Research Korner

COPD CASE STUDY

Introduction             William is a 55 year old retired policeman who was constantly having cough during the last 2 weeks before he was brought to the hospital by his youngest daughter. Lately, he has been experiencing troubles in breathing. He described it as a difficulty in expiration during breathing. For this reason, he asked his youngest daughter who is living just two blocks away from him to take him to the hospital.             William admits to be a chronic smoker, consuming two packs per day and drinks alcoholic beverages regularly with his friends. After undergoing a thorough examination, his physician ordered a series of sputum tests and other lung tests. Chronic infection was detected in the lungs most probably due to smoking which irritates the bronchi and bronchioles. There was also obstruction of the airways which is responsible for William’s difficulty in expiration. He was diagnosed to have chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).   Problem Description Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a disease state characterized by the progressive development of airflow limitation that is not fully reversible. The airflow limitation is associated with an abnormal inflammatory response of the lungs to noxious particles or gases (Daryanani, 2004). COPD is an umbrella term for two diseases, chronic bronchitis and emphysema, both of which are characterized by irreversible obstruction to air flow on exhalation. Asthma is another obstructive lung disease; however, it is classified separately from COPD because the person with asthma usually has periods during which air flow returns to normal. While many persons with COPD also have some degree of airway reactivity (or bronchospasm) and are thus said to have an asthmatic component to their disease, their air flow never returns to normal. Both COPD and asthma are also inflammatory processes; however, inflammation in COPD differs markedly from that seen in asthma, with different cells, mediators, and responses to treatment (Locke, 2004). The chronic infection as is seen in William’s case is caused by his excessive smoking or other substances which irritate the bronchi and the bronchioles. The principal reason for the chronic infection is that the irritant seriously deranges the normal protective mechanisms of the airways, including partial paralysis of the cilia of the respiratory epithelium by the effects of nicotine; as a result, mucus cannot be moved easily out of the passageways (Guyton & Hall, 2000).             The obstructive process is frequently much worse in some parts of the lungs than in other parts, so that some portions of the lungs are well ventilated, whereas other portions are poorly ventilated. This often causes extremely abnormal ventilation-perfusion ratios (Ganong, 2001).   Possible Solutions The first step in diagnosing emphysema and chronic bronchitis is a good evaluation. Following the evaluation may be a number of tests to evaluate your breathing or other aspects of your health. In COPD, definite diagnosis depends on (1) demonstration of physiologic evidence of airways obstruction which persists despite intensive and maximum medical management, and (2) exclusion of any specific disease as a cause of this physiologic abnormality. Individuals with a family history of lung disease and those with an early onset of emphysema should be tested for α1-antitrypsin deficiency to determine the serum levels. Phenotyping should be done if the level is low. The normal phenotype is constituted by the MM genetic pattern. The most common abnormal phenotype associated with α1-antitrypsin deficiency is the ZZ pattern. Persons with the MZ phenotype are carriers of the disease, but do not appear to have an increased risk of developing COPD (Locke, 2004). β-2 agonists, corticosteroids, anticholinergics, and methylxanthines have been the mainstay of COPD therapy. New agents, classes, and combinations of drugs are being developed for the treatment of COPD. In February 2004, tiotropium, a long-acting anticholinergic bronchodilator, was approved by FDA. Three combination products are available: ipratropium/albuterol as a metered-dose inhaler (MDI); ipratropium/albuterol as a solution for inhalation via a nebulizer; and fluticasone/salmeterol, in the 250/50 mcg strength for the treatment of COPD associated with chronic bronchitis (Daryanani, 2004). Phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4) inhibitors are a newer class of drugs under investigation for the treatment of COPD that may also be available in the near future. With the growing number of pharmacologic options for the treatment of COPD, it is important to use evidence-based clinical data to determine which agents are most beneficial.             William has to undergo COPD therapy. He also has to quit smoking and drinking for it will be futile to undergo therapy and still continue with his health damaging habits. He should be constantly monitored by the nurses and by his daughter as well so that his therapy will be effective.   Conclusion             William’s case is not a hopeless one. Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases are experiences by many individuals worldwide. There are already many drugs that can help patients who have COPD. But of course, these drugs alone cannot cure the ailment.             William in his case has to stop his smoking and drinking habits as this may only worsen his condition. Smoking continually will eventually destroy his lungs even if he will be taking drugs that are used in COPD therapy.           References Daryanani, A.A. 2004, Treatment Options for the Management of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Formulary. Doenges, M. and Moorhouse, A. 2004, Nurse’s Pocket Guide: Diagnoses, Interventions, and Rationales 9th Edition. F.S. Davis Publishing. Ganong, W. 2001, Review of Medical Physiology 20th Edition. McGraw-Hill. Guyton, A. and Hall, J. 2000, Textbook of Medical Physiology 10th Edition. Harcourt Asia Pte Ltd. Kozier, B. and Erb, G. 2004, Fundamentals of Nursing: Concepts, Process, and Practice 7th Edition. Pearson Education Inc. Locke, D.L. 2004, Update on Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, MedSurg Nursing. Potter, P. and Perry, A. 2004, Fundamentals of Nursing. Mosby.

COPD CASE STUDY

Introduction William is a 55 year old retired policeman who was constantly having cough during the last 2 weeks before he was brought to the hospital by his youngest daughter. Lately,…

RESEARCH PROPOSAL ON EFFECTIVE WAY OF TEACHING THE ADOLESCENT ABOUT SEX EDUCATION: THE ROLE OF ADVENTIST WOMEN

EFFECTIVE WAY OF TEACHING THE ADOLESCENT ABOUT SEX EDUCATION: THE ROLE OF ADVENTIST WOMEN   1.0 Introduction               The largest generation of young people between 15 and 24 was at 1.05 billion and their number is quickly expanding in different countries. With this, it is vital for all the societies to address the educational, health and employment needs of these young people (overpopulation.org n.d.). This is because of the fact that adolescents are prone and expose to different sexual issues and problems such as young pregnancy, early marriage and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) (overpopulation.org n.d.). Thus, in order to prevent this, it is important to focus on proper education, in order for the teens to know about their options in dealing with sex.               This paper will focus on studying the effectiveness of curriculum and methods being used in teaching sex education towards adolescents in Adventist schools by woman.     2.0 Background of the Study   Adventists focuses on healthful living, programs and schools. With Adventists opened schools in different parts of the United States, thus in the beginning of 1897, the growth of the said schools started and continued up to the 20th century. Thus, Adventist schools focuses on reflecting the common core principles and pertains on the curriculum which focus on the needs of the society, such as nursing, medicine, social work and education. In 2006, the global Adventist Church has already educated about 1,436,290 students in 7,284 schools, from elementary through university levels (Lasley II & Hunt 2010).   Sex education is considered as intensely debated issue in contemporary Western society. This is particularly because of the fact that, religious and political issues will be considered. For the Catholic Church which considered itself as pro-life, using contraceptives will be a big no, while for the government, due to economic and social impact of sexual activities of teens, this is important. There are also some studies which show that sex education can boost the level of sexual intercourse (Fahlbusch & Bromiley 2005).    3.0 Objectives of the Study               The main aim of the study is to evaluate and present the effective ways of teaching the adolescent about sex education, focusing on the role of Adventist women. In line with this, the following are the objectives of the study:   <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt"> to present the different methods, approaches, procedures and strategies being implemented by Adventists in their sex education programs;</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt"> to analyze and asses the roles of Adventist women in educating the youth or adolescent about sex education; and </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt"> to evaluate the effectiveness of sex education programs of Adventists from the perspectives of the parents, students/adolescents and the teachers.</li> </ul>   4.0 Methodology   The research design used in this study is the descriptive approach. A descriptive research intends to present facts concerning the nature and status of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study (Creswell, 1994; Saunders et al, 2003). It is also concerned with relationships and practices that exist, beliefs and processes that are ongoing, effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing. In addition, such approach tries to describe present conditions, events or systems based on the impressions or reactions of the respondents of the research (Creswell, 1994; Saunders et al, 2003), while, new researches suggested that comprehensive sex education can lead to less teen pregnancy (Kohler & Manhart 2008). 4.1 Data Collection   The survey method, also known as the questionnaire method, will be used in gathering the data for this study.   Surveys are the most common form of research method for collection of primary data (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000). One of its purpose is to describe, e.g., to count the frequency of some event or to assess the distribution of some variables such as proportion of the population of different age groups, sex, religion, castes and languages, knowledge, attitude and adaption of practices about particular issues, and other information of similar nature about the population (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000).   4.2 Sample Frame               The target sample of this study will be 50 Adventist woman sex education teachers, 250 students (100 adolescents and 50 young adults (graduated from the school/alumnus)) and 100 parents.   4.3 Data Analysis   The data results of the study will be analyzed by determining their corresponding frequency, percentage and weighted mean. The following statistical formulas will be used:                             1.        Percentage – to determine the magnitude of the responses to the questionnaire.             n % = -------- x 100         ;           n – number of responses             N                                 N – total number of respondents   2.        Weighted Mean             f1x1 + f2x2  + f3x3 + f4x4  + f5x5 x = ---------------------------------------------  ;                                     xt where:             f – weight given to each response                         x – number of responses                         xt – total number of responses       4.4 Timetable   Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Problem Identification                 Literature Review                 Research Design                 Choice of Methodology                 Data Sources                 Data Collection                 Data Analysis                 Writing up Draft                 Editing                 Final Document                 Binding of Document                   5.0 References   Commonwealth of Learning 2000, Manual for Educational Media Researchers: Knowing your Audience, Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia (CEMCA), Vancouver, Canada.   Creswell, J W 1994, Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, Sage, California.   Fahlbusch, E & Bromiley, G W 2005, The Encyclopaedia of Christianity, Volume 4, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.   Kohler, P K, Manhart, L E & Lafferty, W E 2008, ‘Abstinence-Only and Comprehensive Sex Educatioin and the Initiation of Sexual Activity and Teen Pregnancy’, Journal of Adolescence Health, vol. 42, no. 4.   Lasley, T J, II, Hunt, T, Raisch, C D & Carper, J 2010, Encyclopaedia of Educational Reform and Dissent, SAGE.   Teen Pregnancy, overpopulation.org, http://www.overpopulation.org/teenpreg.htm (access 26 May 2010).

RESEARCH PROPOSAL ON EFFECTIVE WAY OF TEACHING THE ADOLESCENT ABOUT SEX EDUCATION: THE ROLE OF ADVENTIST WOMEN

EFFECTIVE WAY OF TEACHING THE ADOLESCENT ABOUT SEX EDUCATION: THE ROLE OF ADVENTIST WOMEN 1.0 Introduction The largest generation of young people between 15 and 24 was a…

Essay Instructions on Develop Teams and Individuals

SECTION 1:   PART A:   ‘People skills aren’t important, are they?’   Jarrod was a very experienced bank employee. On the basis of his detailed financial knowledge and experience, he was promoted to team leader of a small client service team which had been operating very effectively for some time. The bank had a lot of public contact, and although the team had no formal performance standards, team members had been selected specifically for their ability to interact well with the bank’s clients.   Apart from his excellent knowledge of the bank’s operations, Jarrod had very little to offer the team. He was not well educated, especially compared with some of his team members. He had an aggressive, bad-tempered manner. He had his favorites and enemies, and hassled those whom he did not care for. Not only did he lack basic people management skills, he had undertaken no management training. He was required to do formal appraisals and, despite having no background in that area, did so with some relish. He frequently allowed his personal biases to influence his assessments.   Jarrod noted that others in the bank were achieving their career goals, but that he was being left in a relatively junior position. This led to a massive ‘chip on his shoulder’. He condemned management, and took out his frustration on anyone who might threaten his personal security – including the manager to whom he reported. Jarrod’s manager was not willing to confront him about these problems, saying that f the team has all the technical skills, ‘people skills aren’t that important, are they?’   As a union delegate, Jarrod was well aware of his rights. He resisted tentative efforts to encourage him to leave, and knew that he could not be sacked unless the bank wet through the appropriate process. He believed he was being discriminated against. He indicated that he would get the support of the union if the efforts to remove him continued.   The client service from lacked cohesion, and morale was now beginning to diminish. They continued to provide a professional level of service, but their hearts were not now in it.       The Departmental Head has now become aware of the circumstances affecting the customer service team and has asked you, as an independent manager, to report on the situation. You need to prepare a short report (approx 750 words in total) for the Department Head providing guidelines on how best to remedy this situation. In your report you need to:       (a)    Identify and briefly describe what you see as the core problem(s) which is affecting the performance of the team.   (b)   Briefly describe what you see as the longer term impact the core problem(s) will have on the customer service team.     (c)    Recommend a course of action to address the identified core problem(s). In your suggested actions you need to address the following issues:                                   i.            Identify performance standards for the relative position(s).                                 ii.            Describe the process you will use to identify learning and development deficiencies.                                 iii.            List and briefly describe the identified development needs relative to the new standards.                               iv.            Develop learning and development plans for the identified team members.                                   v.            Recommend subsequent strategies to ensure ongoing learning and development within the team.       PART B:   ‘Educating Kylie’   You are the manager of your organization’s administration department. For some time now you have been without an assistant manager and hence unable to take leave. Your new assistant manager, Kylie, has recently been appointed and you have decided to take a month’s leave as soon as possible. While Kylie is new to the area she is very experienced and has a basic knowledge of operations in the administration department.   Prior to your proceeding on leave you need to ensure that Kylie is fully capable of relieving in your position.         You now need to plan a strategy for a learning and development program for Kylie. Prepare a short report (approx 750 words in total) to include:   (a)    The process by which you will identify Kylie’s current competencies and areas where she will require training.   (b)   A proposed learning and development program for Kylie.     (c)    A schedule identifying and justifying the various resources required for the program you have designed.   (d)   An outline of the strategies you propose for implementing the program.                       SECTION 2:   We’ll now look at the learning and development policy of your organization or one with which you are familiar.   Write a report (approx 1500 words in total) which critically analyses the effectiveness of the policy in its ability to cater for the learning and development needs of individuals and teams within your chosen organization. Your report should be broken down into the following:     (a)    A description of the policy describing both processes and documentation and the degree to which it flows into the day-to-day operation of the organization.   (b)   An evaluation of the policy using the following criteria:                                     i.            The degree to which learning and development needs are systematically identified and implemented in line with organizational requirements.                                 ii.            The ability to collaboratively develop and implement a learning plan which meets individual and team training and development needs.                                 iii.            The degrees to which individuals are encouraged to self evaluate performance and identify areas for improvement.                               iv.            The way in which feedback on the performance of team members is collected from relevant sources and compared to established team learning needs.                                   v.            The way in which if fosters a workplace environment which facilitates learning a development.                               vi.            The importance of the development of learning plans as an integral part individual/team performance plans.                               vii.            The degree to which learning plans reflect the diversity of needs and learning opportunities.                           viii.            The degree to which it facilitates individual/team access to, and participation in, learning and development performance.                                 ix.            The involvement of training and development specialists resulting in the planning and provision of learning and development which in turn enhances individual, team and organizational performance.     (c)    Identification of barriers and impediments to improvements within the policy.   (d)   Your views on the overall effectiveness of the policy and recommendation for improvement.

Essay Instructions on Develop Teams and Individuals

SECTION 1: PART A: ‘People skills aren’t important, are they?’ Jarrod was a very experienced bank employee. On the basis of his detailed financial knowledge and experience, he was promoted to…

KLUCKHOHN AND STRODTBECK'S VALUES ORIENTATION THEORY

KLUCKHOHN AND STRODTBECK'S VALUES ORIENTATION THEORY   ABSTRACT People's attitudes are based on the relatively few, stable values they hold. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's (1961) Values Orientation Theory proposes that all human societies must answer a limited number of universal problems, that the value-based solutions are limited in number and universally known, but that different cultures have different preferences among them. Suggested questions include humans' relations with time, nature and each other, as well as basic human motives and the nature of human nature. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck suggested alternate answers to all five, developed culture-specific measures of each, and described the value orientation profiles of five SW USA cultural groups. Their theory has since been tested in many other cultures, and used to help negotiating ethnic groups understand one another, and to examine the inter-generational value changes caused by migration. Other theories of universal values () have produced value concepts sufficiently similar to suggest that a truly universal set of human values does exist and that cross-cultural psychologists are close to discovering what they are. INTRODUCTION Cross-cultural psychology has two broad aims: to understand the differences between human beings who come from different cultural backgrounds, and to understand the similarities between all human beings. The similarities may be sought at all levels - from the physiological (our eyes are able to perceive colour) through the cognitive (we are also able to perceive perspective, or relative distance), to the personal (we can be both happy and sad, gentle or aggressive) to the social (we all relate to our parents and siblings), to the cultural (we all share cultural norms with others of the same cultural background). These cultural norms can take a variety of forms. They may be quite concrete and specific, like the type of clothing we find acceptable on a given occasion, or extremely complex and abstract, as are our religious beliefs. An important type of norm is the concept we have of ourselves in relation to other objects and people. These may range from our belief about the nature of human nature (1992), to the opinions we hold (our political opinions, for instance) to the attitudes we have toward a variety of concepts which we hold. Attitudes have long been studied by psychologists - especially social psychologists. For the first half of the twentieth century, it was believed that if we could measure them accurately, they would enable us to predict human behaviour. And predicting behaviour is what all psychology is about. However, as we became more psychometrically sophisticated, and able to measure attitudes accurately with instruments such as the Likert summated ratings scale, we learned that attitudes are much more complex than we had realised, and that they have to be measured very carefully, and a number of other factors such as context and strength taken into account before any accuracy of prediction could be claimed. Moreover we all have so many attitudes, they change so readily, and they vary so much over time and situation, that any one attitude can predict only a relatively small amount of behaviour. Social psychologists therefore started looking for more fundamental, slower changing concept which might give more reliable behavioural prediction. One such concept is the values which a person holds. Values are seen as being relatively few in number. Perhaps the best-known student of values is (1979), who suggests that there are at most 36 values held by human beings. Moreover they are considered to be widely, and perhaps universally held. Concepts such as honesty and courage, peace and wisdom, are recognised in all human cultures. On the other hand, (1980, 2001), in a huge world-wide study, has been able to find no more than five which are universally held. Nevertheless the idea that there are basic human values, and that they are measurable, has been exciting psychologists to investigate them for many years, from  in 1931 to the present day. It has been widely accepted that uncovering those values, and devising means of measuring them, would facilitate valuable insight into the similarities and differences between human beings from differing cultural backgrounds. One theory of basic human values which has been very influential is that of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961). Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck set out to operationalise a theoretical approach to the values concept developed by Florence's husband, Clyde Kluckhohn (1949, 1952). He argued that humans share biological traits and characteristics which form the basis for the development of culture, and that people typically feel their own cultural beliefs and practices are normal and natural, and those of others are strange, or even inferior or abnormal. He defined a value as: "A conception, explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection from available modes, means and ends of action." (Kluckhohn, 1951). Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck developed a theory which put these principles into action. They started with three basic assumptions: <ul type="disc" style="margin-bottom: 0in"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph"> "There is a limited number of common human problems for which all peoples must at all times find some solution". </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph"> "While there is variability in solutions of all the problems, it is neither limitless nor random but is definitely variable within a range of possible solutions". </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph"> "All alternatives of all solutions are present in all societies at all times but are differentially preferred". </li> </ul> They suggested that the solutions for these problems preferred by a given society reflects that society's values. Consequently, measurement of the preferred solutions would indicate the values espoused by that society. They suggested five basic types of problem to be solved by every society: <ul type="disc" style="margin-bottom: 0in"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph"> On what aspect of time should we primarily focus - past, present or future?  </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph"> What is the relationship between Humanity and its natural environment - mastery, submission or harmony? </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph"> How should individuals relate with others - hierarchically (which they called "Lineal"), as equals ("Collateral"), or according to their individual merit? </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph"> What is the prime motivation for behaviour - to express one's self ("Being"), to grow ("Being-in-becoming"), or to achieve? </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph"> What is the nature of human nature - good, bad ("Evil") or a mixture? </li> </ul> Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck also suggested a sixth value dimension of Space (Here, There, or Far Away) but did not explore it further. They then speled out the possible answers to each of the questions, arguing that the preferred answer in any society reflects the basic orientation of the society to that aspect of its environment. The orientations to each question are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Four basic questions and the value orientations reflected in their answers.   Question   Orientation   Description   Time   Past   We focus on the past (the time before now), and on preserving and maintaining traditional teachings and beliefs.       Present   We focus on the present (what is now), and on accommodating changes in beliefs and traditions.       Future   We focus on the future (the time to come), planning ahead, and seeking new ways to replace the old.   Humanity and Natural Environment   Mastery   We can and should exercise total control over the forces of, and in, nature and the super‑natural       Harmonious   We can and should exercise partial but not total control by living in a balance with the natural forces       Submissive   We cannot and should not exercise control over natural forces but, rather, are subject to the higher power of these forces.   Relating to other people   Hierarchical (“Lineal”)   Emphasis on hierarchical principles and deferring to higher authority or authorities within the group       As equals (“Collateral”)   Emphasis on consensus within the extended group of equals       Individualistic   Emphasis on the individual or individual families within the group who make decisions independently from others   Motive for behaving   Being   Our motivation is internal, emphasising activity valued by our self but not necessarily by others in the group       Being-in-becoming   Motivation is to develop and grow in abilities which are valued by us, although not necessarily by others       Achievement (“Doing”)   Our motivation is external to us, emphasising activity that is both valued by ourselves and is approved by others in our group. In proposing orientations to the Nature of Human nature question, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck suggested that there are two dimensions involved - good, bad or mixed, and that of mutability, or whether we are born the way we are and cannot change, or can learn to change (in either direction). Moreover they suggested that "mixed" may mean either both good and bad, or neutral. Taking all these considerations into account simultaneously gives us the possible orientations shown in Table 2. Table 2. Orientations possible in answering the question on the Nature of Human Nature.   Question   Orientation   Description   Nature of Human Nature   evil/mutable     Born evil, but can learn to be good.  However danger of regression always present.       evil/immutable     Born evil and incapable of being changed.  Therefore requires salvation by an external force.       mixture/mutable     Has both good and bad traits, but can learn to be either better or worse.       mixture/immutable   Has both good and bad traits, and their profile cannot be changed       neutral/mutable   Born neither good nor bad, but can learn both good and bad traits       neutral/immutable   Born neither good nor bad, and this profile cannot be changed       good/mutable   Basically good, but subject to corruption       good/immutable   Basically good, and will always remain so. Having set out their theory, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck then proposed a means of measuring the orientations it produced. They suggested intensive interviewing be used, with a series of probing questions exploring each of the value dimensions with the interviewee. However they also recognised that many people find it difficult to think in the abstract, so suggested that real-life situations be outlined which involved the particular value being investigated. This led to the moral dilemma approach used by Kohlberg in his studies of morality a decade later. Moreover Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck also stressed that the real-life situations used must be appropriate to the culture of the people being studied. This was an early attempt to provide a solution to the emic-etic dilemma outlined by  (1969) some years later, and appears similar to the solution to the dilemma proposed by  in the 1990s. To test their theory out, Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck interviewed members of five different cultural groups in the South-West USA. These included itinerant Navaho, Mexican-Americans, Texan homesteaders, Mormon villagers, and Zuni pueblo dwellers. In doing so, however, they did not attempt to develop measures of the Nature of Human Nature orientations, finding them too complex. For the remaining four dimensions, however they were able to develop real-life situations relevant to all five cultural groups, and questions to probe the value orientations used by members of those cultures in dealing with the situations involved. They were then able to draw value profiles of each group, showing the ways in which they differed from each other, and the ways in which they were similar. All of this work was published in their 1961 book, and immediately made a strong impact on cross-cultural psychologists. Since then other theorists have also developed theories of universal values - notably  (1979),  (1980, 2001) and (1992). However the theory developed by Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck remains widely used and has sparked a good deal of research - as any good theory should. A conference of users of the theory in 1998 ( 2000), for instance, attracted over 400 delegates. Applications of the Theory Nevertheless the question remains: what use is such a theory? The work of  (1984, 1992) clearly demonstrates a very practical employment of a theory of universal human values. Russo has worked for a Native American tribe, the Lummi of Washington state, for more than two decades, using the Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck theory to help them bring themselves to an ever higher standard of living. The Lummi have their own reserve territory on the Western coast near the Canadian border. There they pursue their traditional industry of deep sea fishing, as well as more recent trades such as liquor retailing. Their success in these and other enterprises depends on their being able to relate successfully to the predominantly white American majority population surrounding them. The majority population forms the bulk of potential customers for their products, and at the same time is the prime source of food, clothing and manufactured goods. Moreover its members control such vital necessities as access to power, water and timber. Members of the cultural majority must also be negotiated with concerning issues such as taxes and transport. The Lummi have therefore realised that it is vitally important that they understand the cultural mores of the majority if they are to interact successful with them. Issues such as the assumed basic motives for behaviour, the importance or otherwise of tradition, relationships between older and younger generations, accepted modes of decision-making, etc have to be understood before harmonious and successful discussion can take place. Toward this end Russo has developed measures to assess the preferred value orientations of the majority, and of the Lummi themselves. Differences and similarities have been clearly demarcated, and each party to potential negotiations made aware of them. Thus when Lummi leaders go to discuss trade, taxes, utilities or transport with local business people and officials, they are aware of the world views of those with whom they are discussing, and of the similarities and differences between themselves and their neighbours. Such foreknowledge has resulted in a successful and harmonious relationship between the two cultural groups for many years. This testifies to both the importance of understanding each others' values, and the efficacy of the Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck theory in doing so. Another way in which the theory has been used is to examine changes in cultural mores over time. An example of this were the studies undertaken by(1977, 1980) and  (1976) of changes in the disparity in values between young people and their parents as a result of migration. Using the Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck theory, they developed a fixed-alternative, 25-item questionnaire to assess respondents' value orientations in the five question areas. Having tested the questionnaire for reliability and face validity, they had it translated and back-translated into several appropriate languages. It was then tape-recorded in each of these languages, as read by a native speaker of each language. The tape recording was then used as the prime instrument in orally administering the questionnaire. Using this technique they administered it to young people, both male and female, aged between 16 and 18, and to their parents, both mother and father. Samples were taken from some of the cultures from which large numbers of people migrated from the South Pacific to New Zealand in the 1960s and 70s - Samoa, Fiji and the Cook Islands. Moreover samples within each of those countries were taken not just from the main towns, but from selected remote back-country villages as well. Comparison groups of both Maori and Pakeha (white) New Zealanders were also obtained. Data was analysed in terms of the inter-generational disparity in values demonstrated by each group.

KLUCKHOHN AND STRODTBECK'S VALUES ORIENTATION THEORY

KLUCKHOHN AND STRODTBECK'S VALUES ORIENTATION THEORY ABSTRACT People's attitudes are based on the relatively few, stable values they hold. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's (1961) Values Orientatio…

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