Research Korner: Education Articles

Education for Girls and Women

“Education should bring out the woman by training her in community and national affairs without however losing her femininity and respect for cherished values.”                                                                                              -Lourdes Echauz             Education is considered as one of the important ways in eliminating the poverty and opens the wide range of economic opportunities for the people (Seipel, 2003). Every country has a goal in economic progress and one of the concerns of the political bodies in to increase the level of education in the country. Zimbabwe is not different in centering the development through the use of education.              The equal access of education is the basic approach to fight and reduce the poverty. On the hand, if children – and sometimes, only the girls – are excluded in the accessibility in education, then there is an evidence that inequality rules the society that might prevented the growth of each individual in developing their talents and interests. The responsibility of the government is to ensure that everyone is given the equal rights to experience the various benefits that they can offer. The progress in society also affects the development in the economy. Education inequality is considered as a major infringement on the rights of women and girls and serves as an important barrier to social and economic development. The discrimination against the women and girls remains pervasive in most societies.               Therefore, investing in education can somehow increase the personal and social well-being of girls and increases the knowledge as well. In the end, the objective of development can be satisfied. Strategies are needed to pursue this goal and secure that there is a compliance with human rights obligations (UNESCO, 2005). From tracing the progress of the education in the dependent countries, there are four-core areas that need to be assessed (a) the macro-structural forces that shapes the education and stratification (b) the relationship between family background and educational outcomes (c) school effects (d) and education's impact on economic and social mobility (Trujillo, 2002).               The contributions for development of the countries under the category of Third World countries are in the matter of addressing the various issues that might plague the education. The knowledge gaps were identified to be the most intriguing aspect of education that might prevent the continuous development. This particularly included the utilization of the new and recent information, sources, and methods that can be effectively used in the collaboration process in most of the schools in developing societies (Buchmann and Hannum, 2001). The concept of development embraces the major social and values to sustain the entire society, leaving no one behind. By giving the right of education for girls and women is freeing the society from the three evils namely want, ignorance, and squalor. In return, the nation allows the women to determine their own destiny (Mutenheri, 2009).

Education for Girls and Women

“Education should bring out the woman by training her in community and national affairs without however losing her femininity and respect fo...

IS THERE A NEED FOR ADULT VOCATIONAL EDUCATION?

Is There a Need for Adult Vocational Education?               The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defined adult education as a type of education that “denotes the entire body of organized educational processes, whatever the content, level and method, whether formal or otherwise, whether they prolong or replace initial education in schools, colleges and universities as well as in apprenticeship, whereby persons regarded as adult by the society to which they belong develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge, improve their technical or professional qualifications or turn them in a new direction and bring about changes in their attitudes or behavior in the two-fold perspective of full personal development and participation in balanced and independent social, economic and cultural development” (1982, p.15). This old definition alone of UNESCO denotes a tone of importance for adult education, what more in today’s society? The world today is much advanced and richer in technology, thus the need for skills improvement is more imperative than before. However, it was estimated that only 50% of the United States population attends college at some point in their lives ( 1994). The question is what did the other half decided for their lives? Basically, with that huge number of people not attending college, a substitute educational programme like vocational education would be much helpful. After all, vocational training alone can get someone a job, particularly something that doesn’t require any college degree. Because of the fact that half of Americans chose not to take college courses, it is obvious that there is a great need for other alternative courses such as vocational education courses or trainings. Thus, the author proposes to conduct a study that would bring evidence to the importance of vocational education to adults. Specifically, the proposed study will focus on benefits that vocational education give to those who graduated from it, particularly in employment and the rate of being given a chance in pre-employment. Here, the author will present related literatures, methodology, along with other segments that would help present the proposal. Statement of the Problem                 There is a need to determine the condition of those who chose vocational trainings over a college degree. With today’s high technology and competitive environment, the need for an education has been much stressed, moreover having a college degree. Because most modern companies require a college degree or two, there is a slim chance for those who do not have any degree to find a job suitable enough to sustain their needs and their family. The question here can also be thrown to those who only have vocational training – if they’re not having or didn’t have any difficulty finding a suitable job. It can be assumed that there is difficulty, however, in their endeavor because not only there are limited jobs available for those without college degree; there is also a somewhat different unequal level of comparison between academic and vocational courses. As (1998) stated, there is a division in the curriculum between academic and vocational aspect, with the connotation and treatment of the latter as a default for those who are not suited to enroll or continue study for the former. This negative connotation can be hurtful, as in a discriminating society opportunities would seem to be miniscule.               The division alone and the discrimination that takes place can be enough bases for the need of adult vocational education because without it, it can be said that there would be no other options. However, the need for it and its importance can be further stressed by looking at the condition of those who have taken it, particularly the benefits that it gives to them. Thus, having a considerable job after finishing the course would be positive, while being jobless would be negative. These data to be collected will help measure the importance of adult vocational education.   Research Questions                 To be able to solve the problem presented earlier, the author should first answer a few general and specific questions. The general questions are the following:   1.         What are the advantages of taking vocational education instead of taking an academic course to adults? 2.                  What are the disadvantages?   3.                  Does vocational education provide many job opportunities?     Specifically, the author will then answer the following queries:     1.         What are the factors that make upper secondary education graduates choose vocational education over academic college courses? 2.         Are they satisfied with their decisions? 3.         Do they have a job? 4.         If yes, how much time did they spend looking for job before having one? 5.         Do they find vocational education as a necessity or do they find it as a forced choice for those who don’t have much option?   Objectives of the Study               The main objective of the study is to provide a quantitative data of evidence to prove the importance of vocational education to adults who finished upper secondary education particularly in getting a job, and the quality of the job they acquired. The same goes in finding out if vocational education is really a necessity, thus stressing its importance and the level of need for it. Another aim of the study is to collate for related studies that has results helpful in the interpretation of data to be acquired.   Hypothesis                 The study will seek to prove the hypothesis: “vocational education is a necessity for some due to some internal and external factors.” Of course, the author will try to look for factors why the individual choose vocational course over academic degrees. In doing so, the importance of vocational education would hopefully be revealed.   Significance of the Study                 This study will be significant in a sense that it will bring light to the importance of vocational education in contrast to the negative connotation that goes with it. While there have been a great deal of emphasis on its effectiveness in improving the flexibility and performance of an employee who finished an academic course, the study will explore the perception of those who have made vocational education as their greatest educational attainment and will find out how it affected their status in life so far. Thus, the results in this study will benefit those who are interested in knowing the true benefits and shortcomings of choosing vocational education over an academic course. In particular, those who are in upper secondary education who are already decided to take vocational course after high school could reconsider their decisions upon reading the ‘would be’ results of this study. In the same sense, this study could also change the negative perceptions of most people on vocational educational. Furthermore, this study can also serve as a basis for future studies that concerns other areas of study in this topic. This can also serve as a valuable reference for future studies to come.             Literature Review     There is a considerable amount of literature regarding vocational study. The article ‘Vocational Education as general Education’ by  (1998) can be a fresh start for a literature review. In the article, (1998) made emphasis regarding some biases of perception in vocational education. He stated that the vocational option is more likely to be imposed upon poor communities than upon wealthy ones.  (1998) also stated that in peculiar sociology of the curriculum, vocational knowledge is treated in schools and in society at large as low-status knowledge, unlike academic knowledge which is accordingly advantaged and dispensed. Those who choose the vocational route effectively forfeit the opportunity to go on a university and to gain a high-status job. He explained that the liberal (academic)/vocational divide stays an important screening and sorting mechanism “that even countries wishing to upgrade the status of vocational education are reluctant to dismantle” (p.287).  (1993a) even stated that the division is ‘inescapably’ embedded in our society because they represent social or status hierarchy. Thus, it is subtly saying that students who have chosen vocational education over prestigious academic courses are doomed living a low-status.  (1994) or  advisory panel found in their study that students who took mostly vocational courses in high school didn’t have any plans going to college. Furthermore, those students with poor scholastic averages and those who are African-American, Natives, and disabled, are most likely to take vocational courses (, 1994).               However, despite the negative connotation on vocational educational education, its importance is now being seen in the new vocationalization taking place in the US. According to (1998), the advanced setting of today requires employees to be flexible and learn new technologies in order to keep up with their jobs. Thus, workers are now also being required to take vocational courses as a sort of upgrade to their skills or moreover, as sort of adding additional new skills. However,  (2000) stated that a vocational education must also keep pace with the changes in the industry that it serves as employers today want a more flexible training. In this case, vocational educators are pointed to play an important role, mainly by trialing the use of more holistic approaches to develop the higher level of competence needs which can increase the benefits of vocational education.  (2000), researched and defended vocational education in secondary setting, found many advantages for students on providing such education in secondary setting such as: opportunity to link theory to practice; gain work experience and personal insight in a professional role, acquire knowledge and attitudes relevant to future learning, exercise thinking skills in a practical context, and develop a personal maturity. As mentioned, vocational education seems to be being treated as something lower in quality from academic courses. But with the benefits found from secondary education students, it seems that it has its worth after all. Perhaps the only problem is the negative connotation that is embedded within it, particularly to those who haven’t taken any higher education but vocational education.               In the study of  (2003) about four high school students with autism’s transition to an adult vocational service provider, they found some interesting positive facts. The successful aspects they found include: the employment of knowledgeable transition specialists, the variety of choices students and their families had in the geographic area, and the use of assessment data in one of the agencies. These positive aspects are said to have provided a good learning experience for the students with autism.               On the other hand,  (2001) found that vocational education is weak in Australia as compared against academic courses when it comes to finding jobs. (2001) found that just over 44% of the participants were working in an occupation that did not require a formal education qualification. Furthermore,  (2001) found that the mean scores for literacy and numeracy for those with degrees and diplomas were higher than those with trade certificates and other qualifications. On the other hand, in terms of demographic factors, he found that the proportions of females working in occupations with a requirement for a degree was double than that of males.  (2001) stated that this result is consistent with the fact that more women attend higher education than men, as found by (2000). Furthermore, only few students in the rural areas achieve a degree as compared to students from the metropolitan areas. (2001) concluded that educational-vocational achievements are attained by three groups of factors. The first group include: gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status and geographical location. The second group of factors, on the other hand, was educational and included early levels of achievement in literacy numeracy, and levels of school completion. Then finally, the third set of factors includes motivational influence of high school interests in vocational areas.               Basically, what are being taught in adult vocational education include basic education, self-improvement courses, or occupational training skills (, 2004). Both academic and vocational courses are taught in adult vocational education, with hands-on approach. Aside from being an alternative to academic courses, students here aim to earn their high school diploma or GED, or immigrants to learn English ( 2004). Thus, with such help in both those in and out of college, and to those who are still in high school, the importance of vocational education is evident.   In the NELS survey, students were asked the following question in both 8th and 12th grades: “As things stand now, how far in school do you think you will get?” Overall, expectations were high, with all but 7 percent of 1992 high school graduates reporting in 8th grade that they expected to continue their education beyond high school (table 2). Seventy-three percent reported that they expected to earn at least a bachelor’s degree, and another 20 percent expected to complete some college or vocational training (, 2000). This shows that early in high school, there are already students decided to go to vocational education. With this decision, it is possible that they perceived their future will be secured with it. But still, such attitude cannot change the inequality between academic courses and vocational education.    stated that vocational education and training systems should be characterized through their “qualification styles” ( 1995). These include three aspects: political and organizational regulation frameworks for qualification processes (co-ordination, control and financing), didactic- curricular orientation of qualification processes (underlying didactic and methodological principles, relations between qualification profiles in training and in work life) and the role of qualification processes in the context of socialization (, 1995). However, according to  (1997), the nature of vocational education as a form of education is insufficiently thematized because merely of its separation from academic courses. However, despite the difference, the facts there are those who would rather choose vocational education over academic courses cannot be underestimated. This demand can be a support in proving the importance of such education.   Methodology     The research being proposed will be a descriptive type of research that will illustrate the importance of vocational education to adults in the United States (U.S.). A descriptive research intends to present facts concerning the nature and status of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study ( 1994). It is also concerned with relationships and practices that exist, beliefs and processes that are ongoing, effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing (, 1970). In addition, such approach tries to describe present conditions, events or systems based on the impressions or reactions of the respondents of the research ( 1994).   Primary and secondary data will be used in the study. Primary data will come from the responses of the respondents to be surveyed; while secondary data will come from publication materials related to the need for vocational education i.e. published articles from education and vocational training journals, theses and related studies on vocational education.   Quantitative research method will be used in the study because it allows the research problem to be conducted in a very specific and set terms (, 1992). Besides, a quantitative research plainly and distinctively specifies both the independent and the dependent variables under investigation ( 2002). It also follows resolutely the original set of research goals, arriving at more objective conclusions, testing hypothesis, determining the issues of causality and eliminates or minimises subjectivity of judgment (, 1996). Further, this method allows for longitudinal measures of subsequent performance of research subjects (, 2002). Finally, it provides achieving high levels of reliability of gathered data due to i.e. controlled observations, laboratory experiments, mass surveys, or other form of research manipulations (, 1970). This study should be based on surveys and statistical treatments, so basically the quantitative approach fits well with it. For this research, the researcher, after gathering the relevant data needed, will collate them together with published studies from different local and foreign universities and articles from social science journals, then afterwards render a critical analysis on the collected documents and verbal materials. A summary of all the information gathered will also be provided by the researcher, as well as a conclusion and insightful recommendations on the importance of adult vocational education. Respondents of the Study               The researcher will survey 300 vocational education graduates within two years and up. The age requirement should be 18 and above since the mentioned number is considered as the standard start of adulthood. The respondents will be chosen through random sampling. They will be surveyed with a structured questionnaire. Data Collection Surveys are the most common form of research method for collection of primary data (, 2000). One of its purpose is to describe, e.g., to count the frequency of some event or to assess the distribution of some variables such as proportion of the population of different age groups, sex, religion, castes and languages, knowledge, attitude and adoption of practices about particular issues, and other information of similar nature about the population ( 2000). The descriptive survey of the population is valuable in understanding the audience, and in the definition of the existence and magnitude of the problems, and the survey data are also helpful in determining cause and effect relationships between variables ( 2000).               On the other hand, the questionnaire will be structured questionnaire because it will require less difficulty in analyzing and completion of the task. The researcher originally planned to conduct semi-structured questionnaire because it is more flexible than the structured type. However, semi-structured questionnaires are more difficult and time consuming to complete and to analyze. Because the time available in conducting the dissertation is only limited, the researcher decided to settle to structured questionnaire because it will provide a quick survey process and data gathering.               In the structuring the questionnaire, the researcher will first define the goals of the information collection. Then, the researcher will clarify how those goals can be met by collecting various types of information. Furthermore, variables that need to be measured will be defined. Enclosed with the questionnaire is an accompanying letter that will introduce the researcher and the purpose of the questionnaire. In addition, the information that should be collected will be mentioned as well as the assurance that each of their answers will be confidential. Questionnaires will be distributed via email, fax, personal interview, and through focus group. The data collection instrument will be based on a 5-Point Likert scale. A Likert Scale is a rating scale that requires the subject to indicate his or her degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement. By rating scale we mean the scales that are usually used to measure attitudes towards an object, the degree to which an object contains a particular attribute, (Like or dislike), toward some attribute, or the importance attached to an attribute (, 2004). The equivalent weights for the answers will be:   Range                                                Interpretation       4.50 – 5.00                                        Strongly Agree 3.50 – 4.00                                        Agree 2.50 – 3.49                                        Uncertain 1.50 – 2.49                                        Disagree          0.00 – 1.49                                        Strongly Disagree   Ethical Considerations                           The researcher will only interview the respondents if there is already an approval from the universities and from the teachers themselves.  Furthermore, certain requests of the respondents such as the time limit of the interview, or if they decide not to answer a particular question, will be allowed. In addition, the researcher will ensure the confidentiality of their answers.   Data Analysis                 First the questionnaire will be validated by having professionals review the structure. Then, the data analysis will be based on ’s (2000) framework approach. This form of analysis involves five stages. After collecting the data, the researcher must engage in immersion, by carefully reading transcripts and notes, to compile a first list of recurrent themes and concepts. In the second stage, these themes are examined and related back to the specific stated aim of the study. At this point, themes that were not anticipated by previous research will be identified. The themes are then located back in the transcripts, and noted against the text. In the fourth stage the data are charted, by rearranging text, to identify how often a theme emerged and to what other theme or themes (if any) it relates. In the final stage, themes are mapped, so that links between them can be considered, as well as rechecking the themes against the original aim of the study.   Estimated Timeline   10/2004: identify the topic; draw up the outline plan 10-12/2004; carry out a literature search; do reading (write draft literature Review and submit it to supervisor for feedback; plan fieldwork 1-3/2005: identify or construct & pilot your research instrument(s) (negotiate access to your respondents; carry out fieldwork; write draft of Methodology chapter and submit it to supervisor for feedback 4-7/2005: analyze data (write draft Findings and Discussion chapter and submit it supervisor for feedback; write draft of final chapter and submit it to supervisor for feedback 8/2005: write the introduction; write the Synopsis; complete the references; collate and appendices References:

IS THERE A NEED FOR ADULT VOCATIONAL EDUCATION?

Is There a Need for Adult Vocational Education? The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (U...

IS THERE A NEED FOR ADULT VOCATIONAL EDUCATION?

Is There a Need for Adult Vocational Education?               The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defined adult education as a type of education that “denotes the entire body of organized educational processes, whatever the content, level and method, whether formal or otherwise, whether they prolong or replace initial education in schools, colleges and universities as well as in apprenticeship, whereby persons regarded as adult by the society to which they belong develop their abilities, enrich their knowledge, improve their technical or professional qualifications or turn them in a new direction and bring about changes in their attitudes or behavior in the two-fold perspective of full personal development and participation in balanced and independent social, economic and cultural development” ( 1982, p.15). This old definition alone of UNESCO denotes a tone of importance for adult education, what more in today’s society? The world today is much advanced and richer in technology, thus the need for skills improvement is more imperative than before. However, it was estimated that only 50% of the United States population attends college at some point in their lives ( 1994). The question is what did the other half decided for their lives? Basically, with that huge number of people not attending college, a substitute educational programme like vocational education would be much helpful. After all, vocational training alone can get someone a job, particularly something that doesn’t require any college degree. Because of the fact that half of Americans chose not to take college courses, it is obvious that there is a great need for other alternative courses such as vocational education courses or trainings. Thus, the author proposes to conduct a study that would bring evidence to the importance of vocational education to adults. Specifically, the proposed study will focus on benefits that vocational education give to those who graduated from it, particularly in employment and the rate of being given a chance in pre-employment. Here, the author will present related literatures, methodology, along with other segments that would help present the proposal. Statement of the Problem                 There is a need to determine the condition of those who chose vocational trainings over a college degree. With today’s high technology and competitive environment, the need for an education has been much stressed, moreover having a college degree. Because most modern companies require a college degree or two, there is a slim chance for those who do not have any degree to find a job suitable enough to sustain their needs and their family. The question here can also be thrown to those who only have vocational training – if they’re not having or didn’t have any difficulty finding a suitable job. It can be assumed that there is difficulty, however, in their endeavor because not only there are limited jobs available for those without college degree; there is also a somewhat different unequal level of comparison between academic and vocational courses. As  (1998) stated, there is a division in the curriculum between academic and vocational aspect, with the connotation and treatment of the latter as a default for those who are not suited to enroll or continue study for the former. This negative connotation can be hurtful, as in a discriminating society opportunities would seem to be miniscule.               The division alone and the discrimination that takes place can be enough bases for the need of adult vocational education because without it, it can be said that there would be no other options. However, the need for it and its importance can be further stressed by looking at the condition of those who have taken it, particularly the benefits that it gives to them. Thus, having a considerable job after finishing the course would be positive, while being jobless would be negative. These data to be collected will help measure the importance of adult vocational education.   Research Questions                 To be able to solve the problem presented earlier, the author should first answer a few general and specific questions. The general questions are the following:   1.         What are the advantages of taking vocational education instead of taking an academic course to adults? 2.                  What are the disadvantages?   3.                  Does vocational education provide many job opportunities?     Specifically, the author will then answer the following queries:     1.         What are the factors that make upper secondary education graduates choose vocational education over academic college courses? 2.         Are they satisfied with their decisions? 3.         Do they have a job? 4.         If yes, how much time did they spend looking for job before having one? 5.         Do they find vocational education as a necessity or do they find it as a forced choice for those who don’t have much option?   Objectives of the Study               The main objective of the study is to provide a quantitative data of evidence to prove the importance of vocational education to adults who finished upper secondary education particularly in getting a job, and the quality of the job they acquired. The same goes in finding out if vocational education is really a necessity, thus stressing its importance and the level of need for it. Another aim of the study is to collate for related studies that has results helpful in the interpretation of data to be acquired.   Hypothesis                 The study will seek to prove the hypothesis: “vocational education is a necessity for some due to some internal and external factors.” Of course, the author will try to look for factors why the individual choose vocational course over academic degrees. In doing so, the importance of vocational education would hopefully be revealed.   Significance of the Study                 This study will be significant in a sense that it will bring light to the importance of vocational education in contrast to the negative connotation that goes with it. While there have been a great deal of emphasis on its effectiveness in improving the flexibility and performance of an employee who finished an academic course, the study will explore the perception of those who have made vocational education as their greatest educational attainment and will find out how it affected their status in life so far. Thus, the results in this study will benefit those who are interested in knowing the true benefits and shortcomings of choosing vocational education over an academic course. In particular, those who are in upper secondary education who are already decided to take vocational course after high school could reconsider their decisions upon reading the ‘would be’ results of this study. In the same sense, this study could also change the negative perceptions of most people on vocational educational. Furthermore, this study can also serve as a basis for future studies that concerns other areas of study in this topic. This can also serve as a valuable reference for future studies to come.             Literature Review     There is a considerable amount of literature regarding vocational study. The article ‘Vocational Education as general Education’ by  (1998) can be a fresh start for a literature review. In the article,  (1998) made emphasis regarding some biases of perception in vocational education. He stated that the vocational option is more likely to be imposed upon poor communities than upon wealthy ones.  (1998) also stated that in peculiar sociology of the curriculum, vocational knowledge is treated in schools and in society at large as low-status knowledge, unlike academic knowledge which is accordingly advantaged and dispensed. Those who choose the vocational route effectively forfeit the opportunity to go on a university and to gain a high-status job. He explained that the liberal (academic)/vocational divide stays an important screening and sorting mechanism “that even countries wishing to upgrade the status of vocational education are reluctant to dismantle” (p.287). (1993a) even stated that the division is ‘inescapably’ embedded in our society because they represent social or status hierarchy. Thus, it is subtly saying that students who have chosen vocational education over prestigious academic courses are doomed living a low-status.  (1994) or NAVE advisory panel found in their study that students who took mostly vocational courses in high school didn’t have any plans going to college. Furthermore, those students with poor scholastic averages and those who are African-American, Natives, and disabled, are most likely to take vocational courses (, 1994).               However, despite the negative connotation on vocational educational education, its importance is now being seen in the new vocationalization taking place in the US. According to  (1998), the advanced setting of today requires employees to be flexible and learn new technologies in order to keep up with their jobs. Thus, workers are now also being required to take vocational courses as a sort of upgrade to their skills or moreover, as sort of adding additional new skills. However,  (2000) stated that a vocational education must also keep pace with the changes in the industry that it serves as employers today want a more flexible training. In this case, vocational educators are pointed to play an important role, mainly by trialing the use of more holistic approaches to develop the higher level of competence needs which can increase the benefits of vocational education.  (2000), researched and defended vocational education in secondary setting, found many advantages for students on providing such education in secondary setting such as: opportunity to link theory to practice; gain work experience and personal insight in a professional role, acquire knowledge and attitudes relevant to future learning, exercise thinking skills in a practical context, and develop a personal maturity. As mentioned, vocational education seems to be being treated as something lower in quality from academic courses. But with the benefits found from secondary education students, it seems that it has its worth after all. Perhaps the only problem is the negative connotation that is embedded within it, particularly to those who haven’t taken any higher education but vocational education.               In the study of  (2003) about four high school students with autism’s transition to an adult vocational service provider, they found some interesting positive facts. The successful aspects they found include: the employment of knowledgeable transition specialists, the variety of choices students and their families had in the geographic area, and the use of assessment data in one of the agencies. These positive aspects are said to have provided a good learning experience for the students with autism.               On the other hand,(2001) found that vocational education is weak in Australia as compared against academic courses when it comes to finding jobs.  (2001) found that just over 44% of the participants were working in an occupation that did not require a formal education qualification. Furthermore,  (2001) found that the mean scores for literacy and numeracy for those with degrees and diplomas were higher than those with trade certificates and other qualifications. On the other hand, in terms of demographic factors, he found that the proportions of females working in occupations with a requirement for a degree was double than that of males.  (2001) stated that this result is consistent with the fact that more women attend higher education than men, as found by  (2000). Furthermore, only few students in the rural areas achieve a degree as compared to students from the metropolitan areas.  (2001) concluded that educational-vocational achievements are attained by three groups of factors. The first group include: gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status and geographical location. The second group of factors, on the other hand, was educational and included early levels of achievement in literacy numeracy, and levels of school completion. Then finally, the third set of factors includes motivational influence of high school interests in vocational areas.               Basically, what are being taught in adult vocational education include basic education, self-improvement courses, or occupational training skills ( 2004). Both academic and vocational courses are taught in adult vocational education, with hands-on approach. Aside from being an alternative to academic courses, students here aim to earn their high school diploma or GED, or immigrants to learn English ( 2004). Thus, with such help in both those in and out of college, and to those who are still in high school, the importance of vocational education is evident.   In the NELS survey, students were asked the following question in both 8th and 12th grades: “As things stand now, how far in school do you think you will get?” Overall, expectations were high, with all but 7 percent of 1992 high school graduates reporting in 8th grade that they expected to continue their education beyond high school (table 2). Seventy-three percent reported that they expected to earn at least a bachelor’s degree, and another 20 percent expected to complete some college or vocational training ( 2000). This shows that early in high school, there are already students decided to go to vocational education. With this decision, it is possible that they perceived their future will be secured with it. But still, such attitude cannot change the inequality between academic courses and vocational education.    stated that vocational education and training systems should be characterized through their “qualification styles” (, 1995). These include three aspects: political and organizational regulation frameworks for qualification processes (co-ordination, control and financing), didactic- curricular orientation of qualification processes (underlying didactic and methodological principles, relations between qualification profiles in training and in work life) and the role of qualification processes in the context of socialization (, 1995). However, according to  (1997), the nature of vocational education as a form of education is insufficiently thematized because merely of its separation from academic courses. However, despite the difference, the facts there are those who would rather choose vocational education over academic courses cannot be underestimated. This demand can be a support in proving the importance of such education.   Methodology     The research being proposed will be a descriptive type of research that will illustrate the importance of vocational education to adults in the United States (U.S.). A descriptive research intends to present facts concerning the nature and status of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study (, 1994). It is also concerned with relationships and practices that exist, beliefs and processes that are ongoing, effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing (, 1970). In addition, such approach tries to describe present conditions, events or systems based on the impressions or reactions of the respondents of the research (, 1994).   Primary and secondary data will be used in the study. Primary data will come from the responses of the respondents to be surveyed; while secondary data will come from publication materials related to the need for vocational education i.e. published articles from education and vocational training journals, theses and related studies on vocational education.   Quantitative research method will be used in the study because it allows the research problem to be conducted in a very specific and set terms ( 1992). Besides, a quantitative research plainly and distinctively specifies both the independent and the dependent variables under investigation ( 2002). It also follows resolutely the original set of research goals, arriving at more objective conclusions, testing hypothesis, determining the issues of causality and eliminates or minimises subjectivity of judgment (, 1996). Further, this method allows for longitudinal measures of subsequent performance of research subjects (, 2002). Finally, it provides achieving high levels of reliability of gathered data due to i.e. controlled observations, laboratory experiments, mass surveys, or other form of research manipulations ( 1970). This study should be based on surveys and statistical treatments, so basically the quantitative approach fits well with it. For this research, the researcher, after gathering the relevant data needed, will collate them together with published studies from different local and foreign universities and articles from social science journals, then afterwards render a critical analysis on the collected documents and verbal materials. A summary of all the information gathered will also be provided by the researcher, as well as a conclusion and insightful recommendations on the importance of adult vocational education. Respondents of the Study               The researcher will survey 300 vocational education graduates within two years and up. The age requirement should be 18 and above since the mentioned number is considered as the standard start of adulthood. The respondents will be chosen through random sampling. They will be surveyed with a structured questionnaire. Data Collection Surveys are the most common form of research method for collection of primary data (, 2000). One of its purpose is to describe, e.g., to count the frequency of some event or to assess the distribution of some variables such as proportion of the population of different age groups, sex, religion, castes and languages, knowledge, attitude and adoption of practices about particular issues, and other information of similar nature about the population ( , 2000). The descriptive survey of the population is valuable in understanding the audience, and in the definition of the existence and magnitude of the problems, and the survey data are also helpful in determining cause and effect relationships between variables ( 2000).               On the other hand, the questionnaire will be structured questionnaire because it will require less difficulty in analyzing and completion of the task. The researcher originally planned to conduct semi-structured questionnaire because it is more flexible than the structured type. However, semi-structured questionnaires are more difficult and time consuming to complete and to analyze. Because the time available in conducting the dissertation is only limited, the researcher decided to settle to structured questionnaire because it will provide a quick survey process and data gathering.               In the structuring the questionnaire, the researcher will first define the goals of the information collection. Then, the researcher will clarify how those goals can be met by collecting various types of information. Furthermore, variables that need to be measured will be defined. Enclosed with the questionnaire is an accompanying letter that will introduce the researcher and the purpose of the questionnaire. In addition, the information that should be collected will be mentioned as well as the assurance that each of their answers will be confidential. Questionnaires will be distributed via email, fax, personal interview, and through focus group. The data collection instrument will be based on a 5-Point Likert scale. A Likert Scale is a rating scale that requires the subject to indicate his or her degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement. By rating scale we mean the scales that are usually used to measure attitudes towards an object, the degree to which an object contains a particular attribute, (Like or dislike), toward some attribute, or the importance attached to an attribute ( 2004). The equivalent weights for the answers will be:   Range                                                Interpretation       4.50 – 5.00                                        Strongly Agree 3.50 – 4.00                                        Agree 2.50 – 3.49                                        Uncertain 1.50 – 2.49                                        Disagree          0.00 – 1.49                                        Strongly Disagree   Ethical Considerations                           The researcher will only interview the respondents if there is already an approval from the universities and from the teachers themselves.  Furthermore, certain requests of the respondents such as the time limit of the interview, or if they decide not to answer a particular question, will be allowed. In addition, the researcher will ensure the confidentiality of their answers.   Data Analysis                 First the questionnaire will be validated by having professionals review the structure. Then, the data analysis will be based on s (2000) framework approach. This form of analysis involves five stages. After collecting the data, the researcher must engage in immersion, by carefully reading transcripts and notes, to compile a first list of recurrent themes and concepts. In the second stage, these themes are examined and related back to the specific stated aim of the study. At this point, themes that were not anticipated by previous research will be identified. The themes are then located back in the transcripts, and noted against the text. In the fourth stage the data are charted, by rearranging text, to identify how often a theme emerged and to what other theme or themes (if any) it relates. In the final stage, themes are mapped, so that links between them can be considered, as well as rechecking the themes against the original aim of the study.   Estimated Timeline   10/2004: identify the topic; draw up the outline plan 10-12/2004; carry out a literature search; do reading (write draft literature Review and submit it to supervisor for feedback; plan fieldwork 1-3/2005: identify or construct & pilot your research instrument(s) (negotiate access to your respondents; carry out fieldwork; write draft of Methodology chapter and submit it to supervisor for feedback 4-7/2005: analyze data (write draft Findings and Discussion chapter and submit it supervisor for feedback; write draft of final chapter and submit it to supervisor for feedback 8/2005: write the introduction; write the Synopsis; complete the references; collate and appendices References:

IS THERE A NEED FOR ADULT VOCATIONAL EDUCATION?

Is There a Need for Adult Vocational Education? The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (U...

PRISON EDUCATION

Change Management in the Context of Prison Education   Introduction                         Change is inevitable in every organisation because variables define organisational structures, processes and relationships. However, not every person is comfortable with change because of the implications this may have on the level of control and comfort that people may have in an existing status quo. In instances where people loose control or become uncomfortable with change, resistance emerges. Resistance to change refers to the steps taken by individuals when they perceive a potential or actual change as a threat to them, their environment and an existing system. There are two important elements to resistance to change. One is perception and the other is threat. This means that the threat foreseen by individuals and groups either objectively or subjectively exists but from the point of view of individuals and groups actually present. ( 2006)               In these instances, it is incumbent upon managers to address the perceived threats to individuals and groups within the organisation achieve the benefits of change. However, an important prelude prior to the implementation of change management strategies is management’s understanding of change in the context of the organisation, the nature and extent of resistance to change, the techniques of implementing change, and other considerations in successfully effecting change to meet the change objectives of the organisation ( 2004). Prison Education               According to the (2006), around 36,000 or half of the 72,000 prisoners in the area of England and Wales experience serious problems with reading, 57,600 or four-fifths have serious problems with writing. Research shows that lack of education is not the only factor influencing criminality since the number shows that other factors such as social environment and poverty have caused people in prison not to learn how to read and write but education have been recognised as highly influential in the rehabilitation of prisoners. This is because education is an important form of empowerment tool, which would make it easier for released prisoners to integrate into society and obtain gainful employment to become contributing members of the community.                         The recognition of the importance of education among prisoners has become public policy in Britain. Prison and probation services incorporate prison education as service offerings. Through these services, people released from prison and those meted with community service are given and are able to have access to education and skills training. Providing education and training to prisoners and people with probationary status constitutes change in their perspectives, beliefs and actions. Due to this change and the expected corresponding resistance to change, there is need to provide sufficient support to prisoners and people under probation, particularly with more serious problems in reading and writing for significant learning to occur. Common educational support accorded to prisoners and people under probation are family learning or reading and writing with the aid of visiting family members and peer support or appreciating and learning to read and write through group encouragement.  (2006)                    First public policy on prison education covers prison services. Education services to prisoners is sponsored by the  (NOMS) (2006) under the Home Office that identifies the specific policies for implementation together with Learning and Skills Council that takes charge of planning and funding the post-16 education and higher education in England. Another partner is the Offenders’ Learning and Skills Service (OLASS) that manage contracts or agreements with education providers and monitor the delivery of education services directed towards providing prisoners with sufficient knowledge and skills they need to find jobs and play important roles as contributing members of society. OLASS also ensures that the learning and skills provided to prisoners are consistent with the demands of the labour market.                 Programs under the prison education service include Skills for Life focusing on adult literacy. This program mandates that prisoners should go through a basic screening test as they enter the prison system and when they become integrated into society they should have received basic learning in life and social skills, information technology, and other basic skills. All prisons in England and Wales are mandated to establish a prison education system. Another program addresses the education needs of young offenders managed by the Youth Justice Board. Youth Offending Teams tasked to assess the status of young offenders and identify programmes that address their needs are established as support systems for custodial and community based young offenders. (2006)               In 2003, the government added £110 million to the funds for prison education in order to boost technological innovation in order to develop an accurate and updated database of prisoner records to facilitate continuity in learning and skills training and identify the type of education given to certain categories of prisoners. Additional funding is imperative since the government has targeted that at the least ninety percent of prisoners should be able to obtain full-time education. ( 2006)                        However, despite the efforts exerted by the government the number of repeat offenders is still significantly high. This means that despite undergoing learning and training, many released prisoners still go back to crime and when apprehended are brought back into the prison system. This indicates that there is a problem in the current prison education system since it does not sufficiently address learning objectives expected from the programme.               Research conducted by the  (2002) showed that imprisonment is not sufficient to deter repeat or new offences. Many people released from prison go back to prison within a period of two years for other crimes. Even if there is a prison education system in place, this still does not prevent released prisoners from going back to crime. According to the  (2006), interviews with prisoners to obtain their perspectives on prison education resulted to the common opinion that learning opportunities are not always accessible to prisoners in practice even if this is provided by public policy. The reason for this is the lack of after-education support provided to prisoners released from prison. Despite undergoing learning for basic skills such as learning and writing, not all prisoners are able to obtain learning of a degree that would fully support their employment and integration into mainstream society. They also have trouble in finding employment due to lack of relevant experience as well as social and financial support when they are still in the process of seeking employment. In the case of young offenders, a study conducted by the  (2006) found out that forty-five percent of young people involved in drugs, alcohol and other substance abuse, also had criminal records. This means that prison education also have to address this issue in the prison education programme for young offenders.               Apart from these challenges to the current prison education system, an assessment of the teaching and learning curriculum of the Skills for Life programme focused on adult literacy showed that even if teachers working in the prison environment are placed in a different learning context, the content and techniques used in the learning process are not inappropriate. This finding implies the need to improve the curriculum to match the prison context. (2006)               Second public policy on prison education covers probation education services covered also by the National Offender Management Service together with the National Probation Service (NPS). NPS covers around 200,000 offenders meted with community service and people who have already been released from prison but obliged to meet conditions provided in court orders as well as their release licenses. The education probation programme has also undergone assessment. ( 2006)   Recommendations included basic infrastructure needs for the programme such as the initial screening of offenders to determine their learning and skills level, diagnostic evaluation of offenders prior to community service, referral of offenders to skills provision, and monitoring of attendance to learning and skills trainings. Other recommendations showed issues arising on the part of tutors having different expectations than the actual situations they face in teaching people under probation or there may be some levels of cultural barriers. ( 2006)These recommendations imply that the existing probation education system lacks basic systems for programme implementation.    Apart from these recommendations, the  (2003) has also recognized that people getting into the probation system have other problems apart from lack of education such as lack of housing services, mental health problems, alcoholism, and drug abuse. These compounding problems mean that tutors and other education probation staff have to become aware of these other problems and incorporate learning and skills into the programme that not only improves the level of educational attainment of people under probation but also helps them obtain the mental and emotional skills to deal with their other problems.   At present, efforts have been made to expand the number of probation staff with awareness of the various issues experienced by people under probation. The staff is expected to facilitate the education as well as to provide encouragement to people under probation to taka advantage of opportunities for the improvement of their knowledge and skills. Apart from this, partnerships with the Learning and Skills Council and communities are being developed in order to gain optimum support in meeting the probation education goals. ( 2006)     Thus, there are many changes planned and currently implemented for both prison and probationary education programmes. This aspect of change involves the dynamics of different variables and parties. Variables include the socio-demographic differences between prisoners and imprisonment status of different prisoners such as the length of imprisonment and their relationship with prison staff and other prisoners while the parties include prisoners, prison staff, teachers and tutors, government and private bodies, and the community. This implies the need for a strong management utilising appropriate change management strategies in order to integrate and direct the different variables and parties towards the desired change.     Change Management in Prison Education   Change is a system that provides for the interaction of external and internal factors in all levels of the organization from the individual to various working groups to the organization as a whole and the factors outside of the organization that influence or stimulate change. Change is both a cause and an effect. It is a cause because it creates a momentum for other changes to occur and it is an effect because it is caused by certain stimuli. ( 2003) Thus, change is a complex activity requiring the appropriate change management strategies and techniques if the goal for stimulating change is to be achieved.   In the case of prison and probation education, several problems requiring change have been identified. In the case of teachers, tutors and other staff members problems covers the content and techniques used in the learning process as well as perspectives and attitudes towards the prison situations and prisoners. With regard to the content and techniques used to deliver the lessons, internal factors involves the perception of education staff on the learning needs of prisoners based on their experiences with other educational environments while external factors refers to the curriculum developed by private and government bodies specifically for prison education. In relation to attitudes and perspectives towards the prison environment and prisoners, internal aspects refers to the personal experiences or lack of experience in the prison environment while external aspects refer to the ideas of prisoners and the prison environment that education staff learn from other people and the media. These considerations prove useful in creating an environment for change because it is through the dynamics of different perspectives, information and experiences that the need for change arises. Management plays the necessary role of determining the factors needed to effect change and those that influence resistance to change.   Change management refers to the process of creating a planned approach to implementing change in a business organization. Generally, the purpose of effecting change is to maximize the possible collective benefits for the people concerned in the change and to minimize the risks of failure in change implementation. Change management may be reactive or proactive. Reactive pertains to a management plan that responds to the changes in the macro-environment and the stimulus for change is external while proactive refers to a management plan covering changes that the business firm is implementing and the stimulus for change is internal. Change management may be implemented continuously, per schedule or according to necessity. ( 2003)   In the case of prison and probation education, change management involves both reactive and proactive change. There is reactive change because the teaching staff is affected by external forces particularly the policies imposed by government and fiscal allocation and budget management together with the contents of lessons and teaching techniques recommended by both government and private organisations advocating prison literacy. However, change management approach is also proactive because there is need for internal change. In the case of the educators, there is need for both structural and socio-cultural change among their ranks. Organisational change refers to the reshuffling of working teams so that educators with knowledge and experience on the aggregate problems faced by prisoners under the literacy programme are teamed-up with educators without experience of these issues. This is important in order to facilitate the transfer of knowledge on these issues from experienced educators to rookies in the prison education system. Socio-cultural change refers to the development of an objective expectation of the prison environment and prisoners as they gain first hand knowledge and experience teaching prisoners in the prison environment. Contextual information is necessary for teaching staff to become effective facilitators of the learning experience and advocates of the issues faced by prisoners and assist in achieving an effective rehabilitation process. Again, management plays an important role in linking needs and objectives with the change management plans.   Change management in the prison and probation education system should be continuous because the effects desired are long-term. Since the purpose of educating prisoners is the empowerment of released prisoners in finding employment and integrating into mainstream society, the education curriculum and the techniques innovated by staff themselves in cooperation with prisoners should correspondent with these long-term goals.    In implementing change, management plays an important role in the flow of the management plan. The primary consideration of management is to plan the stages of change implementation in a way that the parties affected by the change would consider the purpose of the change as bigger than the possible negative impact of the change so that they accede to change. The plan for change should include the dissemination of a comprehensive and transparent description of the change process to all concerned parties, the monitoring of the alignment of the change with organizational objectives, and employee support in the change process. ( 1999;  2004)   The change management plan for the prison and probation education system should be crafted in such a manner that the change being targeted is more important and valuable than the possible adverse effects this may have on the existing system and the organisation. This becomes more important in situations where there is strong resistance. In the prison education system, there is strong resistance to change because of various factors. One is the perceived interference from outside parties such as the government and the Learning and Skills Council especially when the changes being imposed are not seen as appropriate or viable in the actual prison context. Another cause for resistance is the level of control and comfort that the members of the education staff may have on the existing system so that there is hesitation to change the system due to the threat of loosing control. Still another factor explaining resistance is the non-recognition of the need for any change particularly in systems in place for long periods. However, regardless of the cause of resistance, strong resistance hampers the change process. The members of the staff handling prison education recognizing the need for change feel discontent in a stagnated system so that there is little incentive for staying. The result is a prison education organisation lacking in personnel and wallowing in inefficiencies. In this situation, management plays an even more important role in facilitating change by allowing the free flow of information and sharing of experiences resulting to the realization of the need for change.   Change Management Skills for Prison Education               Management for prison education may implement skills and strategies in effecting change in the prison education system. First skill covers the political aspect. The relevance of politics in organizational change is usually downplayed. Politics or the art of manipulating power to affect behaviour is not all bad. The political behaviour in the organization may have either a positive or a negative consequence and these consequences justify political behaviour. ( 1999) Political behaviour may be good or bad depending on the demands of the situation. In the case of prison education, management is tasked to balance conflicting interests in situations where the government and the Learning and Skills Council are forcing change to a hesitant prison education structure. Politics comes into play when the interest of one group is prioritised while allaying the negative reaction of parties with other interests or competing interests are balance. The need for change as expressed by external parties may be recognized but the aspects of change to be implemented will come from the members of the prison education staff since they have intimate knowledge of the areas needing change and the manner of effecting change.               Second skill involves analytical aspects ( 2004). This means that management should be able to present and implement change in a clear and rational manner so that its justifications becomes acceptable to all parties and minor complaints are easily addressed. Under the analytical aspect are two important skills. One is systems analysis or the rationalisation of workflow operations covering change implementation. The change management plan should be clear, organised and actionable in order to gain the understanding and cooperation of the parties involved in the change process. The other is financial analysis. This is also an important skill for management in effecting change since the plan for change cannot be implemented without resource allocation.               Third skill covers the people management aspect (. 1999;  2002;  2002). This is important since change is achieved only through the action and reaction that members of organisation have towards a change stimulant. The most important people skill in effecting change is interpersonal or communication skills because it is through this that management is able to draw the cooperation of the people involved making or allowing change to happen.               Fourth skill involves the technological system aspect ( 2004). This skill requires management to take advantage of information and communications technology and other information technology applications to facilitate the flow of information in monitoring and evaluating the implementation of change.               Fifth skill covers the business aspect ( 2004). Even if prison education is covered by public policy, it still has business aspects. Management should be aware of how prison education operates from funding to the development of the curriculum to the hiring of the members of the education staff up to accountability and auditing to be in control of the change process.   Conclusion   Change is an inevitable occurrence in all dynamic organizations. Change is a complex activity requiring the appropriate change management strategies and techniques if the goal of stimulating change is to be achieved. In change management, the primary change agent is management or the people leading the organisation. This is because it is management that is charged with the responsibility to create an environment for change so that the parties involved recognize its need voluntarily and cooperate in the change process. In the case of prison education, management is charged with creating a culture of change through by enhancing the information and experience of prison educators so they can have an appreciation of the needs and techniques for prison education. References

PRISON EDUCATION

Change Management in the Context of Prison Education Introduction Change is inevitable in every organisa...