended users, and to recognize them as individuals whose outlook is different from the designer's own. Horton (1994) on the other hand, states the golden rule for designers of instructional visuals: "communicate unto others as they would communicate unto themselves.” In other words, if one wants the learner to construct an idea which is similar to one’s own, then it is important to use an image for the presentation which will trigger a similar idea in the learner's mind, in the context of the learning environment and the learner's prior experiences. Needless to say, no two learners will form the same idea, nor is it likely that their idea will be the same as that of the designer     Past Studies on Online Learning This part of the study shall provide several studies conducted to evaluate e-learning from different perspectives. The first study is made by Lytras and company (1999).  The study posits that in recent years the evolution of information and communication technologies has expanded further the possibility for the establishment of effective e-learning solutions. In this era of enormous transformation in education a number of key questions are arising. The effectiveness of learning systems, the justification of web based learning processes, the learners satisfaction and the analysis of the educational product are only a few of the most critical dimensions for the design and the implementation of an e-learning course. Moreover, their work discussed the value dimension of e-learning and tried to formulate a synthetic approach for the evaluation of any e-learning system. The study recognized that there are three key concepts that seem to be the cornerstones of the study’s analysis. These concepts include knowledge management capabilities, integration and e-learning pedagogy. The study concluded that the current situation in e-learning markets does not represent the fascinating issue of the incorporation of information and communication technologies in education.   Another study is made by Ham (2002). The focus of the study was the perception of students on web-based courses. The purpose of the study was to investigate student satisfaction levels with their web-based learning experience. Two hundred sixty nine students enrolled in 40 graduate-level, web based courses in 3 sites were surveyed. The study found out that there is a significant relationship between satisfaction and self-efficacy as well as between self-efficacy and interpersonal control at two sites. Likewise, the study also revealed that there is a significant relationship between available technical support and the students’ over-all success in their courses this is also the result when the variable of technical support is limited to instructor assistance or teaching assistants. The study also found out that there is a significant relationship between satisfaction and level of communication. On the other hand, the study concluded that the attitude of the students towards the Web were positively correlated to both their satisfaction and success at one site while the second site attitudes towards the Web were positively correlated only to satisfaction with the course. Nevertheless, the study also stated that there exist no significant relationship between students’ participation in collaborative activities and satisfaction.   On another study by Lee (2001), it focused on the factors affecting the behavioral intentions of adults regarding their learning through e-learning in higher education. The study examined the underlying factors and causal relationships that determine the behavioral intentions of learners to use web-based learning technology in postsecondary education. A total of 557 respondents were involved in the study. The study found out that system features such as functionality, interactivity, and response, had significant total effects upon intentions to use. On the other hand, the perception for usefulness and ease of use had a significant direct effect upon intentions to use for both supplementary learning and distance education. It as well had a significant effect on intention for supplementary learning, but its direct effects on intentions to use for supplementary learning directly influenced the intention to use for distance education. Moreover, the learners’ self-efficacy and Internet experience had no influence upon intention to use; nonetheless, self-efficacy was a significant factor in forming perception of ease of use. The study also revealed that male learners had more confidence in using technology as well as higher Internet experience, higher perception of system interactivity, and higher beliefs of usefulness and ease of use than female learners.   On another study by Lesh (2000), it evaluated the effectiveness of web-based education using multilevel evaluation. The objectives of the research were to show that students enrolled in a web-based course would have a positive reaction and to acquire knowledge from asynchronous learning experience as well as to demonstrate effective and efficient on-line pedagogical strategies. Students’ reaction to learning, achievement and cost-effectiveness related to asynchronous learning environments were measured. The analysis stated that the student reaction to learning was found to be significantly lower for web-based students compared with lecture-based students. Achievement was successful for both groups, nonetheless, no significant difference was identified between the performance level of the two groups. It also revealed that cumulative time demands for an experienced instructor to design and deliver a web based asynchronous learning experience were comparable to the time demands of a lecture based synchronous counterpart. The study also stated that web-based learning environment is equally effective as a lecture-based environment in terms of the learner achievement and faculty workload time demands.   And lastly, La Monica (2000) emphasized the role of the instructor in the e-learning process. According to the study, the instructors and students of Web-based courses agree fairly closely that the following elements are most important, course content is easy to follow and the regular feedback to the student is provided. The study concluded that students placed considerably more emphasis on the provision of adequate content and a clear statement of expectations by the instructor. Clearly, the instructors of web-based courses that participated in this survey believe they are frequently using the best practices identified in the literature. Student survey data, while not quite as favorable, does support their claim. This is encouraging news for both interested parties. Moreover, the study stated that the survey data does not support the notion that inexperienced instructors (instructors who have taught only one Web-based course) use best practices less frequently. Instead, it indicates that instructors are utilizing best practices regularly in their Web-based courses regardless of their level of expertise. This indicates a stronger knowledge base in new instructors about the requirements of effective online instruction than the researcher presumed.   Likewise, it is apparent from the survey data that, when these best practices are not utilized frequently, student opinion about the Web-based course suffers as a result. This supports all of the literature from which these best practices were derived. It behooves students and instructors of Web-based courses to continue to utilize these best practices as often as possible.   The E-learning Market According to the International Data Corporation (IDC, 2001), the U.S. government at the federal, state and local level employs more than 20 million people. The size of the market for outsourced training was between $3.66 billion and $5.16 billion in 2000. Moreover, it is also expected to grow to between $4.3 billion and $7.87 billion in 2005.   The said agency also posited that by the end of 2004, ninety percent of U.S. colleges are expected to offer some form of distance learning. This idea is predominantly based on the table below.   Table 1. Heavy-Users of Internet Systems The data shows that the heaviest users of e-learning are the computer and technology vendors. Moreover, only one percent behind is the financial sector that utilizes 30% of the total technology. The system on higher education, on the other hand, acquires 12% of the e-learning technologies. (IDC, 2001)   However, considering the relatively young stage of e-learning, the users inevitably encounter difficulties in acquiring the technology as a means of training and education. This is summarized in the table below.   Table 2. Company Users’ E-learning Challenges  Source: e-learning magazine User Survey, 2001 The table shows that company users stated that the bandwidth is their primary concern for the implementation of e-learning. Moreover, lack of  interaction and cultural resistance among their keep acquired 41% of the responses individually. This means that majority of the users would be subjected to an impersonal training system where reinforcement and motivation would be intrapersonal in nature for the trainee.   On the other hand, the people engaged in higher education stated that cultural resistance is the main concern that they recognized in the implementation of e-learning. Moreover, 44% of the said population stated that the medium bandwidth where modes of instructions would be given is their secondary challenge. Finding the right bandwidth with the smallest margin of error would be one of the primary goals of the e-learning market. These data are summarized in the table below.   Table 3. Higher Education Users’ E-learning Challenges  Source: e-learning magazine User Survey, 2001

Thesis Chapter 2 on The critical success factors for implementing e-learning programs in institutes of higher education

Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter shall provide a discussion and earlier analysis and evaluation collated from ...

Thesis Chapter 2: ROLE OF BEING A SUCCESSFUL SPORTS COACH

ROLE OF BEING A SUCCESSFUL SPORTS COACH   This chapter discusses the definition of a coach, his skills, duties, responsibilities and most of all, his role.  Also, this chapter points out a coach’s limitations and obligations to his athlete and to the public.  It also indicates how coaches should value the health and safety of his athlete and the importance of an open and trusting relationship.  Finally, it gives us a detailed definition of the different roles a coach play in his athlete’s career.   What is a Coach? Coaches work with teams or individuals in order to get them started or, if they have talent, to enable them to develop their abilities to the full. They identify the needs of the individual or the team, and plan and implement suitable training programmes. Coaches are role models, and need to gain the respect and trust of those they work with. As well as helping individuals to gain skills and develop techniques and knowledge they have an important role in inspiring confidence and the right attitude. Many instructors/coaches have dual roles, combining coaching with other, often full-time, jobs. (Higham, 2002) According to McCray (2002 - 2003), Coaching is one half "science" and process combined with one half art. Coaching is whatever it takes to enable someone to change, to transform. It is the method whereby we cause something to be other than what it is. Think about it. We go through life continually causing aspects of our lives to be something other than what they are. We hunger, we need to change that state or condition, and so we eat. The examples are as endless as the collective pursuits of humanity at any given moment. Furthermore, The United Kingdom Coaching Strategy describes the role of the coach as one which "enables the athlete to achieve levels of performance to a degree that may not have been possible if left to his/her own endeavors".  The role of the coach could be quite daunting since the above implies what could be construed as quite awesome responsibility, especially for the part-time non-professional. Is Coaching an Art or a Science? Science. To support the coach there is a wealth of scientific information based on research conducted with athletes. Information is available to support the coach and athlete in all areas of training and development including nutrition, biomechanics, psychology, physiology & medicine. There are a number of scientific methods to measure and analyze the athlete's performance e.g. computer aided analysis of VO2 max, lactate levels, running technique etc. Art. The art of coaching comes when the coach has to analyze the scientific data and convert it into coaching and training programmes to help develop the athlete. This analysis process relies heavily on the coach's experience and knowledge of the event/sport and the athlete concerned. By understanding the science, which is the foundation of training, a well designed training program can be developed that will help an athlete reach their full potential. The art is understanding the science and then applying it. (MacKenzie, 2003) SKILLS OF A COACH             In order to be an effective coach, one has to have the following skills: Have basic organizational skills, have a positive attitude toward fitness, should have a good sense of humor, because coaching is fun! Also, he can motivate, teach and be a role model to his  players, He should demonstrate and communicate a good sense of values. I.e. fair play, sportsmanship, respect and teamwork. Other skills include having a positive attitude, has good communication skills, with both kids and parents, and is safety conscious and have basic first aid skills or knowledge. (Lindsay, 2002)   DUTIES OF A COACH Being a coach means developing specific skills in order to have a good relationship with his athlete and in turn be a successful coach as well.  Some of these skills include: 1.) Know how to communicate effectively with your athletes. Good and clear communication builds a strong rapport.  Being able to know what the other is feeling and thinking paves the way to an open relationship. 2.) Understand the learning process and training principles. A guided training always results to a safe and successful outcome.  3.) Understand and implement appropriate teaching methods.  Executing the proper methods in training leads to a comprehensive preparation. 4.) Understand the various coaching styles.  Variety is a vital factor in order to keep the athlete tuned in to your training and won’t get bored of the same routine. 5.) Understand the capabilities of growing children.  Coaches must always keep in mind that as children grow, their attitudes and perspective change as well.  Because of this, the way they must be treated must evolve with them. 6.) Advise athletes on track safety. As the saying goes,  an ounce of safety is worth a pound of cure.  No matter how important a game is, keep in mind that health and safety is still to be the topmost priority. 7.) Understand the causes and recognize the symptoms of over-training.  As stated beforehand, safety is to be the number one concern.  8.) Understand how to reduce the risk of injury to your athletes.  Proper knowledge of first aid and preventive medicine keeps both you and the athlete in top shape. 9.) Prepare training programmes to meet the needs of each athlete.  Following this tip makes the coach focus on the different areas where the athlete is lacking efficiency in. 10.) Assist athletes to develop new skills.  It is always an advantage to let an athlete excel in different skills.  Helping your athlete be wholly developed will give him an edge against his competitors. 11.) use evaluation tests to monitor training progress and predicting performance.  Evaluating your athlete lets you know if the whole training program actually improves him or not. 12.) Advise athletes on their nutritional needs.  Once again, health is emphasized in this tip.  13.) Understand and know how to develop the athlete's energy systems. Keeping the athlete energized throughout the training plays an important role in his preparation because it enhances his endurance. 14.) Advise athletes on relaxation and mental imagery skills.  Because an athlete is always worked up, rest and relaxation is vital to his health.  Experiencing some relaxing moments relieves his stress and makes him more tuned up for his next training. 15.) Advise athletes on the use of legal supplements.  Training hard can lose an athlete’s needed nutrition in the body.  Taking legal supplements replaces the lost nutrients to keep his body balanced.  16.) Evaluate the athlete's competition performance. Similar to the aforementioned tip, an evaluation is important in an athlete’s training process because it indicates whether he is improving and also points out if he has a positive response to a competition. 17.) Evaluate athlete/training and athlete/coach performance.  Lastly, evaluating whether both the athlete and the coach benefits from the training is a vital factor in the coach and athlete’s over all preparation. (MacKenzie, 2003) Moreover, according to Higham (2002), The following are the duties of a sports coach: 1.)Evaluating performance and providing suitable feedback, balancing criticism with positive comments so that participants are encouraged to fulfill their potential; 2.) Identifying strengths and weaknesses in a participant's performance, and producing appropriate training programmes; 3.) Being flexible, as participants will vary considerably in the level and manner in which they require help and guidance; 4.) Developing a knowledge and understanding of fitness, injury, nutrition and sports science; planning and running programmes of activities for groups and/or individuals; 5.) Effectively communicating instructions and commands using clear, simple language; 6.) Demonstrating an activity by breaking the task down into a series of manageable sequences; 7.) Instructing and encouraging participants to develop and gain skills, knowledge and techniques; 8.) Inspiring confidence and positive attitudes in the athletes they coach; and 9.) Acting as a role model, gaining the respect and trust of the people they work with.   ROLES OF A SPORTS COACH Being a coach does not limit one to just plain training. You also have to play different roles in order to create an effective and lasting relationship with your athlete.  The first role a coach has to play is to be an Advisor. This role basically Advises athletes on the training to be conducted and suitable kit and equipment. It can also be on other aspects of training and life. Sometimes, a coach has to go beyond the area of training.  It may mean that you also have to advise the athlete on his problems and personal life.  Another role a coach has to play is to be an Assessor.  This means assessing the athlete’s performance in training and in competition.  Honest assessment of an athlete’s capabilities prevents despair and injury.  (MacKenzie, 2003) There may be times when a coach also has to be the Chauffeur. This means transporting them to sporting events if parents or family are unavailable to take them. A sports coach is a Counselor too.  This task include resolving emotional problems on the basis that sharing anxieties can be both relieving and reassuring. Another role a coach plays is a Demonstrator.  This is similar to a teacher only he demonstrates to the athletes the skill you require them to perform. To achieve this it is important that you also keep fit. Perhaps many people don’t realize it but a coach is also a Friend.  Over the years of working with an athlete a personal relationship is built up where as well as providing coaching advice you also become someone, a friend, who they can discuss their problems or share their success with. It is important to keep personal information confidential because if you do not then all respect the athlete had for you as a friend and coach will be lost. In addition, a coach is a Facilitator. He Identifies suitable competitions for them to compete in to help them achieve their overall objectives for the year.  Aside form being a facilitator, he is also a Fact finder. A coach gathers data of national and international results and to keep abreast of current training techniques. Another role of a coach is to be the Fountain of knowledge. This may be part of the advisor role in that you will often be asked questions on any sporting event, events that were on the television, diet, sports injuries and topics unrelated to their sport.  Similar to being a demonstrator, a coach also has to be an Instructor, which means instructing athletes in the skills of their sport, One more role is to be their Mentor.  When athletes attend training sessions you are responsible, to their parents and family, for ensuring that they are safe and secure. You have to monitor their health and safety whilst training and support them should they have any problems or sustain any injuries. The coach also has to be the Motivator. Maintaining the motivation of all the athletes the whole year round is very vital to an athlete’s career because this is the basis for his excellent performance. Furthermore, a coach portrays the role of an Organizer and Planner.  This means preparing of training plans for each athlete and organize attendance at meetings and coaching clinics.  An athlete leads a very busy lifestyle, therefore  the coach must help his athlete keep up his schedule by organizing and planning his daily activities. Last, but certainly not the least, the coach should be his athlete’s number one Supporter.  In the sporting world, competition can be a very nerve racking experience for some athletes and often they like you to be around to help support them through the pressures. Role of a 'Friend' and perhaps 'Counselor' come in here too.  (MacKenzie, 2003) RESPONSIBILITIES OF A COACH             According to Mackenzie (2003), Coaches need to be aware of their legal responsibilities, especially with respect to the advice they give their athletes and the way they manage and supervise participation in sport. Coaches have a legal responsibility to their athletes and should give appropriate advice and guidance and not offer advice beyond their level of qualification. Health and Safety.  As said earlier, an athlete’s health and safety should be the top priority of a coach.  No matter how important a game is, the coach should not be carried away by winning alone.  He should still consider his athlete’s condition. Coaches should have access to first aid facilities and have the means by which to contact emergency services. A coach could be liable if evidence can show that normal standards and practices have not been followed.  No matter what happens life is on the line whenever a game is at hand. Protection from Abuse. Coaches also have a responsibility to protect children from all forms of abuse. According to Mackenzie, there are four main kinds of abuse: Neglect (providing inadequate food), Emotional abuse (being threatened or taunted), Sexual abuse (being shown pornographic material), and Physical abuse (hitting) Coaches should also be able to recognize indicators which may signify abuse and take appropriate action if concerned. All organizations (e.g. sports governing bodies, local authorities, clubs) should have a policy statement and guidelines regarding child abuse. Insurance. Coaches should have appropriate insurance which covers both public liability and personal accidents. Many governing bodies include insurance as part of their affiliation fee.  Having an insurance is one way of securing you and your athlete’s future. Transportation. It is recommended that coaches do not use their personal vehicles for transporting athletes to venues. If coaches do use their own vehicles then they should ensure they are properly licensed and insured. With young athletes coaches should seek the assistance of the parents/guardians. (MacKenzie, 2003) Supplements. Coaches have an ethical and legal responsibility to: educate their athletes about drug (supplement) use and abuse, and provide general and appropriate nutritional advise.             Nowadays, improper intake of supplements and taking of prohibited drugs is very profuse. Coaches should monitor their athlete’s medicine intake and strongly discourage the use of other drugs such as steroids. (MacKenzie, 2003)   Code of Ethics and Conduct for Sports Coaches This following code has been developed by the National Coaching Foundation from the Code of Ethics (1989) published by the British Institute of Sports Coaches (BISC). It also adopts the principles contained in the Council of Europe's Code of Sports Ethics. The BISC Code formed the value statement underpinning the National Vocational Qualification Standards (1992) for Coaching, Teaching and Instructing. This code has replaced the original BISC code as the value statement in the revised standards (1998). Humanity. Coaches must respect the rights, dignity and worth of every human being and their ultimate right to self-determination. Specifically, coaches must treat everyone equitably and sensitively, within the context of their activity and ability, regardless of gender, ethnic origin, cultural background, sexual orientation, religion or political affiliation. Relationship. The good coach will be concerned primarily with the well-being, safety, protection and future of the individual performer. There must be a balance between the development of performance and the social, emotional, intellectual and physical needs of the individual. Coaches are responsible for setting and monitoring the boundaries between a working relationship and friendship with their performers. This is particularly important when the performer is a young person. The coach must realize that certain situations or friendly words and actions could be misinterpreted, not only by the performer, but also by outsiders (or other members of a squad or group of performers) motivated by jealousy, dislike or mistrust, and could lead to allegations of misconduct or impropriety. The relationship between coach and performer relies heavily on mutual trust and respect. This means that the performer should be made aware of the coach's Qualifications and experience, and must be given the opportunity to consent to or decline proposals for training, performance or competition. Commitment. Coaches have a responsibility to declare to their performers and/or employers any other current coaching commitments. They should also find out if any prospective client is receiving instruction from another teacher/coach. If so, the teacher/coach should be contacted to discuss the situation. Coaches who become aware of a conflict between their obligation to their performers and their obligation to their National Governing Body (NGB) (or other organization employing them), must make explicit to ail parties concerned the nature of the conflict, and the loyalties and responsibilities involved. Co-operation. Coaches should communicate and co-operate with other sports and allied professions in the best interests of their performers. An example of such contact could be the seeking of: educational and career counseling for young performers whose involvement in sport impinges upon their studies and sport science advice through the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) Integrity. Coaches must not encourage performers to violate the rules of their sport. They should actively seek to discourage and condemn such action and encourage performers to obey the spirit of the rules. Coaches must not compromise their performers by advocating measures which could constitute unfair advantage. They must not adopt practices to accelerate performance improvement which might jeopardize the safety, total well-being and future participation of the performer. Coaches must never advocate or condone the use of prohibited drugs or other banned performance enhancing substances. Coaches must treat opponents with due respect, both in victory and defeat, and should encourage their performers to act in a similar manner. A key role for a coach is to prepare performers to respond to success and failure in a dignified manner. Advertising. Advertising by sports coaches in respect of qualifications, training and/or services must be accurate and professionally restrained. Coaches must be able to present evidence of current qualifications upon request. Evidence should also be available to support any claim associated with the promotion of their services. Coaches must not display any affiliation with an organization in a manner that falsely implies sponsorship or accreditation by that organization. Confidentiality. Sports coaches inevitably gather a great deal of personal information about performers in the course of a working relationship. Coach and performer must reach agreement about what is to be regarded as confidential information (i.e. not divulged to a third party without the express approval of the performer). Confidentiality does not preclude the disclosure of information about a performer to persons who can be judged to have a right to know. For example: 1.) Evaluation for competitive selection purposes. 2.) Recommendations for employment.  3.) In pursuit of disciplinary action involving performers within the sport. 4.) In pursuit of disciplinary action by a sports organization against one of its members. 5.) Legal and medical requirements for disclosure. 6.) Recommendations to parents/family where the health and safety of performers might be at stake. 7.) In pursuit of action to protect children from abuse. Abuse of Privilege. The sports coach is privileged to have regular contact with performers and occasionally to travel and reside with performers in the course of coaching and competitive practice. A coach must not attempt to exert undue influence over the performer in order to obtain personal benefit or reward. Sports coaches should never smoke while coaching. Also, coaches should not drink alcohol so soon before coaching that it would affect their competence to coach, compromise the safety of the performers or obviously indicate they had been drinking (e.g. smell of alcohol on breath). Safety. Within the limits of their control, coaches have a responsibility to ensure as for as possible the safety of the performers with whom they work. All reasonable steps should be taken to establish a safe working environment. The activity undertaken should be suitable for the age, physical and emotional maturity, experience and ability of the performers. Coaches have a duty to protect children from harm and abuse.  The performers should have been systematically prepared for the activity and made aware of their personal responsibilities in terms of safety. Competence. Coaches shall confine themselves to practice in those elements of sport for which their training and competence is recognized by the appropriate NGB. Training includes the accumulation of knowledge and skills through formal coach education courses, independent research and the accumulation of relevant verifiable experience. The National Occupational Standards for Coaching, Teaching and Instructing (and/or the approved NGB coaching awards) provide the framework for assessing competence at the different levels of coaching practice. Competence to coach should normally be verified through evidence of qualifications. Competence cannot be inferred solely from evidence of prior experience. Coaches must be able to recognize and accept when to refer performers to other coaches or agencies. It is their responsibility, as far as possible, to verify the competence and integrity of any other person to whom they refer a performer. Coaches should regularly seek ways of increasing their personal and professional development. Coaches should welcome evaluation of their work by colleagues and be able to account to performers, employers, NGBs and colleagues for what they do and why. Coaches have a responsibility to themselves and their performers to maintain their own effectiveness, resilience and abilities. They should recognize when their personal resources are so depleted that help is needed. This may necessitate the withdrawal from coaching temporarily or permanently. (MacKenzie, 2003) REFERENCES: 1.            Higham, Anne (2002) Sports Coach - Instructor Available: www.prospects.ac.uk/links/occupations Accessed: May 17, 2003 2.            Lindsay, Ken (2002) Guide to Coaching Sports – Parents and Coaches – We can Help! Available: http://www.guidetocoachingsports.com/ Accessed: May 18, 2003 3.            MacKenzie, Brian (2003) Coaches Legal Responsibilities Available: http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/legal.htm Accessed: May 18, 2003 4.            MacKenzie, Brian (2003) Code of Ethics and Conduct for Sports Coaches Available: http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/ethics.htm Accessed: May 18, 2003 5.            MacKenzie, Brian (2003) Sports Coach – Coaching Available: www.brianmac.demon.co.uk    Accessed: May 17, 2003 6.            McCray, Ron 2002-2003 Coaching Available: www.ronmccray.com Accessed: May 17, 2003

Thesis Chapter 2: ROLE OF BEING A SUCCESSFUL SPORTS COACH

ROLE OF BEING A SUCCESSFUL SPORTS COACH This chapter discusses the definition of a coach, his skills, duties, responsibilities and m...

THESIS CHAPTER 2 ON DEVELOPING COUNTRY MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS: A SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 2   DEVELOPING COUNTRY MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS: A SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW                                      2.0 Introduction   2.1 Emergence of Developing Country Multinational Corporations: The Theoretical Explanation of MNC 2.1.1     General Theories of Multinational Corporation   i.              The Pioneering Work of Stephen Hymer: The Industrial Organization Theory ii.            The Transaction Cost Theory to the Internalisation Theory iii.           The Product Life Cycle Theory iv.           Dunning Eclectic Paradigm v.            A Selected View of MNCs Theories: FDI and Country Development   IDP and Stage Theory: Side by Side   2.2 the Emergence and Evolution of Multinational Corporations: from developed Country: the Theoretical Explanation       The origins of trade and industry are innate to the history of mankind who, as soon as he learned to walk on his two feet, discovered the value of moving in teams and packs similar to the animals they hunted for food back in the prehistoric times. As humans became more civilized, they developed the social order which only humans can do as rational beings. Within the social order, man developed the underpinnings of society through roles, protocol, work assignments, rights, duties and responsibilities thereby creating the human society. As the societies’ functions were initially internal and for survival, roles and functions revolved around these. Later, and with sporadic contact with other like small societies, human beings blended into a more homogenous community with slightly altered roles until the land and its resources which they occupied could not be cultivated to support the lifestyle of the community – thus communities tended to be nomadic until they found a place that could sustain their livelihood while maintaining contact with the outside world: the river systems.   The roadmap that history presents to humankind was born on the riverside: these were considered the highways to the rest of the world and this is why such waterways as the Ganges, Mississippi, Rio Grande, Panama Canal, the Chinese Yellow River, the Amazon, Hudson and Nile, among others, have never lost their places in history. These water highways paved the way for indigenous goods per tribe or civilization to be traded with other cultures, other tribes – other nationalities. The galleon ships of Spain and Portugal, the Chinese merchant junks as well as the dreaded sea pirates were proof that there was riches to be found in the water-based commerce. However, a system had to be in place to facilitate the trade such as the discovery of the barter concept, and later the concept of currency which was usually salt, gold or common precious minerals. These later evolved into more complex economic principles – such as overseas trading.   As early as 2500 BC, Sumerian merchants found in their foreign commerce that they needed men stationed abroad to receive, to store and to sell their goods. The famed conquistadors of the Indian people – the British – had their East India Company chartered in London during the 1600 and established branch overseas. The mid-seventeenth century saw the English, French and Dutch mercantile families sending relatives to America and the West Indies to represent their firms. It was only in due time that the American colonists discovered in their own foreign trade that it was desirable to have agents and, on occasion, branch houses in important trading centers to warehouse and to sell American exports.   History also describes the Virginia Company which was chartered in 1606 by King James I to establish the first permanent English settlement at Jamestown as “the first foreign direct investment in America” which went bankrupt by 1624. The period of 1875-1914 is identified by historian Mira Wilkins as “the rise of truly large-scale foreign investments in the private sector” including “more foreign direct investments than most subsequent commentaries have recognized”. Wilkins identified two types of these investments as one being a carrier of potentials for control but having a fragile if not negligible home office with little capacity beyond that of raising capital while the other one would be more akin to today’s multinational companies which provide extension of a company and its operating organizational and competitive advantages.   The domains where multinationals were normally involved in where in railways, mining, tramways, water, gas, electricity, banking, insurance, finance, land plantations and even manufacturing – most of them being infrastructure projects that one can see as key operational and competitive advantages of the developed nations during the industrial revolution. These infrastructure projects have been conceived with the ancient concept of trade in mind. The key transport systems of railways and tramways were mere conduits of transferring the produced goods from the farm to the international marketplace via land, sea and later, by air in the different ports. The infrastructure and distribution projects of water and electricity made sure the production of the goods were done efficiently and with proper irrigation, power and electricity. The financial intermediaries made sure the working capital for the farm and manufacturing sectors during the industrial revolution were kept in place while the continuous mining of precious elements ensured the valuation of the loans as well as financial instruments were viable when presented to the market. By adopting this complex interplay of strategies of the developing countries during the industrial revolution, the world as we know it today is composed of countries that have been able to implement properly said strategies and become developed countries. Of course, the strategies would not have had their share of losses particularly during a time when there was a need for strong political will, a dedicated and committed leadership as well as conducive cultures and natural resources able to support such strategy. It can be seen in other countries that tried the same strategy but lacked a strong leadership or a favorable culture – even a country that can accommodate laying the back-breaking groundwork for railways and telecommunication lines especially within intense warring factions or geographic and archipelagic constraints: that the strategy had to integrate with the nation’s strengths and abilities to be led toward development.   The American and European economies were at the forefront of the industrial revolution – with capital intensive projects focusing on enhancing the competitive advantage of their nations and a rich source of natural resources, they were able to perfect their craft within their backyard using their own indigenous resources. They each propelled their economies through public flotations, bonds, money market placements, financial derivatives including options and securities although records other than these such as the Latin American and Asian economies, particularly those of China and Japan, have not been considered in the literature of US economic history. The American and European development model was grounded on very strong antitrust policy, market competition and private ownership. However, the industrial giants of the time also realized that with their exploding economies and advances in sciences and the arts, their intrinsic local natural resources could be imperiled which led them to exploit and look outward: their immediate neighbors and more importantly: their colonies. The American and European colonies at that time were very rich in key ingredients for the expansion of the industrial revolution not only within their boundaries but to outside territories as well. The arrogance and pride of the white race coupled with their more advanced weaponry and gadgets made a formidable stance versus the colored race of the rest of the world.  The stance which also set the US and European counterparts from the rest of the world was their perceived supremacy and management of this perception vis-à-vis other trading partners, even those it did not trade with always had a fair share of market perception of the Caucasian traders from its other contemporaries who may have traded with the whites.   The era of puritanism especially in the conquest of the whites over the Indian inhabitants of the virgin Americas as well as the issue of black slavery during the two world wars was very pronounced and provided a strong backdrop to the statement that British, American and European supremacy, although hinged on a gentleman’s agreement amongst themselves, was pervasive and affected the growth of their respective economies although history proves that as each party adopts its own strategy i.e. America becomes unifies its domain to become the United States of America (hereafter referred to as USA in this chapter) while the British adopts a monarchy controlled by Parliament and Europe adopts the more laissez faire style amongst its member countries and each country strategy has its own resultant socio-political economy.   The American and European economies are largely developed economies and as such have much to protect which is how the propensity to create a strong military competence arose. The Depression in the 1930’s was a result of the absence of any real threat to the ballooning economy of America and Europe that overindulgence and overspending contributed to an overheated economy thereby reducing the value of such revered assets as mining inventories, precious metals – most of which undermined the commercial value of the marketplace.   Given that the developing nations were expanding their territories across the globe, seeking more indigenous cultures to conquer and annex, the developing entities created two power blocks: the Central Powers of Germany, Austria and Hungary versus the Allied composed of Britain, France and Russia. Their respective alliance structures, imperial rivalries and mutual distrust escalated a minor conflict into the Great War struck at Sarajevo during the assassination of Austrian’s crown prince sometime in 1914. It was only when the Central Powers downed three US merchantmen three years into the war that the USA sided with the Allies. The sheer number as well as firepower of the US contingent contributed to a compromise for peace resulting in the oppressive Treaty of Versailles in 1919, imposing stringent sanctions on Germany and the rest of the Central Powers.   After the momentary peace offered by the respite from the previous world war – despite being localized in Northern American and European territories, the industrial revolution continued to bear much industry to the extent of easy credit leading to widespread stock speculation in local and offshore activities, having not fully recovered from the war. Further, economic policies under the English and European economies created domestic overproduction and less foreign trade resulting in the implosion of the Great Depression for the respective countries as well as for the whole North America and European states. It was during this time that the Allied forces were perceived by the embittered Germans regarding the sanctions of the Versailles Treaty that launched the second World War – and that helped the English economies, particularly the Americans, to recover using military and defense spending.   Slightly prior to these events in history, a small archipelago in the Southeast Asia was slowly studying and imbibing the developmental models of its bigger contemporaries in the Northern hemisphere of the globe. Japan was rising from a largely feudalistic society with shoguns and warlords keeping the governance of its empire and evolving into a Meiji empire or “enlightened rule” where intellect and learning was sought throughout the world in order to establish the foundation of the empire. Japanese rule was a combined effort of government and businesslike commitment to adopted strategy by all sectors of society. With surprising perspicacity, Japan saw that military strength, which was one of their objectives, depended on industrial power, technical knowledge, and administrative efficiency and that it would not be enough to merely acquire Western armaments. Thus, they embarked upon a broad and intensive program of economic, political and even social reform with impetus mainly driven by the government. The Japanese borrowed several models from the developed countries: the French prefectural system of local governance, the German national railway system model versus the local-based railway system of Western countries, the German national and excellence training for technology and engineering, the US banking model of having several national banks issuing business notes and currency versus the British central bank model where only the central bank issues said notes and currencies to control the inflation and lastly – the penchant for total quality excellence in production of US Industrial Engineer William E. Deming in the early 1950’s. Of the four borrowed models, it was the US banking model that failed for Japan after the Bank Act of 1872 which spurred several expensive rebellions for Japan and resulted in a restructured banking system. What followed was a depletion of natural resources particularly gold, silk and tea which enamored the British colonizers in the first place amidst farmers and working class who took to more luxurious lifestyles given their previous victories in economic policy improvements. This was when the capital-rich Westerns loaned finances to simple Asiafolk such as Japan in order to indebt the country and become a de facto annex to its burgeoning empire.   When the Germans launched their offensive on the weakened economies and spirits of the western world, they used superior weaponry, blind-loyalty to the supremacy of the Aryan race and a promise of rich spoils for its allies – among which was debt-ridden Japan. Further that the Great Depression intensely affected Japan due to its borrowed banking and financial model that was interpreted by the anti-American Japanese as a devious and underhanded manner of acquiring an ally thru indebtedness unlike the Germans and the French who allowed relative freedom in letting Japan adopt its accordant operational model of railways and governance respectively. The effects of World War 2 left deep scars in the German and Japanese economies in 1945 – one of which was used by Japan to heal itself quickly and surpass the growth of the world developed leaders to become one of them.    A key component of the war’s aftermath was the agreements made between Japan and the victorious countries. Concern with US reactions did not prevent some Japanese from desiring to amend their new constitution – particularly the contentious provisions that made not the emperor but the people – sovereign, and that denied Japan the right to wage war. A resultant budgetary savings from military resources was immediately realized compared to other recovering economies. The war also enabled the spectrum of political parties within Japan to be one of two: the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) and the small but growing Communist party. The previous efforts to broaden the educational system in Japan proved instrumental in rebuilding Japan and fueling its miracle growth during the postwar era. The previous cooperation between government and business was strengthened by lessons learned in the war and the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) evolved to be the cementing factor between government and the large family-owned businesses called zaibatsus which were similar to the Korean chaebols. Government was given a very deliberate role in focusing on which economic policies to pursue, which industries to develop, and which ones to cease supporting – all of which were followed and supported by the zaibatsus. Government and zaibatsus determined the basic industries and goods that had to be protected which included rice and staple food items attributable to its culture. Strong protectionist policies were set up as well as complex tax and distribution schemes which were applied even to later Japan-exported value-added products such as VCRs, tape recorders, and the like.   One of the industries severely affected by the war was the steel industry which was maximized by the Japanese in making weapons and armaments. These were now highly unutilized but presented a key component in Japan’s economy resurrection. Japan saw the opportunity for building not only its foundations and infrastructure but also those of others affected by the war. With the penchant for discipline and excellent workmanship which was augmented by the Total Quality Management principle from an American who was rejected by his own countrymen, W.E. Deming taught the Japanese the tools of zero wastage, effectiveness and efficiency in production, manufacturing as well as in basic service industries, Japan’s leaders saw the opportunity to use its steel industry components as building blocks to economic supremacy. From being a swollen military production facility, the steel industry produced high quality metal for shipbuilding, skyscrapers, houses, automobiles and airplanes. The grade and quality of the steel outstripped those coming from the US and German counterparts, being more bulky and heavy. The technological training of Japanese students abroad applied their skills in Japan’s steel mills churning slabs and sheets of metal – importing their raw materials from around the world and adding value by using already existing and continuously improving production facilities and practices. Parallel to this, the Western counterparts were experiencing postwar boom in terms of sale of preventive firearms – those which would be used only for last resort purposes based on agreements made after the war. World economies also progressed under the cloak of peace and the start of the cold war simply made the viability of weapons manufacture a continually viable economic activity.   In this context, the multinationals of the West and those of the East had key characteristics: the West had the more sophisticated technology and mass-produced commodities being marketed to the whole world where most were still annexes of its previous conquests but made legal under the operation of law while the East had more direct-materials and indigenous products that were marketed usually through western intermediaries. However, Japan, among the Asian countries, was exceptional since it went beyond its core competitive advantage of high-quality grade steel making, distribution, procurement and pricing by moving into higher value-add manufacturing such as technology and automobiles. Of course, the accompanying shortages in food, energy, raw materials and foreign exchange and the rampant postwar inflation led forced laborers from Korea and China crippling the nation’s coal industry which in turn threatened the manufacturing and transportation industries and increased the country’s dependence on imports. Since Japan’s chief sources of raw materials: China, Manchuria and Korea, were closed to Japanese trade postwar, Japan had to turn to western suppliers who were more expensive and usually required letters of credit from western-accredited Japanese financial intermediaries. This was the situation of Japan as it deliberately focused on its steel industry.   By 1975, Japan produced 113 million tons of crude steel, approximately 16% of world steel output or 20% of all world steel exports done by its zaibatsus - an amount approximately equal to US steel production that year which indicated Japanese steel industry’s phenomenal postwar growth and development. The US could then feel the emerging dominance of a country which was able to pay its international debt, pull ahead of Britain, France and West Germany in terms of GNP, develop a world-respected work-ethic and limited imports to only the most essential products. By 1983, Japan had the unique problem of an unprecedented large world trade surplus which was fueled by the growth of three key industries in Japan: steel, electronics and autos. By 1987, Japan registered a nearly one hundred billion trade surplus, the largest surplus for any country in history which was offset only by and equivalent amount in long term capital outflows per annum.   Fast forward to the present time, the emergence of American and Western multinationals may have been explosive during times when strong military spending was important – even as recent as the September 11 attack on the Twin Towers where smaller nations have expressed inadequacy of their superior’s ability (US) to protect itself, how much more can it provide for other less developed countries? Although the technology aspect has always been the compelling advantage of the western world, its application for the defense and monitoring tasks of governance are largely attributable to military applications, despite the erstwhile commercial functions its has been touted to perform. As for the Japanese emergence of its indigenous multinationals, they have focused on the commercial and higher value-add commodities such as electronics and automobiles, veering away from the basic industries which could be copied by similar emerging economies as had been done by Korea which focused more on shipbuilding than automobiles given its accessibility to nearby ports and given an inherited competence from the postwar era. Given that the Japanese were highly disciplined and trained in quality management, they countered the American atomic bomb in Nagasaki and Hiroshima by unleashing the economic bomb in the US by virtue of their adaptable constituency and economic prowess – to become the economic superpower of the 1980’s.   2.3 The Emergence and International Expansion of Developing Countries Multinationals: Theoretical Review (i)            The Emergence of Developing Country MNCs: The ‘First Wave’ of Literature (ii)          The Expansion of Developing Country MNCs: The ‘Second Wave’ of Literature   2.4       Summary of the Literature on Developing Country Multinationals   2.5 the Comparison of Multinationals from Developed and Developing Countries (i)            Behavior and Characteristics – Multinationals in Developed and Developing Countries exhibit the basic behavioral components and characteristics in their commercial objective: to engage in commerce beyond their sovereign borders where such economic activity shall net a favorable return of expenditures on the said overseas investment.   The timeline of history has shown that trade and commerce have always had the resultant beneficial outcome in mind for the owner of such proposed transactions. The proactive party has historically occupied the position of power in negotiations of transactions thereby resulting in a net gain compared to the more passive recipient of the transaction who, although may gain from the deal, such gain may not be comparable to that of the initiator. To illustrate, developed countries are assumed to have more mature infrastructure systems: physical as well as intellectual and legal infrastructure. Their characteristic penchant for banding together and leading cooperative efforts stem from the basic learnings of history that more heads are better than one especially in a collaborative effort where it is clear that the positions of power will benefit the most and ably determine the outcome to their advantage. Thus, the GATT, WTO and United Nations, among other collaborations, develop from painful losses in the world wars and use the operation of common law – despite and in spite of sovereign laws governing each nation in the world. The developing nations are thus at a perceived disadvantage in that by operation of law and of peer pressure to be admitted into the communities of countries participating in world trade, they have to be accredited, accepted and vouched for as if in an old boy’s exclusive club or even the pre-pubescent treehouse of western boyhood years.    Multinationals in developed countries are perceived to be remnants of the time when the human race was starting to master its world – thereby gaining first to market strategies which also carried the priority rights over discovered channels or complementary systems or products to their already expanding empire. The general characteristic and behavior of western multinationals were therefore expansive in their focus rather than complementary given that their innate culture was one of annexing, expanding and colonizing – gaining for itself for the pure purpose of ownership, expansion and exploitation. It is only recently with the resurgence of globalization, wide media coverage and more benevolent multinationals that aspects such as corporate responsibility and commitment to community development are being imbibed. These shall be discussed further in the succeeding section.   (ii)          Business Strategies and Performance – It should be considered that Developed Countries were Developing countries at one time and while applying similar strategies, the variable factors such as timing, leadership, resources and environmental conditions at the very least could spell the difference from a successful implementation of business strategies or a failure.   The previous section mentioned about the expansive focus on the strategies of multinationals from the previous developed nations – which have been stymied by the globalization and digitization of technology that enables an idea to be spread at the speed of thought throughout the world in an instant. Multinationals at this point have blurred – either deliberately or not – since the world has sensitized itself to the sins of the past which dealt with racism, prejudice and divisive behavior. Multinationals have been defined by ownership in the past although by virtue of globalization, the boundaries have blurred except for a few who remain to be very strong at certain localities particularly when location is a prime competitive advantage for the multinational company. In the past, western multinationals were very aggressive in adopting international strategies mainly for expanding their market and searching for low-cost production facilities outside their expensive factories. This still takes place particularly for labor and basic capital outlay projects that do not require much technology or infrastructure dependence such as the migration of factories into the sweat-factories of China, Tibet and Latin America. However, for multinational operations that require more coverage in terms of market, a sophisticated but lesser costing area of operations, business process outsourcing of non-core competencies, coupled with strong infrastructure but relatively accommodating legal systems – plenty of potential multinational sites fall into this category. This is the current strategy being adopted by a more sensitized developed country with multinational expansion plans – or even transplanting plans similar to when many multinationals transferred their regional headquarters from Hong Kong to Singapore before the turnover to China in 1997.   The current strategy of multinationals, both from developed and developing countries, is to be more sensitive to a globally politically correct way of setting up and dealing with its multinational efforts. Whereas the less competitive times during the early 1900’s to the 1980’s offered countries and companies to adopt industry specific strategies without regard for the others, or core-competency of business dictating economic development, versus technology driven or even human-capital competency strategy, the 2000’s offer similar but more niche areas to develop since the developed countries have led in the development of the more basic areas and that more value-added industries and activities are needed to spur the next leapfrog in world economic development.   As presented in the beginning of this section, the same business strategies may be in play but the how, in what context, who is playing the cards and other variable factors should be considered but with a similar viewpoint that Japan did after the war: it gave itself an honest appraisal of its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, plus a key factor of its strong government-business cooperation that withstood the restructuring challenges in order to attain Japan’s collective vision. In essence, the success of Mitsubishi, Sony, Toshiba, Toyota, Nissan and the other initially Japanese-born zaibatsus who are in their own right multinationals with co-owners in the United States, England, and Britain – is the success of Japan.   (iii)         Structure – Business sense dictates that the structural bias of a multinational depends largely on the purpose for which it was set up. The developing countries’ multinationals were set up vis-à-vis the legal parameters available during that time which were: agencies, sole proprietorships, partnerships and corporations. Any multinational office or branch would fall within the confines of these legal structures, differing only in the description of the main purpose in the area of operations. The usual office structure of owner and worker was embellished as time went by given the different mandates of the overseas offices. Most of them also took off from the military hierarchy where a chain of command and accountability was established for reportorial, monitoring and management purposes of satellite offices. In fact, the first multinationals were military outposts that had to be outfitted with defensive measures in case of hostilities. The evolution of this structure came to pass as the industrial revolution necessitated more productive hands, feet, and parts of a persons body that could be employed to produce a good for commerce. These were later replaced by machines and automation until the term systems became all encompassing as descriptive of monitoring and management tools.   Present day multinationals have blurred in ownerships since the strategies employed were not for mere operational efficiencies but also, as offshoot of being business entities, for tax efficiency purposes. In this sense, a multinational can be set up to be in the tax-haven areas of the Bahamas or Cayman Islands but actual operations in a low-cost Asian locale with marketing and sales in the Western hemisphere and human resource a combination of tax-haven/flexible taxation locale in South or Latin America. Regardless, the multinational is still dictated where the seat of power resides: and that is a philosophical debate this paper does not intend to discuss.   2.6         Conclusion and Research Propositions In view of the above criticisms, this thesis adopts a non-comparative approach in analyzing and examining the expansion and development of indigenous Malaysian multinational corporations. It seeks to understand the mechanism that allows the selected firms to strengthen their strategies and core competencies in order to become a respected global player. In essence, this thesis proposed (as discussed in the proposal in chapter 1) that the developing country multinational’s strategy in competing with their competitors is not solely dependent on the technology accumulation process, as has been suggested by the conventional literature on developing country multinationals, but it is also dependent on the variety of resources and other advantages enabling their growth at home and on the international level. This portion of the discussion has also shown that strategies which may have worked before for other countries and multinational corporations may not work for the emerging Malaysian multinational since other factors which are yet to be discussed in the remainder of this paper have to be seriously considered in drafting the combined strategic plan of Malaysian Multinational Incorporated.   References: 1.    Multinationals and the Developing Countries, Louis T. Wells Jr. Journal of International Business Studies, Vol, 29 Issue 1, 1998 2.    Report from Japan 1972 – Part II. Herbert P. Bix. Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars. Vol 4, Issue 4, 1972 3.    How MNCs choose entry modes and form alliances: the China Experience. David K. Tse, Yigang pan & Kevin Y. Au. The Journal of International Studies. Vol 28, Issue 4, 1997 4.    Uncertainty, imitation, and plant location: Japanese multinational corporations, 1990 – 1996. Witold J. Henisz & Andrew Delios. Administrative Science Quarterly. Vol 46, Issue 3, 2002 5.    Multinational Corporations. John Stopford. The Foreign Policy. Issue 113, Winter 1998 6.    Multinationals, Intracorporate Competition, and Regional Development, N.A. Phelps & C. Fuler. Economic Geography, Vol 76, Issue 3, 2000 7.    Statistics on Foreign Direct Investment and Multinational Corporations: A Survey. Anna M. Falzoni. University of Bergamo, Centro Studi Luca d’Agliano and CESPRI, May 15, 2000 8.    Foreign Direct Investment and the operations of multinational firms: concepts, history and data. Robert E. Lipsey. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2001 9.    Expansion Strategies of US multinational firms. Gordon H. Hanson. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2001 10. Foreign Direct Investment in the Restructuring of the Japanese Economy. Magnus Blomstrom, Denise Konan & Ronal E. Lipsey, National Bureau of Economic Research, 2000 11. The Development of the Japanese Steel Industry. Patricia A. O’Brien, Harvard Business School, Harvard College. 1987 12. Japan: The Meiji Restoration. Audrey T. Sproat, Harvard Business School, Harvard College, 1974 13. Japan: Confronting Economic Maturity? Patricia A. O’Brien, Harvard Business School, Harvard College, 1988 14. University of Berkeley Online Library (www.lib.berkeley.edu/)

THESIS CHAPTER 2 ON DEVELOPING COUNTRY MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS: A SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 2 DEVELOPING COUNTRY MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS: A SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW ...