Research Korner: Religion

Legalizing Euthanasia: An Argument

The purpose of this paper is to argue about the subject of doctor assisted suicide. It will specifically argue with regards to the issue on the legalization of doctor assisted suicide for a terminally ill patient. This paper will also presents arguments and perspectives to defend the chosen position of the writer.             The legalization of doctor assisted suicide for the terminally ill are subjects of strong debates from all sectors of society in such countries as the United States, Canada and United Kingdom. It has become a hotly contested topic for special advocates groups and organizations that espouses a particular view or standpoint in life. This topic has touched and has been discussed and argued the fields of politics, sociology, medicine, medical ethics and moral creating factionalism and divisiveness inside a society on the legality or illegality of this practice. To better understand this practice and give further explanation to the people about this social and moral issue, it would upright to present both side of the fence, both sides of the argument. To facilitate ease of use and free flowing arguments, doctor assisted suicide in this paper will be equated to euthanasia.             Euthanasia can be defined as mercy killing or killing a person because of unbearable and incurable pain. To further expand, euthanasia can be committed indirectly or directly. Direct euthanasia refers to the act made by a person to finally ease and end his/her pain while indirect euthanasia is accomplished by a doctor who uses drugs, methods and operations that would kill the patient but would ease his/her pain (Wellie, 1992). A doctor who knowingly provides a patient with a drug or a prescription medicine in quantity that would induce death can be termed as  indirect euthanasia. Within the sphere of euthanasia, acts can be further classified as voluntary, involuntary and non-voluntary. Voluntary would mean that euthanasia has been performed because of the instruction and consent of the patient who is able to competently distinguish the results of his actions (Steinbock, 1994). In the non-voluntary procedure, the patient cannot give his/her direct consent with regards to a medical procedure that would end her sufferings. The unconscious state or the incapacity to make decisions for the patients and his/her guardian can be clearly applied to the situation that would involve non-voluntary euthanasia. In layman’s term, this kind of euthanasia can be called “pulling the plug” (Zucker, 1999).             Involuntary euthanasia meanwhile refers to the procedure that is both objected by the patient and his guardian (Prado, 1998). Although the patient or the guardian of the patient refuses to undergo euthanasia, the method is done anyway.             Religious, political, lobby and ethics groups have been debating and arguing about the legality and illegality of euthanasia. To clearly illustrate this point, it would be better to state the arguments and standpoints of these two contesting groups. In the negative side or the issue of legalizing doctor assisted suicide, arguments that concerns ethics, religion and morality are used. To these groups, euthanasia must not be implemented because this act is against the will of God. Although these groups argue that God gave man the power of free will, they stated that suicide and euthanasia are one of the acts that are considered to be wrong in the eyes of the Lord (Palmer, 2000). They further equate that although God gave man a free will, it does not mean that man can do all things and all acts that is desired by human beings and even though man has free will, there are things and actions that  are against the law of God and man. For instance, if man has a free will, it does not translate that he can rob, rape and injure other persons and properties without repercussions. To them, free will given by the Lord has some clearly defined lines and boundaries that must be crossed and one of these is the purposely ending or aiding a person to end his life (Donnelly, 1998).             Euthanasia argued by these groups also degrades and destroys the perception of society and its people towards life and its importance. Euthanasia, they argued would make the human perception on the value of life worthless and useless because each and every person who suffers from pain would be easily eased from his agonies by asking for euthanasia, whether voluntary or non-voluntary (Donnelly, 1998). The society and the people in it would be able to see the value of human life using pain, suffering and agonies as a benchmark thereby modifying their outlook and value with regards to the importance of human life. Euthanasia also serves as a social jurisprudence that would release inhibitions regarding the human life. If today, euthanasia is legalized, what assurance does the society has when men would in turn kill and exterminate persons who are considered degenerates, imbeciles and handicapped? If euthanasia is legalized, what prevents a person from committing a murder and then claiming that that act is an act that would free and ease the suffering of a person? If the society permits laws and public policies that in the short term would give beneficial effects like euthanasia, in the future, it cannot prevent the inclusion of policies and actions that would  harm individuals. If a society goes astray by legalizing euthanasia, it would never be in the right path.              The third argument raised by individuals and organizations that is against the legalization of euthanasia is that suffering and pain experienced by a person has a purpose or value. In a religious point of view, suffering would make the person realize the suffering made by Jesus Christ and this realization would of course translate to greater understanding of godliness and holiness (Palmer, 2000). Suffering and death also reminds us that this life is not permanent and that this life can be claimed at anytime by the Lord and in order to give meaning to this life, we must strive to use our life effectively in helping and caring for other people. Suffering and death reminds us not to concentrate on the worldly things and ways of this Earth but to focus our attention and strength to objects and things that would please God (Prado, 1998). Suffering for other individuals helps us to reflect and gain wisdom and a renewed perspective in life. By removing suffering and pain, these lessons of life cannot be totally understood by all men.             Euthanasia also touches some ethical dilemmas and arguments with regards to the importance of life. Groups and individuals who rally against the legalization of euthanasia says that euthanasia presents a mentality to the people that it is better to be dead than being sick or disabled. This mentality therefore would advocate for the elimination of all persons and individuals who are suffering or have some physical/mental disability as lower kinds of human beings that must be erased with or without their consent (Steinbock, 1994). This mentality degrades their status in society making other people look down at them while treating them with contempt and scorn. Society thinks therefore that disabled individuals and suffering patients are burdens to the community. Another argument related to this point of view is who is going to decide and who is going to undergo the non-voluntary euthanasia if patients are unconscious or incompetent in making decisions. Since all men are creatures that have built in with feelings, outlooks and thoughts, bias and prejudice cannot be excluded in the selection process. Since men are creatures that are exposed to the workings of society, doctors and other medical authorities will be inherently subjected in making decisions (Mcmahan, 2003). The medical profession, in implementing euthanasia, is playing as a God since they have the capacity to levy death or life even if the individual asked for it or not.  If checklists and standards will be used in classifying and determining who is going to undergo euthanasia and who is not, this condition would degrade the value of life into simple enumerations and checklists of present illnesses and symptoms experienced by a patient.             Euthanasia can also be contrary to the best interest of the patient asking for it. An argument against euthanasia with regards to this aspect clearly highlights the inability of a patient to critically make a decision and is a direct contradiction taken up in voluntary euthanasia. Anti-euthanasia groups advocate that critical and good judgment on the part of the patient cannot exist because he/she is in a state that can destabilize his/her decision making process. This inability to competently decide can be attributed to depression, medicinal side effects and psychological stability (Keown, 2002). The thought of ending one’s life through euthanasia is brought about by the perspective that the patient has been a burden to his/her relatives and that death will ease the burden that he/she is bringing to them (Keown, 2002).             To legalize euthanasia, opponents said that this move would entail the neglect on the research and development with regards to finding cures and treatment to illnesses such as AIDS and other prevalent diseases nowadays. In allowing euthanasia, the medical profession and the public in general will be forced to just kill and end the life of a person afflicted with an incurable disease (Mcmahan, 2003). Since euthanasia offers a comfortable way out, research and studies with regards to the specific incurable disease afflicted on a patient will not prosper. Euthanasia will be viewed as a risk free and financially stable option in treating patients who are gravely ill.             There are also arguments that support and defend the practice of euthanasia. Some nations and states government in the United States have legalized this practice but euthanasia is done with strict restrictions and conditions that must be complied upon (Dowbiggin, 2003). These conditions and restrictions regarding euthanasia are present in the governing laws and regulations on euthanasia practice in the Netherlands and in the state of Oregon in the United States. Advocates of euthanasia primarily advocate that euthanasia is beneficial because the patients are undergoing excruciating and painful feeling in his/her ordeal (Hillyard, 2001). This conception stem from the fact that people who have incurable and painful diseases suffer greatly and horribly when dying. They state therefore that in order to help and minimize the pain felt by the patient and the emotional trauma that is also felt by relatives and friends, euthanasia must be implemented. Other patient meanwhile state that they do not want to suffer and to experience a painful and humiliating death so they choose and order their doctors and guardians to facilitate euthanasia when they don’t have the capacity to decide anymore. This was the primary argument that was passed in the Terry Shiavo case.             In this legal and medical battle, a patient named Terry Shiavo has suffered from a brain damage and his husband wanted to remove the feeding tube that is inserted to his wife. This order as stated by the husband was specifically requested by Terry when she was still alive since she does not want to suffer and be a burden to the family. The parents of Terry meanwhile were strongly against the removal of the feeding tube countering that Terry was still alive since she was still responding to visual and auditory stimuli. A legal battle ensued between the husband and the parents of Terry dragging with the religious groups, conservative and liberal sectors of the American society. Different doctors and medical practitioners were summoned by the court but they all had conflicting and confused opinions regarding the case. In the end however, the arguments made by the husband won and the feeding tube was removed.             This argument that states that patients must be killed because they experience pain and suffering is a flimsy and weak standpoint. Since patients who request euthanasia have painful and incurable diseases, emotions and outlooks in life can have a great effect on the decision making process of an individual. Although they are asking for death, what they really want are compassion, care and love from their relatives and friends. There, a decision making process is also clouded by medication, pain and depression. In a study conducted by the state of New York in 1994 in a report entitled “When Death is Sought: Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia in the Medical Context”, it stated that patients with severe pain, disfigurement or disability do not wish to commit suicide and that patients who ask for euthanasia have major  symptoms of major depression (Zucker, 1999). The report further stated that patients who have experiences of pain and suffering felt hopelessness and depression and can wrongly see that death and the process of euthanasia is the only way that would end their ordeal (Zucker, 1999).             Another argument that is being pushed by pro-euthanasia groups is that each and every person has the moral and intrinsic right and autonomy to control and set the course of his/her destiny (Hillyard, 2001). This would mean that if a man or a woman decided to end his/her life, there are no legal and ethical hindrances that would prevent him/her for doing it so. Although this argument is accepted by some groups, they correctly said that euthanasia is not an individual action being undertaken by a patient. In order to commit euthanasia, there must be cooperation on the part of the attending doctor and hospital staff and when other persons and individuals are now involved, suicide and killing one’s self will now be in the realms of public interest and order since in most countries, the assistance and help offered by an individual in a suicide is classified as an offense in many states and countries (Donnelly, 1998).             For the sociologist, the issue on euthanasia can be a great opportunity to understand and to closely examine the mentality, outlook and consciousness of a particular society with regards to the subject of death. This study would not only elicit information regarding euthanasia practices in such societies but it would also answer prevailing questions like what are the factors that greatly hinders or advance the practices of euthanasia practices in an specific society?, does society exert pressure and influence when euthanasia is committed?. The field of sociology and sociologists therefore can clearly and adequately answer these questions by using research methods. Sociologists can provide an unbiased and unprejudiced opinion and examination to these emerging phenomena and hopefully, sociology can provide man and society with a way, a compromise in order to reconcile different opinions that are against and for euthanasia. Sociology can therefore be a bridge that will provide society with answers that would help us comprehend this particular issue.             I would say that euthanasia is a personal standpoint; it is a stand regarding a certain subject which is death. Euthanasia is a personal preference made by an individual but it will have negative and far reaching consequences to society. Although this thought can be relatively harmless when viewed at a glance, it can weaken and create confusion in the society because its effects are wide and encompass subjects such as religion, ethics, health care and psychology. This subject therefore creates tension and advocacy in terms of people and organizations who particularly advocates a certain topic or perspective. For me, I would agree and perfectly convinced on the arguments that support the move of not to legalize euthanasia or physician assisted suicide. Legalizing it would create societal conflict and discord because status quo and established mores, laws and customs with regards to death and the idea of death will completely be changed.

Legalizing Euthanasia: An Argument

The purpose of this paper is to argue about the subject of doctor assisted suicide. It will specifically argue with regards to ...

Shintoism

Shintoism               Here is a religion that is exclusively Japanese — Shintoism. Shinto, from two kanji — shin and to, means “gods or spirits” (likewise read as kami in Japanese) and “way or path” respectively. Shintoism thus refers to “the way of the gods” (2006). The concept of the Kami or the gods is extremely varies with other religions that similarly has a concept of a god.             As to how many Shintoists are there in the world, it has been found out that the data for their population is actually “hopelessly unreliable”. One needs to be Japanese in order to learn this way of life ( 2005). Figures are no big deal. As long as one spots a Shintoist, one can fully conclude that, he is also Japanese.              The Japanese dates the origins of Shintoism to the Jomon period. In others’ eyes, it has come into being during the Yayoi period, when there has been an influx of Chinese and Koreans. They carried with them agricultural as well as shamanic rituals, which have been embraced by the Japanese (2006). Interestingly, this religion is founded by no one ( 2005). It is even nameless, initially. It has only been named just to tell it apart from Buddhism ().                    To briefly state its developments, it has been practiced concurrently with Buddhism and Confucianism for centuries. After the Meiji Restoration, it has become the state religion. After her World War II defeat, it ceased to be the state religion; but the Japanese have slipped back to its more traditional position being a folk religion (2006). After all, religion and culture are distinctively mutually inclusive among the Japanese. Today, there are actually 4 main forms of Shinto traditions.  Koshitsu Shinto is the Shinto of the Imperial House. Jinja Shinto is the largest Shinto group and the original form. Kyoha Shinto has 13 sects, set up by individuals in the early 19th Century, with each having its own beliefs and doctrines. Lastly, Minzoku Shinto is one that is practiced in the rural communities ( 2005).              Likewise, there is an absence of a strict written scripture in Shintoism. The Kojiki, Rokkokushi, Shoku Nihongi and its Nihon Shoki, and the Jinno Shotoki are the treasured textual epics of the Shinto religion ( 2005). Kojiki and Nihon Shoki are both written in Chinese characters (). Keep in mind, though, that the Japanese learned to write from the Chinese.             The central focus of this religion is on the mystic importance of beauty in nature and the natural order (Nasr 33). Shintoism emphasizes the search for happiness in this life. In “living a simple and harmonious life with nature and people”, there are four affirmations of the Shinto spirit — tradition and the family, love of nature, physical cleanliness, and Matsuri (any festival for the Kami) (2006). These are what one should consider as the rules of the game.              While other religions have a creation story that is about or deities of the world at large, in Shintoism, the “world” is only Japan. Its creation story narrates that Izanagi-no-mikoto and Izanami-no-mikoto created the Japanese islands ( 2005). The Kami refers to the spirits who maintains the natural world order. Actually, everyone is considered as a Kami’s child, and therefore all human life and nature is sacred. Anything that is awe-inspiring and extraordinary is associated with the Kami  ( ).              Amaterasu Omikami, the sun goddess that the Japanese imperial family trace their origins (). Amaterasu means “shining from heaven”, while Omikami means “great and exalted divinity”. She is the most revered of all Kami, but does not imply that its followers worship or summon her name for help (2006).             Shintoists’ worship of kami is practiced at public shrines, and even in small private shrines at home (2006). Before, they used to practice misogi, or bathing their bodies in a river near the shrine. Today, they only wash their hands and rinse out their mouths in a wash basins made available in the shrine grounds. Shrine ceremonies such as cleansing, offerings, prayers, and dances are dedicated to the Kami.  Kagura are ritual dances to the tune of traditional musical instruments, which are performed by able dancers who are young virgin girls, a  single man or agroup of men. Shintoists also have mamori or charms for various occasions ( 2005). These are just some of their rituals. It makes one think that this religion is more than religion per se. It is entrenched deeply at the heart of the Japanese culture. Most of its rituals are inspired by Buddhism and Confucianism, but the central focus has remained ().               To construct “houses” for the Kami in the form of shrines have emerged in the 6th Century.  The oldest shrines are to be found in Izumo and Ise in Japan (2006). A unique architectural trait to be found in front of the shrine is the torii or the Japanese gate, which is built on two uprights and two crossbars. It signifies the delineation of the world of the Kami from the living world (2006). The shrines serve as the “altars”, by which the Japanese pay their reverence to the Kami.

Shintoism

Shintoism Here is a religion that is exclusively Japanese — Shintoism. Shinto, from two kanji — shin and to, means “gods ...

The Comparison and Contrast of the book “Robinson Crusoe” and the Film “Castaway”

The purpose of this paper is to compare a classic literary literature and a modern film that both discuss the same topic. It will specifically compare and contrast the book “Robinson Crusoe” and the film starring Tom Hanks entitled “Castaway”.               The book “Robinson Crusoe” written by Daniel Defoe and the film “Castaway” starring Tom Hanks and directed by Robert Zemeckis fully discusses the same subject which is a story of a man who is left alone in an island and had to find ways and other means to survive and to be rescued. The first comparison that can be made between the film and the book is the topic with regards to spirituality and the presence of God and a divine being. The book discusses the development of spirituality of the main character not by listening to sermons and going to church but by reading the Bible while Robinson is in the island (Bloom 1988, p. 56). Because of this routine, he was able to find God and to spiritually search and scrutinize his soul.   This concept of reading the Bible makes Robinson a new person; applying what he reads from the bible with the present conditions that he is enduring and believing that God will eventually rescue him from the island. While this issue was fully developed in the   book, the film made no mention of this issue and in fact did not bother to touch it. If Robinson Crusoe was content on reading the Bible and perceiving that God is watching him, Chuck Noland, played by Tom Hanks is equally contented in talking to a volleyball he named Wilson. The film does not even touch the contemplation and reflection that pertains to God during extreme situations for which a human would naturally have when exposed to an extreme condition. Chuck Noland did not launched a verbal attack on God blaming him for the conditions that he is suffering and he equally did not turn to God for help. On this subject, both the film advocates two equally distinct but different positions. The books forwards the idea to its readers that man cannot survive without the grace of God and that God is the Supreme Being and the last entity that must be approached by man in times of sufferings, hardships and distress while the film promotes the opinion that against harsh environments and the harsh and cruel laws of nature, man will eventually triumph and succeed not thru the intervention of a divine being but thru the sole effort and sturdiness and strength of the human spirit and the human mind.   Another area that can be compared between the film and the book is the nature of the plot. Both the film and the book have different plots and scenarios that are worth mentioning. The book discusses the life of the main character, his occupation, his desires and his nature. We can read from the book that Robinson is a runaway, slave and eventually a plantation owner in Brazil before signing up for an ill fated expedition to bring slaves from Africa (Bloom 1988, p. 60). After the episode on being marooned and rescued from the island, we can further read Robinson’s adventures while returning to England like fending off an attack of vicious wolves (Bloom 1988, p. 68).   On the film, we are just treated to a certain snapshot on the mind and life of the main character. The film presents him as a globe trotting employee of the FedEx company having a girlfriend played by Helen Hunt, his rescue and the eventual discovery that his girlfriend had married someone in the belief that he was dead. The film therefore lacks the deepness as promoted by the book. The treatment of the plot is lacking and is neglected since a small portion of the main character is exposed to the viewers. A specific aspect of the life of Chuck Noland is permitted to be viewed and scrutinized by the public. In the book, the whole life of the main character is firmly discussed and the holistic treatment on the individuality and uniqueness of Robinson is clearly established.   Another aspect that can be compared between the film and the book is the characteristics that are present in the island where the two main characters are marooned. The book states that Robinson is not alone in the island since there are cannibals and prisoners that are present. In the book, Robinson interacts with these characters by dealing with them, fighting against them and working for them (Severin 2002, p. 112). The story then has a human nature to where man is not a “lonely island” separated from other individuals by the environment. The book reiterates that man cannot survive alone and that man must seek the help of other person to accomplish something. We can see this hypothesis when Robinson captured one of the prisoners naming him Friday, teaching him English and converting him to Christianity (Severin 2002, p. 87). Robinson and Friday also found a Spaniard and the father of Friday (Severin 2002, p, 88). These situations clearly reinforce the idea that men must have constant interaction with his fellow men.   The film does not state this particular aspect that is largely present in the book. The film was totally devoid of other characters except the woman in the main character’s heart. Unlike the book which had personalities that are living in the island, interacting and socializing with Robinson, the “island” in the film is totally devoid of any characters and personalities (except Chuck Noland). The entire length of the film is focused and devoted to the actions, thoughts and feeling of the main character. Although he longs for human companionship like Robinson, Chuck finds solace in the person of volleyball. This aspect of the film evidently advocates a position that is vastly different from the position forwarded by the novel. This position largely contradicts the view that is expressed by the book. The film plainly states that man in the face of adversity and hardship must solely rely on his individual strength and wits in order to survive.

The Comparison and Contrast of the book “Robinson Crusoe” and the Film “Castaway”

The purpose of this paper is to compare a classic literary literature and a modern film that both discuss t...

THEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION   According to ‘Transforming Mission’ which was written by David Bosch basically has the involvement regarding Matthew’s use of the Old Testament (OT) that could be deeply pastoral and missionary, as Bosch begins by considering  the idea of mission and how the missionary claims from the OT has evolved and been enacted in the world from a Jewish perspective and looking into the mission paradigm of post modernity, highlighting the difference between what the church perceives to be its missionary authorization and the work of God. (Bosch, 1991) It can be said that David Bosch’s engagement within the missiology of Matthew seems very interesting, as moving into discipleship in lieu to Matthew’s Gospel as it affirms an immense deal of the Old Testament experience. (Bosch, 1991) Thus, Matthew has been a journeyer attempting to live out the teachings of Christ. Bosch’s analysis of Matthew’s use of OT relates to ‘’Great Commission’’ that was enlightening to begin the journey towards intended ministry with the theme relating to the cost of discipleship. (Kinnamon, 1991) Moreover, Bosch’s claims relate to certain exploration of the Christian consent to love that, ‘’Christians should relinquish all desires to judge others; their behavior should be exemplary against the civil order’’, as it can be said that a Christian lifestyle should also be winsome and it should attract outsiders and invite them to join the community. (Kinnamon, 1991)   MAIN BODY   Bosch’s have explored the multifaceted missionary motivations relating to Matthew’s use of the Old Testament as deeply pastoral and missionary that is much greater than the traditional paradigm which was the underlying motive of the church that being ‘conversion of the heaten.’ (Cunningham et al., 1987) As Bosch made use of the ‘paradigm shift’ rather than a break in mission thinking and practice in both pastoral and missiological terms on the cusp of a paradigm shift. There was a reframing of mission whilst being positive for the continued existence of the Church through worldwide missionary work and societal maturity. (Cunningham et al., 1987) In recent years, the terms ‘mission’ and ‘missional’ have increased in use, but ‘mission’ referred to:   Ø      the sending of missionaries to a designated territory Ø      the activities undertaken by such missionaries Ø      the geographical are where the missionaries were active Ø      expansion of the reign of God Thus, David Bosch describes the post-modern paradigm for mission without doubting its value and usefulness for teaching missiology in important respects. Bosch's claim that his missiology is host-modern. The weakness of Bosch's "emerging ecumenical consensus" on mission was apparent in its very year of publication (1991) when the seventh assembly of the World Council of Churches (WCC) famously failed to find a consensus. (Cunningham et al., 1987) The tact that Bosch's paradigm can be described as a truly post-modern one, even by his criteria; it reveals both Bosch's lack of a creation theology and suggests also the limited nature of pneumatology. (Cunningham et al., 1987) Furthermore, Bosch is keen to emphasize the missionary nature of the Spirit but he stops short of discussing the mission of the Spirit in which the Spirit is an "afterthought used to explain God's activity in the church in connection with Jesus, ignoring the mystery of the Spirit as an equal modality or persona of the divine nature". (Bosch, 1991 p. 14) Moreover, the mission of the spirit is bound thoroughly to the missionary activity of the church, when Bosch seeks to broaden mission to take account of the "comprehensive" nature of salvation, he can do so only by increasing the scope of the church's missionary activity (Bosch, 1991 pp. 393-400). Henceforth, mission appears as a work to be achieved by organization and strategy and Bosch paradigm is very much in the mould of the enlightenment project and the possibilities raised by missio Dei for deriving mission from the very nature of God are not fully realized. (Ibid. p.22) There was a consequence of Bosch's involvement of the Spirit with the Church is the uncontextual nature of missiology brought to the attention of the church by theologies on the validity of a global theology but Bosch follows the traditional ecumenical approach of thinking globally and applying as his hope is in the institutional church in its Western form despite its legacy of "missionary war", holocaust and apartheid. (Ibid., pp. 384-9). Bosch acknowledges the role of the Spirit in other faiths in preparatio evangelica (Bosch, 1991 p. 484) but he hesitates to give any value to the faiths themselves. Bosch's approach of "bold humility" which recognizes an "unresolved tension" cannot point to any other way of salvation than Jesus Christ; at the same time cannot set limits to the saving power of God" (Bosch, 1991 p. 483). Matthew’s use of OT as deeply pastoral and missionary was concerned with the situation and the consciousness of God’s teachings as Matthew begins the use of OT by taking the descendants of Jesus because he wanted to show that Jesus was the son of David per se. Matthew's use of the OT is amicably written for a Jewish Christian audience living within the proximity of their homeland. (Gundry, 1967) The community for which Matthew was written for a Jewish Christian community that has encountered some original tensions in the period of renewal as it would appear that they've been there a longer time and shows the realization of an older legacy of Jesus' traditions. In Matthew, in the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus says, "think not that I've come to destroy the law and the prophets: I've come not to destroy them but to fulfill them." (Gundry, 1967 p.23) Furthermore, one of the indications of the situation of Matthew's community comes up when Matthew's use of the OT that gives regulations for how to discipline members within the society. It says if one of the members of the parishioners’ commit sins then go and tell them about it and if they refuse to listen to you, take a friend and tell them about it and if they refuse to listen to them, take them to the church and if they refuse, kick them out. (Gundry, 1967). The way Matthew told the story of Jesus draws on a lot of symbols from Jewish tradition that conveys a clear picture of Jesus. Jesus goes up on to a mountain to teach and there talks about the law as this indicates pastoral as well as missionary claims from the OT as Jesus delivers different sermons just like the five books of Torah. Matthew is to portray a Jesus whose Jewish identity is beyond doubt. Matthew takes no chances as he Jesus' lineage way back to Abraham in short, Jesus is a Jew. (Gundry, 1982) Thus, Matthew uses his resources in order to create a different narrative in which Jesus frequent teaches the people. Matthew's concern about the church is reflected as he tells the story of Jesus stilling the storm. (Gundry, 1982) According to one interpretation, this story is really a metaphor: the disciples represent the Christian community, the boat is the church. In the face of upheaval and uncertainty that challenges faith and threatens to undo the church, Jesus gives assurance to the faithful: "Behold, I am with you until the end of days." (Gundry, 1982 p. 25).  In Matthew 4:12, Matthew begins his account of the ministry of Jesus, introducing the preparatory preaching of John the Baptist (Matthew 3:1-12), the baptism of Jesus that culminates in God's proclaiming him his "beloved Son" (Matthew 3:13-17) and the temptation in which he proves his true sonship by his victory over the devil's attempt to deflect him from the way of obedience to the Father (Matthew 4:1-11). Moreover, the central message of Jesus' preaching is the coming of the kingdom of heaven and the need for a complete change of heart and conduct, on the part of those who are to receive the gift of God (Matthew 4:17). There are great discourses of Jesus, with the formula "When Jesus finished these words" (Matthew 7:28; 11:1; 13:53; 19:1; 26:1) which is an important structure of the gospel. The discourses are the "Sermon on the Mount" (Matthew 5:3-7:27), the missionary discourse (Matthew 10:5-42), the parable discourse (Matthew 13:3-52), the church order discourse (Matthew 18:3-35) and the eschatological discourse (Matthew 24:4-25:46). In Matthew 4:23 a statement of Jesus' activity speaks not only of his teaching and proclaiming the gospel but of his "curing every disease and illness among the people"; this is repeated almost verbatim in Matthew 9:35. The nature of the community that Jesus will establish is shown; it will always be under the protection of him whose power can deal with dangers (Matthew 8:23-27), but it is only for those who are prepared to follow him at whatever cost (Matthew 8:16-22) not only believing Israelites but Gentiles who have come to faith in him (Matthew 8:10-12). The disciples begin to have some insights into the mystery of Jesus' person. They wonder about him whom "the winds and the sea obey" (Matthew 8:27) and they witness his bold declaration of the forgiveness of the paralytic's sins (Matthew 9:2). The forgiveness of sins is now not the prerogative of Jesus alone but of "human beings," of the disciples who constitute the community of Jesus, the church. (Matthew 10:5-42). Jesus is moved to pity at the sight of the crowds who are like sheep without a shepherd (Matthew 9:36), and he sends out the twelve disciples to make the proclamation with which his own ministry began, "The kingdom of heaven is at hand" (Matthew 10:7; Matthew 4:17) and to drive out demons and cure the sick as he has done (Matthew 10:1) their mission is limited to Israel (Matthew 10:5-6) as Jesus' own was (Matthew 15:24) yet the perspective broadens to speak of the mission that the disciples will have after the resurrection that will attend it (Matthew 10:18). The reason given for Jesus' speaking to the crowds in parables is that they have hardened themselves against his clear teaching, unlike the disciples to whom knowledge of "the mysteries of the kingdom has been granted" (Matthew 13:10-16). In Matthew 13:36 He dismisses the crowds and continues the discourse to his disciples alone, who claim to have understood all that God has said (Matthew 13:51). Jesus is shown preparing for the establishment of his church with its teaching authority that will supplant the blind guidance of the Pharisees (Matthew 15:13-14), whose teaching is repudiated by Jesus as the norm for his disciples (Matthew 16:6, 11-12). The church of Jesus will be built on Peter (Matthew 16:18), who will be given authority to bind and loose on earth, an authority whose exercise was confirmed in heaven (Matthew 16:19). Once again, the perspective of the evangelist includes the time of Jesus' ministry but that of the preaching of the gospel after the resurrection. The narrative culminates in Jesus' denunciation of the scribes and Pharisees, reflecting that of Matthew's church (Matthew 23:1-36). In addition, Matthew's portrayal of Jesus in his passion combines both themajestic serenity of the obedient Son who goes his destined way in fulfillment of the scriptures (Matthew 26:52-54) positive of his vindication by God and the depths of fear and abandonment in face of death (Matthew 26:38-39; 27:46). Matthew offers a model for taking religious heritage seriously. Matthew's approach is one of being thoroughgoing and positive. Henceforth, faith communities need to keep people connected to their roots, finding proofs from prophecies which meant something else. Matthew's strong emphasis on the integrity of behavior and attitude and pretence are important correctives of the Christian faith which give major emphasis to religious experiences and appeal to Christian status. (Gundry, 1982) Matthew's emphasis on authority was a legacy which has not always blessed the church and his emphasis on Jesus has spawned versions of the Christian message against which one needs good news. (Towner, 1995) It is easy to hear Matthew's gospel as declaring that we should act in certain ways and have certain attitudes, because Matthew is interpreting the rightful demands of the Scripture in order to win people to the notion that God is compassionate. Matthew appears to have believed that threat of judgement from the judge to come and the promise of life on the basis of right interpretation of demand produce change in people and achieve the goals of pastoral and missionary works. (Howard, 1986) It is important to bring Matthew's gospel into dialogue about the enabling and liberating power of grace which sets people free to bear fruit. The authority structure runs through much of Matthew's theology and produces Jesus who is the supreme scribe, the authoritative interpreter of scripture. (Howard, 1986) Here the focus is on the power of the mission to which one can appeal while Matthew affirms Jesus' influence, he is at pains to demonstrate Jesus' consistency with the law and to show Jesus dependent on it as the Son of God that will emphasize Jesus' authority based on the right to power of the substance of what is said consistent with Matthew's approach to the OT scripture. (Howard, 1986) Generally, preaching from Matthew must always be more than translating Matthew into the modern terms. (Howard, 1986) Matthew does not stand alone, interpreting Matthew for preaching means listening to Matthew in its stipulations but within a critical reflection and appropriation which has hierarchy of values because the people of the society have been able to acclaim, 'this is the word of the Lord' and the acclamation is naive without the living proclamation which engages in important indication and personal encounter with thy word. It is important to realize that most of Matthew's use of the OT is so straightforward that it is not liable to the charge of OT’s misinterpretation. (Longenecker, 1975)  The use of the Old Testament since, Matthew as God’s biographer was not accountable of interpreting the scripture in ways alien to how Old Testament authors interpreted the Old Testament. (Longenecker, 1975) Thus, many of Matthew's documents are rueful in nature, as he uses and mentions the OT to show how Christ fulfilled His missionary journey within the scripture deriving from the OT meanings as a result of realization of His words to the people. Matthew was held to be using pesher approaches to the OT and that God's intent when He inspired the OT author was more intense than the OT author himself. (Longenecker, 1975) Thus, Matthew quotes texts that predicts but uses the passages that have thematic significance that exceeds the need for pastoral deeds as well as missionary works as viewed from the significance of the OT and its meaning to the people and that few concerns over Matthew's use of the OT may be tempered by a better sense of what Matthew intended when he said ‘’Christ fulfilled a scripture’’. Similarly, views noted differences of opinion be surprising giving worth and value of the nature and importance of Christian mission that implies the range of ways in which the Christian community relates to the Jewish Scriptures.   David Bosch’s treatment of mission in the Old Testament in was limited in ways and Bosch’s view that ‘’ there is, in the Old Testament, no indication of the believers of the old covenant being sent by God to cross geographical, religious and social frontiers in order to win others to faith in Yahweh’’ has been seen as unduly narrow. Then, Bosch certainly believed the Old Testament highlighted themes of importance to Christian mission and among commentators on biblical theology of mission there is attention is commonly drawn to the universal concerns of Matthew’s use of the OT as deeply pastoral and missionary along the importance of the prophets promises with Israel’s neighbors and the vision of Isaiah’s role as a ‘’light to the nations’’ in the experiences of the Church seem unduly philosophical, relevant to Christians with the temptations and responsibilities of an experience of the knowledge of God as creator mankind. (Schreiter, 1991) God-given purpose of the Church can be considered in terms of its worship, and its responsibilities towards its environment. It is a distortion of the nature of the Church to collapse the dimensions of life into its external mission. (Towner, 1995) Nevertheless, if the value of its worship and community life is not in doubt, it is useful to use the word ‘’mission’’ to refer to the responsibility of the people of God towards outside the community of faith which constitute that mission and its changes over time. (Schreiter, 1991) CONCLUSION Therefore, God as the creator and sustainer of mission, there is a need to focus on churches as reconciling and healing communities of engagement in mission raises with the ability of the Old Testament to address those does not necessarily answer the question of the missionary nature of the Old Testament, but reinforce its relevance for some issues arising out of mission such as the attitudes towards religions and cultures, attitudes towards other cultures, the role of God in realizing promises and the realities of leadership in a political world that inform the study of the Bible and the Old Testament in relation to mission. Matthew’s use of the Old Testament does not correspond in showing points of resonance with the development of the redemptive themes of pastoral and missionary claims in the OT as Matthew may show how to interpret the OT by indicating that the early scriptures have projective functions as they reiterate the theology of an earlier motif and anticipate total realization in future acts of God. Nonetheless, the use of interpretive methods in scripture significantly strengthens the confidence of contemporary missionaries who are committed of careful exegesis that honors the intent of God. Lastly, the Matthew’s use of the OT has been precisely celebrated and essential as Bosch himself points out; no paradigm is the last word in missiology (Bosch, 1991 p. 511). It may be that in retrospect Bosch's claim will be seen not as setting out a new paradigm but as seeing the old in a different perspective that relates to the reality of mission as of today’s epoch. As the modern paradigm will take into account the mission of the Spirit which is a mission that takes place in the context of supplementary spirits. Hence, in any truly missionary encounter, there needs to have a recognition of the application of the claim as the nature of the mission has discerned by the Spirit of Christ himself.

THEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION According to ‘Transforming Mission’ which was written by David Bosch basically has the involvement regarding Matthew’s ...

History of Christianity in Abeokuta

History of Christianity in Abeokuta  Abeokuta is the capital of Ogun state in southwestern Nigeria.  It is located on the east bank of the Ogun River.  Abeokuta means “Refuge among Rocks”.  It was founded around 1830 by Sodeke, a hunter and the leader of the Egba refugees who were fleeing from the Oyo empire.  The town was settled by missionaries in the 1840’s and by the Sierra Leone Creoles. Abeokuta is an agricultural trade center which produces rice, yams, cassava, corn, palm oil and kernels, cotton, fruits, vegetables.  It is an exporting point for cocoa, palm produce, fruits, and kola nuts.  Rice and cotton were introduced by the missionaries in the 1850’s and cotton weaving and dyeing (with locally grown indigo) are now traditional crafts of the town.  (Britannica)  Local industry is limited but can now name fruit-canning plants, a plastics factory, a brewery, sawmills , and an aluminum products factory.  To the south are Aro granite quarries. Apart from Benin and Warri, which had come in contact with Christianity through the Portuguese as early as the fifteenth century, most missionaries arrived by sea in the nineteenth century. As with other areas in Africa, Roman Catholics and Anglicans each tended to establish areas of hegemony in southern Nigeria. After World War I, smaller sects such as the Brethren, Seventh Day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, and others. African-American churches entered the missionary field in the nineteenth century and created contacts with Nigeria that lasted well into the colonial period.  Christianity came in with education to Abeokuta, January 1843 by Henry Townsend. Orthodox religion, Christianity and Islam are practiced with traditional religion. There is the belief in Egungun, Erinle, Ogun, Obatala, Sango, Gelede, Oro, Omolu, Obaluaye & Osun to mention few.  Christianity was introduced into the diocese of Abeokuta in the early part of the 19th century.  It currently houses the first Bible that was brought into the country by the early Missionaries. Catholicism came to Abeokuta in 1880 from where it spread to the other parts of what is now Abeokuta Diocese. The history of the Catholic Church in the Diocese of Abeokuta is intertwined with the wider history of the missionary works of the Fathers of the Society of African Missions (SMA) and Sisters of Our Lady of Apostles (OLA). While the SMA Fathers arrived in 1880, the OLA Sisters followed in 1886. Since then, the Church has continued to grow. According to Wikipedia, there are in the diocese approximately 54,000 adherents of the Catholic faith, presently distributed into 19 parishes and 3 quasi parishes, administered by a total number of 47 priests with His Lordship, Most. Rev. Dr. Alfred Adewale Martins. The Diocese has witnessed a rapid growth from 9 parishes and 11 priests in 1998 to what we have now. Its pastoral strategy includes the formation and maintenance of Small Christian Communities and particular attention to the youth and young adults, the future of the Church. The Diocese of Abeokuta, like Ogun State in which it is situated, is typically a 'Gateway' diocese. Not only does it connect the Archdiocese of Lagos with the closely situated Diocese of Ijebu Ode and the Archdiocese of Ibadan in Nigeria, it is also strategically interconnected with the Church in the wider area of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), especially the adjacent Diocese of Porto-Novo in the Republic of Benin.  There is visible peaceful co-existence among the religious groups in the diocese as we have close ecumenical relationship as well as cordial relationship with the other religious bodies. There are a lot of joint religious programmes between the various Christian denominations.  (Wikipedia)  The Nigerian press is a product of evolution from the early Christian missionary establishment in the South of the country. Between 1842 and 1885, the Church Missionary Society, the Baptist, Methodist and the Catholic Missions established their presence independent of one another in various locations, particularly in Abeokuta, Calabar and Onitsha. The desire to spread Christianity to the local people in their own language and anthological environment caused the CMS to start what is generally acknowledged as the first newspaper in Abeokuta. As it was reported, the Rev. Henry Townsend of the CMS was said to have observed, "My object is to get the people to read; and get them to inculcate the habit of reading." (Oyovbaire) References: Abeokuta.  Encyclopaedia Britannica.com  Retrieved 8 June, 2011 from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1111/Abeokuta Abeokuta South.  Ogun State Government.  6 September, 2010.  Retrieved 8 June, 2011 from http://www.ogunstate.gov.ng/Government/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=71:abeokuta-south&catid=142:local-governments&Itemid=85 Christianity.  Retrieved 8 June, 2011 from http://countrystudies.us/nigeria/47.htm Oyovbaire, Sam.  The Media and the Democratic Process in Nigeria.  29 August, 2001.  Retrieved 8 June, 2011 from http://www.waado.org/nigerdelta/essays/Oyovbaire.html Roman Catholic Diocese of Abeokuta.  Wikipedia.  Retrieved 8 June, 2011 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Abeokuta

History of Christianity in Abeokuta

H istory of Christianity in Abeokuta Abeokuta is the capital of Ogun state in southwestern Nigeria. It is located on the east bank ...

My Old Home and New Year Sacrifice

This paper will discuss the two short stories written by Lu Xun entitled “My Old Home” and “New Year Sacrifice”. It will specifically address the fate and perspective of Chinese peasants. It will also analyze the social background and the outlook with regards to a typical Chinese peasants and characters mentioned in the story.             In the short story entitled “My Old Home”, the main characters went back to the place and his childhood house to help his relatives in packing up family belongings that will be carried to the a new house. During the course of the story we can see that the main character has become quite wealthy and in this visit to his old hometown, various characters were met and introduced in the story. The main character is reintroduced to a Mrs. Yang who is a close friend and neighbor of the family and his childhood bestfriend named Jun-tu. In the course of his reminiscence the reader is presented with the situation that the main character had an friendly and strong bond of relationship to his friend Jun-tu but as he met his best friend again, Jun-tu is not the same boy that he used to be. In their meeting Jun-tu had a face that represents sadness, resentment and poverty. He is not only burdened because of earning a living but he was also burdened by agrarian problems mentioned in the story. During these meetings, Hung-erh, the main character’s nephew and Shui-sheng (Jun-tu’s son) became close friend but this friendship was cut short because the family of the main character leaves the village.             In this short but emotional story we can point out certain aspects and topics that concern the peasantry and rural society in China. This story presents a clear-cut division between the rich and the poor, between the landed gentry and the poor and landless farmers. A social and economic hierarchy is evident in this society. The main character and Jun-tu represents the two extremes in a Chinese rural society where Jun-tu represents the poor and landless farmers and laborers.  This apparent division is clearly illustrated symbolically when Jun-tu taught and tutored his friend with when it comes to topics that concerns the land and farming (like the incident with the bird traps and the zha) while Jun-tu is being employed as a part time laborer in the household of the main character. Jun-tu taught the main character many and varied things that were not familiar to him and this started the friendship between them. However, this friendship was cut short when Jun-tu had to go home and they never met again until the time the main character went back to his village. During their childhood, social class and the economic standing in life was unimportant in the eyes of the children. They did not see that both of them came from two vastly different world.             Although they were friends during their childhood, society and tradition still dictates people of lower class to bow down and to affix the word ”master” when talking to people who are of higher class. When Jun-tu did these things when they met again, the main character was shocked and shuddered at the greeting and the practice but he cannot stop and eliminate these practices.             In this story we can infer about the conditions of a simple and poor peasant exemplified by Jun-tu. The description of his hands, face, eyes and built are enough evidence that the life of a simple peasant was hard, arduous and burdensome and he even asked for certain items like incense burner, candlesticks, tables and chairs to augment and to improve his house.             In the story we can also read about the growing friendship between Hung-erh and Shui-sheng that was cut short because the family was to be relocated. The main character then commented on the “barrier” that grew between him and Jun-tu and how this economic and societal barrier ahas also affected the friendship between his nephew and the son of his friend. This barrier would remain in effect and would separate the two portion of society. It will be a hindrance and an obstacle that would prevent each party from reaching out to one another. This deterrent cause by the economic forces that is based in wealth and landownership has a strong impact on the lives of the masses and poor laborers represented by Jun-tu and Shui-sheng. They become distant, and resentful to the people who are rich and well to do. Besides distant and resentful attitudes, the landed gentry and wealth also cultivate a feeling of apathy and indifference focused on the poor. This same barrier provides for the condition why poor peasants are forever tied to being tillers of the land and why landowners and rich families continue to get rich. This barrier and obstacle also perpetuates and continue this vicious cycle of poverty and separation.             The second short story is entitled “The New Year’s Sacrifice” which tells about the story of a woman simply named Hsiang Lun’s wife. Hsiang Lun’s wife was a former maidservant for the narrator’s uncle. The story progresses from the point where the woman was hired, kidnapped by her cruel mother-in-law to be remarried and then rehired  again after her husband and son died and her brother-in-law threw her out of the house. Aside from these the narrator stated that Hsiang Lun’s wife became a beggar when the family decided that she was useless in doing household works.             In this story we can see the economic and emotional exploitation of young women in a rural family where their labor and the economic advantages that they bring are skillfully used by their husband’s family. This is illustrated when Hsiang Lun’s wife were married and remarried to men who are ten years younger than she is, this practice is advantageous for the husband’s family since the new wife can help in household jobs and field works. The husband’s family can be greatly helped by the extra help and manpower that is needed in harvesting and cooking. This is further emphasized when her mother in law came to take her to be remarried and to be able to collect the dowry for the woman.             Women inside old Chinese society were not only exploited but they exist in a condition where they cannot voice out and say their opinion and outlooks regarding certain matters such as their marital life. They are mute when it comes to determining their fate and future course in life. They cannot go against the flow of what is dictated by the society and by the family that they are married to. This is exemplified when the mother-in-law decided to arrange a marriage between Hsiang Lun’s wife and a certain man living in the mountains. Even if she protested, shouted out her objections and injured herself, she was eventually remarried. After her husband and only son were killed, she was thrown out of her house because a brother in law decided to live in her house. There was no objection and protest on the part of Hsiang Lun’s wife because she knew that in the Chinese society, she has no power and influence against the family of the husband, the brother in law meanwhile was downright cruel when he unceremoniously threw the woman from her house. When all benefits and profits from a woman in an old Chinese society are exhausted, the woman serves no purpose and is promptly disposed.             On the short story we can see that there is an atmosphere of apathy and indifference that exist between people when the old Chinese society is viewed. In this society an atmosphere or outlook of indifference is presented when they the people of the village made fun of the story regarding the event about the son of Hsiang Lun’s wife. Although at first they were receptive and sympathetic to the story regarding the son, they soon became bored in it, made fun with it, and imitated it and added sarcasm and criticism to a story that needs sympathy and understanding. The village did not also provided attention and care to the woman when she became beggar and literally forgetting her although she had become a part of the village during her younger years.             The story and the events that were mentioned in it happened during the celebration of the Chinese New Year. The reader is presented with Chinese traditional practices and traditions such as using candlesticks, making sacrificial offerings and offering prayers and other precious objects to the gods. It also presents us with the outlook and the old Chinese perspective with regards to life after death. Hsiang Lun’s wife became worried when she heard that she would be cut into two in Hell because her two husbands would fight over her and because of the advice of a fellow maidservant, she went to the temple to perform a ritual to cleanse her soul and to atone for her sins. It is plausible therefore to conclude that the typical Chinese rural peasants believed in superstitious beliefs and perform superstitious customs and traditions even if learning and knowledge is presented to them

My Old Home and New Year Sacrifice

This paper will discuss the two short stories written by Lu Xun entitled “My Old Home” and “New Year Sacrific...

Reflections From The Epic of Gilgamesh

Introduction             Dominance and subordination is synonymous to leader-follower scheme wherein the relationship is ideal to obtain the performance of one another’s societal functions in an effective and efficient manner.  The dominant imparts its decision-making and problem solving capabilities to uphold the welfare of people.  In return, subordinates serve the former and follow its conquest that precipitate to loyalty and respect.  The president who is widely respected by the citizenry, a husband who is loved and cared by his wife, and professors who are idolized by students are few of some dominance-subordination design in the society.             To determine such relationship is one thing, to verify the cause and extent of its existence is another.  On top of these is its purpose and implications to social order.  By analyzing the characters, their actions and their aspirations from “The Epic of Gilgamesh”, resolutions to the phenomenon can be settled and questions will be answered. Pillars of Social Order                   Because Gilgamesh has a “one-third man, two-third God” identity that resulted to super-natural strength, courage and “beauty”, he was basically known as a hero, and ultimately a king of.  For his part, he should maintain his dominance and show his capability to rule on a regular basis to retain the status quo.  This is exemplified through his stand against, challenge to demon-like and brawl against Bull of Heaven (50) that was all proclaimed victory across his name.  Every triumph was regarded a signal of competence and enduring dominance.  However, being a king who possess of powers, ill-effects of abusing it (xix) was inevitable.  But the extent of the abuse did not outweigh the extent of dominance, and so, continuing the order.  Distant from the tendencies to abuse power, Gilgamesh has a number of virtues like self-discipline (scoring marriage from Ishtar) (50) and camaraderie  which strengthened his right to rule.             The features of the main character in the epic are compatible to run a city which was regulated by deities.  The people are at peace that their kingdom will not be easily penetrated by warfare or profoundly cursed by gods.  They can rely to Gilgamesh to do the fighting to outsiders or negotiating to gods as the need arise.  They can focus more on household requirements like livelihood, raising children and develop the local economy.  With this, social order was met.  Thinking of the reverse, when people are equal in power and homogenous in status without the guide of a ruler and an established kingdom, they are highly vulnerable to threats from the outside and the gods would curse without mercy.  Civilization could be slowly attained because people are limited in their aspirations of development knowing that instability and lack of direction could annihilate their efforts in an instant.             This drive to subordination as determinant of social order, however, was partially shaken by Enkindu who hated the abusive side of Gilgamesh that ignited a collision.  Even Enkindu was lost in the confrontation, the conflict emphasized that dominance should be directed strictly to good purpose alone.  This showed that even a human from the wild is bounded to guard the acts of the ruler to assure that a certain social order does not result to ill-effects like the abusive tendencies of the dominant.  It also exemplified that the dominant-subordinate system would tend to adjust when roles of one another go beyond the rationale behind the creation of the system and deprived the other of substantial power or freedom.  Being the goddess of love, Ishtar retaliated against the refused marriage (50) she initiated partly because it is a deviation from the norm opposite her known status.  Also, the wife of Utanapishtim demonstrated this friction when she urged her husband and succeeded to reward the hardship of Gilgamesh (96) --- apart from the inherent subordination of women.                 The extent and implications of subordination was also enormous in the story.  The decision of the Council of Gods to impose a death verdict to, who had less initiative and participation to the conquest relative to Gilgamesh, illustrated that subordination can justify sacrifice on the part of a subordinate, even its life, to sustain the relative crucial role of the king in the society.  On the other hand, loyal (Utanapishtim) and valuable (Gilgamesh) subordinates in relation to its dominant ruler (Gods) would reward the former by sparing its life and renewing its glory (like Shamash intervention (40) in favor of Gilgamesh against Humbaba) or even bestow eternal life (96) (like Utanapishtim and his wife).                       Further, the subordination of women to sexual needs of men in the epic evidenced that such could be also used to achieve an end aside from the peripheral goal of obtaining the system, as in the case of the trapper’s use of harlot (2) to expel from the endowments of the wild.  In the stance of ferry-based servant, subordination meant less security in terms of tenure particularly means of living. The epic is largely immersed to the dominance of partly-god stature of Gilgamesh.  However, his crown was regulated by the full-blooded gods specifically the Council of Gods.  He had lost bargaining capacity and tamed as a subordinate when his first-ever close friend, as on the verge of death (68) and he had nothing to do to prevent it.    His dominance was eclipsed by the gods who provided guidance and protection to him to continue his reign, and ultimately, the order in the kingdom. In every chapter of the epic, the dominance of gods over men and non-pure gods seemed to be the greatest impediment for Gilgamesh to optimally celebrate the fruits of his dominance over people.  However, the revealing fact of mortality and death seemed to be an overlapping factor behind his vulnerability.  He took much pain and sacrifice to seek the key to immortality.  In the process, he submitted himself to some extent of subordination to eternal life (82, 96).  Although he utilized his status and dominance through self-proclamation to Siduri and Urshanabi , the motive was aimed to immortality and his submission to it.  Due to the blazing desire to end personal subordination of a mortal to death, he underwent the test of Utanapishtim  without doubting of possible deception.  Frustrated, the failed quest confined him back to dominating stance again.  However, this move took away the consolation prize of achieving youth rejuvenation.  The suspicion in the effectiveness of the consolation ended him going home empty-handed.  Chapter 11 of the epic implied that such was an unwise thinking coming from an experienced warrior, celebrated hero and notable king.                                                .  Conclusion              The social order in the epic was achieved through establishing levels of hierarchy in the society.  Subordination, in the likes of Enkindu and his kind including the rest of the people, resulted to ordinary people’s submission of some of their practices under the rule, decision and scrutiny of Gilgamesh because of his domineering attributes.  On the other hand, his rule is neither absolute nor universal as deities are on top of the social system.  This dominance was enforced and permitted to happen, albeit of his partly god status, primarily because of immortality demarcation.  It limits the scope of dominance not only of Gilgamesh but also all mortals when speaking of their subordination.  Dominant and subordinate individuals alike have similar bottom-line, which is death.  This provides disincentive to the ruler to abuse his power aside from good cause and remind him that such wrong doing would not last for a long time because of limitation in life.  On the other hand, people would tend to respect the ruler’s decision and abide the kingdom’s development projects to maximize their existence in the world and help improve the status of civilization keeping in mind that time ticks away from every crime or rebellion they would ensue against a fair dominant and elite.  Social order is thus seen thorough the mutual understanding and accepted vulnerability of the actors in the society giving rise to peace, and ultimately, prosperity.                    Before ending, it is fitting to quote a character in the Asian movie “Hero” which stated, “All under heaven.”  According to the story, these three words transformed the then vicious imperial army to exercise non-violent and non-fatal way of conquering lands, and eventually, meeting the kingdom’s endeavor and achieving its ends.  Finally, being dominant, subordinate and mortal keeps everyone in social order and live each lives to fullest enjoyment.  However, to install abusive and rebellious acts to power or solicited inferiority will lead to disorder and doom of a society.

Reflections From The Epic of Gilgamesh

Introduction Dominance and subordination is synonymous to leader-follower scheme wherein the relationship is...

AN ANALYSIS ON JOHN HICKS PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

AN ANALYSIS ON JOHN HICKS PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION         John Hicks is a British Philosopher of religion he became famous because of this theory of religious pluralism, this theory is probably one of the most influential theory of religion of all time whether we knew it consciously or subconsciously. This theory highly recognize and respect the practice of religious individual although they are different in belief, John Hicks allow people to demonstrate their faith share it to other or even believe in them without prejudice or feeling of guilt and betrayal against  your own faith.       He demonstrated a mature acceptance that people can live harmoniously even if they are different and that people may exercise their freedom to choose what they want to believe. His Philosophy proves that a person or individual can accept other religions without conflicts. He has created no barrier or wall to divide religion that such religion is the only one that is right and people can only be saved if they will join their religion but John Hicks has crossed boundaries to show that religious differences can be overcome. John Hicks does not intend people to believe in God without conviction but what he wants to exercise is that people have the rights to be right without telling people that they are wrong.       One of his another critical theory is the Iranian “Soul Making” theodicy Where John believes that there are literal and non literal meaning in the interpretation of history as written in the bible for example is in the life of Adam and Eve who live with God. According to Hicks that they may not be able to turn away to God because they are perfect creatures and living with god alone is restricted and impossible to fall or create a rebellious thinking but god allows us the free will and the devil may exist but not literal since it is our decision that makes us choose and not the devil.       He believes that sufferings is a part of Gods plan in order to mold us to be in his likeness and this has been the reason why he send Adam and Eve to the wild.  Another theory of John is the Christology that Jesus Christ do not represent himself as God but he represent himself as the child of God who has the authority to forgive and heal but not necessarily being God. Hicks does not believe in the “Death and after life of Christ” but he believe in replica theory that a person may look the same although they are not the same person.       In my personal analysis and stand about John Hicks theory of Religious Pluralism it can do well to openness and unity and this will bind people no matter what they believe in. Respecting the faith of others and listening to their opinion and giving them the rights to choose freely is another universal belief that should be practice around the world. This will create a peaceful world ahead of us believing that we can respect each other beyond culture. I believe in the same theory and it should be practiced and implemented. As it is written in the bible “I in them and you in me, that they may be perfected in unity, so that world may know that you sent me and loved them even as you have loved me” (John 17:23).         The manifestation and division of people created a world of mirage that brought in the threat of war, and this is largely evident in the recent September 11bombing of World Trade Center because of battle in philosophy and religion and this is manifested around the world that we can see signs of civil war that is always on the news almost every day. John may have given his opinion because he desire cooperation among people like most of us have long dreamed of. It is evident that John Hicks wants to bridge the gap between people to prevent all these negative things.           But some of his belief like the Death and Afterlife of Christ and the Iranian “Soul Making” theodicy theory comes from his own findings and not purely biblical although he has the rights to believe and he may be right but it is clear in the bible that the story about Adam and Eve really suffered the consequence of their own disobedience that brought them to suffer such consequence given by God and it is not that God himself has brought them to suffer.        The story in Genesis really prove that they have sinned and violated the word of God that is why they where cursed. “Both thorns and thistles it shall grow for you; and you shall it the plants of the field” (Genesis 3:19). In his theory of replica is again not true, that Jesus Christ really rose from the dead to prove his worth and power as written in the bible, “For as yet they did not understand the scripture, that he must rose again from the dead” (John 20:9). We can exercise our own rights to what we believe in like the theory of pluralism but if we are Christians the most reliable truth is the word of God the bible itself and not the theory of men.

AN ANALYSIS ON JOHN HICKS PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

AN ANALYSIS ON JOHN HICKS PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION John Hicks is a British Philosopher of religion he became famous because of th...

Brief Resume of the Alpha to Omega Programme

The said programme was a one hour weekly lesson. It is said to be a multi-sensory method of teaching. It incorporates reading, writing, and spelling as an integrated programme.             At the start of stage one, children like Jo would benefit from the lessons of sequencing, short vowels hard and soft ‘c’ and ‘g’ and wall words, along with the revision of more complex patterns such as consonant blends, vowel digraphs and homophones. Over learning and repetition dealing with grammatical structures are also included in the programme. To establish rapid recognition of words of sounds, letters, and spelling patterns, dictation is used in isolation and in context. Other activities are included to backed-up the core activities, such as games, worksheets, flashcards, and others.             The need of visual discrimination exercises are addressed to solved the difficulty with regards to the b/d directionality. An example is the cut-out letters of ‘b’ and ‘d’ out of sandpaper. This will help in the improvement of the child’s skill in rapid and accurate visual discrimination, including the correct recognition of words when reading, and to recall while spelling.             Dr. Strydorn’s colour blocks are also utilized to assist in the development of visual sequential memory. This is to answer the child’s weakness in recalling words. The exercises expand to cover auditory sequential memory in the latter part of the programme.             Another aim of the said programme is to develop the child’s short-term auditory sequential memory. This will be beneficial for the child in remembering longer spellings, writing words he had just heard, and writing from dictation. One game fitted for this is the ‘list game’.             Aside from the needs addressed above, concrete application of the segmentation procedure of the sounds in a word in its correct order is needed to complete the learning process. Games can also help in achieving this such as cutting of a written word (in cards) in its syllable components.  The task is to arrange it properly and read it. And for the final task, the child is required to make a ‘funny’ new word out of it. This teaches him the essential skills needed, not only for reading but as well as spelling.             For the improvement of the fluency of his penmanship, some handwriting techniques will be included in the program. The encouragement of the child to write longer sentences instead of rows of single letters is also advised. This will aid the child’s letter formation, fine manipulative control, neatness and speed of writing. And for the problem regarding the difficulty in remembering and retrieving from memory common sequences, alphabet wooden letters are used.  Automaticity is expected to be achieved in the ability to lay them out properly and in correct order. This presents a natural progression to over learn letter sounds to aid sound blending particularly the vowel sounds.  Also incorporating the days of the week and the months of the year is also advisable to be included since it addresses one of the difficulties of the child.  Assessment of the Difficulties Encountered             From the assessments results, it was found out that Jo has difficulties in different aspects of learning. This includes reading, writing, and spelling. This simply shows that he lacks the ability to carry-out literacy-related tasks. This was due to his limited working memory, which in turn slows down and limits his performance.             In answer to the said problems, the Alpha to Omega Programme was chosen to be the foundation of his lessons. At the start of the program, basic lessons in alphabetic activities were introduced so as to cope with the learning capacity of the child. The sequence then leads to more complex letter patterns as the programme progresses.             Over learning and repetition, which deals with grammatical structures, are also included in the programme. To keep hold of the child’s limited concentration span, a variety of short activities are devised to address the said issue.             The child’s b/d directionality was also improved as the lessons progressed. The difficulty of the correct formation of the letter ‘r’, as well as the other difficulties of the child, needs to be in a continued remediation level throughout the entire programme.                   On the early part of the programme, it was also found out that Jo had fine manipulation difficulties. In response to this, different writing tools were introduced, for him to find one that is most suitable and the one that produces the best cursive script.                In addition to the said difficulties, Jo also made a complaint regarding the color of the paper he is using. According to him, the brightness of the color white causes inconvenience during reading and writing. Again, in response to this, the idea of overlaying was presented to him. To dull the effects of the white image, the overlay is being laid over the print. And as a result, he has chosen the color blue, as he feels a lot more comfortable using the said color. The Eye Science blue lined writing paper, in particular, was his personal choice for his writing purposes. Progress Achieved as Shown on the Assessment Scores             For Jo’s writing skills, there are certain improvements on it. However, considerable attention on it is still needed. This was due to the assessment that his handwriting was still regarded as illegible. Simple things such as the proper seating position during writing should also be ensured for him to find ease during writing. A variety of writing tools are also utilized for his comfort. Basics on letter formation were commenced with a mixture of activities such as clay moulding and tracing of cut-out letters from sandpaper. This was used as an aid to the improvement process of letter formation. For the writing activities, it was improved from short sentences to dictation work. In the end, free writing exercises are introduced to demonstrate how well they progressed in terms of their writing legibility.             In terms of writing speed, Jo had manifested no improvement at all. According to the R. Hedderly Writing Single Speed, for the last three years, he got a raw score of 52. In its percentage equivalent, it is in the bottom 10%, which means a lot of effort is still needed since the programme seems to be not effective to him, as there is no foreseeable progress on his record.             In terms of spelling, his scores are still inadequate for his age. As the records show it, his latest raw score in the WRAT 3 Spelling Test of 30 is still far beyond the normal score for children his age. It can be seen on his age discrepancy result of 1.7-2 yrs. Therefore, a lot of improvement is still needed for him to catch up with his batch mates.              On the other hand, the results for his reading activities are as follows: for the M. Turner One Minute Reading Test – raw score of 101 with an increase of 8 pts. as of the previous one, discrepancy of 0.7 months from the previous result of 0.11 months; for the M. Turner Non-word Reading Test – raw score of 24 from a score of 22 last year, age discrepancy of 0.9 months from a previous result of 1.1-1.3 yrs; and for the WRAT 3 Reading Ability Test – a raw score of 39 (same as of last year), and reading age discrepancy of 0.5 months + from a previous result of 1.1-2 yrs. As a conclusion, although the figures show progress on his reading ability, it is still advisable for him to finish the programme. The results proved that the programme is effective on him and must continue until he can now read side by side with normal kids his age.             In terms of Jo’s reading comprehension, the weekly reading sessions of the said programme improved his word bank of sight vocabulary. The phonic material, which is also included in the programme, enables him to engage in word families’ recognition. The paired reading activity gave way for his improvement in terms of reading speed and confidence. Future Intervention Recommendations             With relation to the said improvements, it is therefore recommended for Jo to continue the said programme. This was to further improve and build his relative strengths on certain skills which show considerable improvements. A writing programme such as Text Help on his PC is also encouraged to assist him in writing short stories without concentrating on handwriting, spelling, punctuation, and that what he says make sense. The said PC programme will eliminate some of his difficulties, in the same way as it encourages him on putting down his thoughts on paper.             A Dictaphone is also another great help for him. In here, he could use it to dictate his story first, and then type it out afterwards. This will help him focus on his story line without worrying about the spelling, writing, and keeping hold of his thoughts, all at once.             In the reading part, Jo had improved enough to make him now enjoy reading short story thriller books. It is therefore advised for him to continue his paired reading scheme to continue building up his reading skills. This will in turn improve his comprehension, automaticity, as well as his confidence and self-esteem.              For him to progress on his phonological awareness on learning further rules and patterns on spelling, he should proceed with the stage 2 of the structured lessons of the said programme. Also, the introduced RAWS strategy should be applied continually in order for him to have a strategy to use. PC games are also recommended for him to have fun while learning.

Brief Resume of the Alpha to Omega Programme

The said programme was a one hour weekly lesson. It is said to be a multi-sensory method of teaching. It inco...