Research Korner

Application for the position of PR & Publicity Officer

I have learned about the job vacancy for PR and Publicity Officer as it was posted last January 26, 2007 in the internet by Asia Television Limited. I am currently connected at Starzpeople from the year 2005 up to the present being a dedicated Model that relates to magazine shootings, TV shows, Catwalk shows as well as print advertisements. Also, I am working as an Administrative Assistant at Po Hing Watch Band, as I am engage in the public relations department.             The reason why I am applying for the position is that I want to be a person who has achieved many positive things not just as a dedicated career woman but also to become a part of this prestigious organization and contribute something to the media and its culture. Aside, my love for the television has developed since I was a child and grew up dreaming to be a part of the fascinating television broadcasting world for I believe that television broadcasting has secured its place as one of the major influences in dealing with mass media.               I do believe that I am suitable for this kind of job due to the fact that I have strong disposition and good outlook in life who possess a bright and outgoing personality and communicating with different people is never a hard task for me as negotiating and compromising with those people is what I enjoy the most having better interpersonal skills being a graduate of Bilingual Communication Studies in Hong Kong. As a student of Bilingual Communication Studies, I am intrigued by the opportunity to pursue those aspirations of mine in a prestigious broadcasting company like ATV. The challenging nature of this job is what attracts me the most for I can foster my interests and utilize my strengths.                 For additional information, I have good knowledge in MS Word, HTML, Netscape, PowerPoint and Excel and I am adept in English, Mandarin, Cantonese and French and grade 6 in piano Moreover, apart from studying, I have been modeling part-time for two years. My work experiences have helped me gain a deeper understanding of the local media; they have also enhanced my self-confidence which is the key to success when working in any other kinds of jobs.               Most importantly, the two years of working as a part-time public relation officer in the Hong Kong Po Hing Watch Band has further polished my communication and organizational skills. My familiarization with the field of public relation work has made me the right candidate for the position of PR and Publicity Officer at Asia Television Limited.

Application for the position of PR & Publicity Officer

I have learned about the job vacancy for PR and Publicity Officer as it was posted last January 26, 2007 in the internet by Asia Television Limited. I am currently connected at Starzpeop…

ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Introduction             There is success in body care.  Behold the Body Shop, one of the famous international cosmetics brand.  It is not just one’s ordinary shop for body or hair care.  It is extraordinary just as its pioneer.  The entrepreneur assessed in this paper is in no way or another connected to me.    Personal Profile      The name behind the Body Shop, a famous cosmetic line for decades now, is  .  On October 23, 1942 in , , England marks her birth to an immigrant Italian family.  After completing her degree at the Newton Park College of education, she worked as a part-time teacher and for the United Nations in Geneva.  She traveled to different places like Tahiti, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Reunion, Madagascar, Mauritius, Australia, and Johannesburg.  Her fascination with the women she encountered in these places became an episodic event in her life.  It later formulated her tale of success.  As stated in  (1999), she was mesmerized by the organic products that women in the Polynesian islands use to nurture their bodies.  Then, she went back to England and married a Scotsman poet and traveler named  in 1971.  Five years later, the Body Shop was born.  The Body Shop started out in the same area where grew up.  It was just a small shop painted with green.  Its products were just placed in little recycled bottles while its labels were just handwritten.  All of which was to lessen production costs.  Through the years, the body care business developed hand in hand with political causes.  Dame , as how she is referred to now, has been acclaimed for many things.  She has been London’s Business Woman of the Year in 1985.  She has received an Order of the British Empire in 1988.  In 1988, she has been the Communicator of the Year, and Retailer of the Year.  She has been the United Nation’s “Global 500” Environmental award.  On the other hand, the Body Shop brand has been regarded as the second most trusted brand in the UK according to the Consumers Association.  As said by the 1997 survey criteria, it is known to be the top 28 brand in the world, and ranks second in the retail sector.  The International Chief Executives in the Financial Times conducted a survey in 1998 and found Body Shop to be the 27th most respected company in the world (The Body Shop International. Available at The Body Shop is aged 30 this year, 2006.  From a small and simple shop, it has grown into a multinational company, though she prefers Body Shop to be described as “global.”  It operates in 50 countries with over 1, 900 outlets.  Indeed, the Body Shop has gone global, cutting across various cultures.  That is how far it has gone.  Recently, the Body Shop entered in an agreement with L’Oreal for its take over.  The deal is reported to be worth ₤652 only.  Founder and major stockholders , who still own 18% of its stock, are likely to receive ₤130M from the said agreement (. ).    Successful Factor             What does it take to become a successful entrepreneur?  In Dame ’s case, what are the factors that lead for her and her business’ success?  Success is measured according to sales growth, income, employment trends and satisfaction  (2000).              The reason why she came back to England while traveling Africa was because she was asked to by the English officials after finding out that that she did not do what a white is supposed to do in a black country.  Years later, she made use of her encounter to open a “body shop.”  Opening a shop that satisfies the need of nurturing the body out of indigenous science refers to the risk that Dame has taken.  Indeed, it is interesting to note that she risked selling products, inspired by ethnic body rituals, among her fellow Westerners, being the consumers.  She risked selling alternative body care products.  Nevertheless, she dealt with it with optimism.              In order to face success, it is of crucial importance to think of the ways by which the business model will thrive in the marketplace.  Another is to assess the strengths and opportunities of the business.  Lastly, it is always important to innovate, as this has always described entrepreneurs (, 2000).              Innovations are proven to increase the business’ performance.  During Christmas last year, upon launching a new product, i.e. a strong Christmas gift range, and improving customer services, operating profits from the division boosted to 17% to ₤11.7 million (, 2005).  This is a recent event in the innovation strategies of Body Shop.              (1939), as cited in (1995), asserts that an entrepreneur functions to innovate, which means devising new production function out of the existing factors of production.   In simpler terms, an entrepreneur is one who introduces a new product or a product that deviates from the ordinary.  Such is the basic idea or definition of an entrepreneur from which its modern definitions have developed.              Apart from the above, there is something about the packaging of the Body Shop products.   started with small bottles since that was what she was complaining on.  According to   (1992), lesser materials should be use to produce smaller, thinner and lighter packages.  This is one of the ways by which a company can minimize packaging costs, and at the same time, maintaining products to be in line with “green”.  Supporting the environment is ensconced in the Body Shop from the very beginning.  Years later, as the Body Shop grew larger and larger,  combined principles with profit.               (2005) article entitled “” speak for itself.  In the case of , she sells body products through the Body Shop while supporting local community trade in Third World Countries.              Personality has much to say in defining ’s success.  (1988) discusses 8 characteristics of women entrepreneurs, but in this case, three of which pertinently describe the subject of study.  Introducing naturally made cosmetics speak for her creativity and capacity to innovate.  She is confident enough to sell her body products in the market.  And, she is driven by autonomy.              In ’s eyes, Body Shop succeeded because of two reasons.  Economic survival of her family, especially during its beginnings, was a primary driving factor; and, the passion to establish a shop of her own and to engage in trading was the other (1999).  She therefore succeeded not because of a capitalist goal, which is profit.  What she did was she thought of ways to survive in the market.  She did not dream of a big shop.  The shop eventually did.    Critically Appraisal Business Domain and Products Life Cycle             The Body Shop is known for its cosmetic products that are naturally made and environment-friendly.  Struck by the body rituals among the women in the Polynesian islands, Dame  made sure that the kinds of cosmetics that her shop sells are made naturally.  Moreover, in this present age, this is what Body Shop offers still to its customers.  Likewise, having roamed the corners of the world, Dame  is able to acquire knowledge on the various natural products that different women across the globe use.  If we are to make a careful scrutiny of the products sold at the Body Shop, then we will see the different products with different functions that are composed of ingredients that come from different countries.  Examples of which are the following: sesame seed from Nicaragua, shea butter from Ghana, coco milk, mangoes, strawberries, etc.  Thus, if I am a shopper who passes by the Body Shop and get to see these products, then, no wonder, I will exactly feel the same fascination that Dame  felt decades ago.  All of these natural products are sold in all 50 countries where it exists.    Target Customers Selected and Why             Body Shop, as the brand implies, deal with the body.  However, it is not mainly concerned with making the body merely to be beautiful as what most cosmetics pledge to do.  When we think of cosmetics, the immediate implication is that it pertains to beauty products and therefore, for women.  On the contrary, is it only for women?  In this present time, women and men alike undergo vanity rituals.  Caring for the body is not just a female activity.  It is an activity that males today look into.  It is for individuals, male and female alike across various age brackets and social or cultural groups, who are geared towards nurturing their bodies.                did not really start the Body Shop with an intense will to have women being her primary target customers.  Rather, she created a venture with innovative products driven by the desire to own a shop of her own and the determination to survive.    Unique Selling Point              (2002) says that differentiation deals with offering uniqueness.  Being different implies being unique.  This is not the function of a particular entity in the organization, but the entire organization as a whole. Value is placed either on the product or the service or in both cases.  In order to attain competitive advantage, he suggests focusing on the value that customers seek as the operations strategy.  This can be done by looking at the quality, reliability, variety, features, services, location, delivery, after sales support, etc.  According to (1994), as cited in  (2003), cognitive legitimacy works simply through what is/are being signified in a particular sign or symbols.  What makes the Body Shop unique?  On the one hand, it deviates from its fellow cosmetics line with regard to its advertisements.  It never made use of famous celebrities nor supermodels to endorse its products.  Furthermore, the characteristics that its models posses are far from the stereotypical model or from the Western standards.  If we are to access the Body Shop International’s website, as cited in this paper, we will find out that these models are black.  From this we can derive that the pioneer of Body Shop ventures into something that is more than just business.  There is politics behind.  The cosmetic business is bound by principle.  According to  (2000), two essential factors make Body Shop to be distinct.  First, the value of integrity defines its interaction with its customers, staff and suppliers.  Second, it is the intense environmentalist philosophy of the business.  Body Shop products are known for being naturally-made and environment-friendly.  Thus, both the product and service compose Body Shop’s competitive advantage.               (1995) define an entrepreneur in relation to two essential aspects.  First, entrepreneurs are determined to engage in risky actions in order to come up with new prospects.  Second, they have the ability to organize or harmonize the actions of other people or the individuals around them in order to see their goals fulfilled.   (2003) has concluded in his study on cognitive legitimacy that customers opt to have knowledge on the products and the culture within and the operation strategies of a newly opened enterprise.  He has found this to be essential and beneficial for the company.              This analysis on the Body Shop’s unique selling points shows that it actually overlaps with its competitive advantage.  Its unique selling points define its competitive advantage.   Critical Success Factor The organizational belief that  wants the Body Shop to live by is essential for the business’ performance.  Body Shop has grown into a multinational company.  However, in ’s perspective, she preferred her shop to be described as “global.”  She believes that a global company functions because of values, whereas multinational ones “just trade.”  Profit is not merely the motive of business.  To be a “live, vibrant, and honorable” organization is what she believes as the function of business ( 1999).  The Body Shop’s organizational beliefs are strong, as they are strongly believed by its pioneers, both .  They would even want to work with people or hire employees that share the same principle as theirs.    Strategy Taken and Market Share It is very clear in the beginning which path will Body Shop traverse.   The identity that it possesses is that its products are made for a cause, i.e. social and environmental justice, while of course, keeping that its products are marked with quality and excellence.  According to the  report, the total sales worldwide boosted by 7% to ₤772 million (Body Shop International. Available at  [Accessed at 05/30/2006].  With the growing market capacities of the Far East Asian region, international brands like Body Shop will definitely create big.  It is reported that Body Shop stores in the Asia Pacific region, particularly in Southeast Asia, Hong Kong and Taiwan, increase its sales by 12% while operating profits to ₤19.7 million ( 2005).  American-born , who is responsible for Body Shop’s operations in the United States of America, has devised a way to sell Body Shop products.  In 2002, shoppers do not just go to its chains just to buy its products, because the Body Shop products themselves are the ones that go to the American homes.  Surprisingly, the results are promising.  Saunders has predicted a 35% profit in operations.  He comments, “You simply cannot underestimate the significance of being able to spend two hours with customers in their own homes…  It doesn’t cannibalize sore sales, in fact it bring in a lot of people who were not formerly customers.  It’s all about brand awareness (cited in , 2005: 8).”  This only shows the variety of strategies that has to be taken by a multinational company in order to survive.  If products fail in shops, then let the products be sold at home.    Analysis of the Business in the next five years The organizational strengths of the Body Shop have to do with its organizational culture.  The uniqueness of the products in terms of its packaging as well as its ingredients stands for the beliefs and/or values that the organization dwells in.  The end that a consumer arrives into from using the Body Shop’s quality products is neither just beauty nor skincare, but also a sense of an ideal being in this unjust world.  Its ethical and environmental principles that the great Dame  propagates define the strength of the Body Shop.  This is the identity of Body Shop that enables it to stand among the rest of its cosmetic rivals.  Let us now deal with the deemed weaknesses of the Body Shop.  According to  (1997), as cited in  (1998), the very problem that troubles the Body Shop for ages is that its image does not parallel reality.  The Body Shop boasts its natural products, and yet its products are not always fresh.  Worst, its product formulas loaded with petrochemicals are actually outmoded.  The Body Shop claims that it is against the use of animals to test its products, but its products’ ingredients are actually tested on animals.  The Body Shop asserts that it promotes development among Third World Countries by supporting local trade.  However, does it really do so?  The reality is that its Trade Not Aid program are said to provide only token relief to the indigenous group that it supports.  Could the aforementioned be true?  Or could it be just propaganda?  This is no time to search for truth.  A counter attack to such damaging propaganda is a simple label of propaganda by rival companies.  What matters is to maintain the economic survival of the business.  Body Shop has chosen a business path that goes along with social justice.  The perception that its products are for a cause is all that matters for the consumers.              Running for 3 decades now, the Body Shop has proven that every aspect of it has acquired high performances.  Of utmost concern at the moment is that L’Oreal’s takeover could be a threat to a certain extent.  The agreement that both parties entered into is something new.  It took place just a couple of months ago.  Agreements today can become disagreements in the future.  Body Shop’s autonomy may change through time.  L’Oreal could be a threat to the Body Shop’s performance in years to come.              L’Oreal has made a smart move on Body Shop, being its rival.  In terms of profit, the success of the latter is likewise the success of the former.  Moreover, the former is at an advantage stance, for it competes with the latter while at the same time gaining from it.  Most likely in the near future, both of which will be the giants in the arena of cosmetic business.              Women and men alike will most likely purchase products that pertain to the body.  Women will always spend on cosmetic products.  As mentioned in the aforementioned paragraphs, Body Shop’s products stand among the rest of the cosmetic products.  In relation to this, its suppliers come from the ethnic or cultural groups in different Third World countries that it supports.              Body Shop may stand among the rest but for how long?  Other body products are likewise improving its weaknesses.  There is indeed a variety of alternative body care products in the market.  However, things will also depend on the strategies that L’Oreal will take.    Recommendation             Dame  and the Body Shop have gone a long way in the cosmetics business.  It is interesting to note the irony behind.  A capitalist who is not greedy is one who actually survives and succeeds the most in the world.  It is then recommended that studies in business should consider principles or ideals and not just the art of profit making.    Conclusion             Dame  deserves the praises for her exemplary performance as an entrepreneur.  She has become successful because of the clear goals that she wants her Body Shop to have and attain.  In her case, risk undertaking, creativity and being innovative, and beliefs, are the factors that made her a successful entrepreneur.   The first step is not to succeed in the marketplace, but to enter the marketplace with a strong identity.  The Body Shop is just somebody’s body shop.  Now, it is everybody else’s “body shop.”  Bibliography:

ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Introduction There is success in body care. Behold the Body Shop, one of the famous international cosmetics brand. It is not just one’s ordinary shop for body or hair care. It is e…

Research Proposal on How to effect quality of mobile telecommunication for customer loyalty

Introduction Research Objective             The aim of the research is to provide an explanatory study into the aspects/attributes that customers consider relevant in deciding whether to continue with the current service provider or to switch to an alternative provider or to switch off completely. Literature Review             Customer loyalty is viewed as the strength of the relationship between an individual’s relative attitude and repeat patronage. The relationship is seen as mediated by social norms and situational factors. Cognitive, affective, and conative antecedents of relative attitude are identified as contributing to loyalty, along with motivational, perceptual, and behavioral consequences (Dick and Basu, 1994). In the customer-centered business, survival remains to the degree that customer satisfaction is met. Previous research studies have shows that the repurchase intent was the main benefit of customer retention. However, some had identified multiple benefits like repurchase intent, price tolerance, willingness to recommend etc. In reaching retention, vendors should manage satisfaction and consequences of customer loyalty. Customer loyalty and satisfaction are integral part of customer retention process. Customer retention is a primary measure of loyalty. There is a positive relationship between changes in satisfaction and share of wallet. In particular, the initial satisfaction level and the conditional percentage of change in satisfaction significantly correspond to changes in share of wallet. Income and length of the relationship negatively moderate this relationship. Loyalty and retention although positively moderate with share of wallet it is necessary to examine the cost of maintaining the particular customer.             In competitive business environment where there is an on-going/continues desire for a particular product or services, organizations focus their strategies not only on acquiring customers, but also keeping them as long as possible and encouraging them to increase purchase frequency by developing lasting relationships . Relationship marketing recognizes long-term value to the company of keeping customers. Customer Relationship Marketing is defined by Stone et al (2000) as the use of a wide range of marketing, sales, communication, service and customer care approaches to: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="circle"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Identify the company’s named individual customers</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Create a relationship between the company and its customers that stretches over many transactions</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify"> Manage that relationship to the benefit of the customers and the company</li> </ul>               Bose (2002) defines customer relationship marketing as involving the integration of technology and business processes in satisfying the needs of the customers. According to Swift (2001), CRM can be defined as an enterprise approach to understanding and influencing customer behavior through meaningful communications in order to improve customer acquisition, customer development and customer loyalty. He added that CRM must be integrated into everything a company does and must involve the entire company.              Primarily the aim of CRM is to build loyal customer relationships, where the organization can anticipate the needs of the customers, use information to personalize relationships, and encourage the customers to further their business relationship with the organization by earning their confidence and trust. CRM emphasizes three essential ingredients of customer relationships. 1. Customer Acquisition – identifying the profitable customers and creating strategies to attract them. 2. Customer Development – delivery of customer needs, wants and requirements when, how and where they want them to optimize profits and revenue. 3. Customer Retention – building and sustaining customer loyalty.   Research Methodology The researcher will employ both quantitative and qualitative approaches to data gathering. The researcher will make use of a survey and a focus group. A survey gathers data at a particular point in time with the intention of describing the nature of existing conditions can be compared, or determining the relationship that exist between specific events. Survey research according to Hutchinson (2004) can be defined most simply as a means of gathering information, usually through self-report using questionnaires or interviews (p. 285). The attraction of a survey lie in its appeal to generazability or universality within given parameters, its ability to make statements which are supported by large data banks and its ability to establish the degree of confidence which can be placed in a set of findings (Cohen et al., 2000, p. 171). The popularity of survey research is due in large to its utility on countless research situations. Surveys are used for such diverse purposes as needs assessment, program evaluation, attitude measurement, political opinion polling, and policy analysis, as well as for simple descriptions of behaviors, activities, and population characteristics. The scope of surveys can range from large-scale national surveys to smaller surveys confined to a single neighborhood, classroom, or organization. Another strength is its applicability on situations where direct manipulations of variables is either unfeasible to unethical (Hutchinson, 2004, p. 286). Surveys are best suited for descriptive research. Companies undertake surveys to learn about people’s knowledge, beliefs, preferences, and satisfaction, and to measure these magnitudes in the general population (Kotler 2000).

Research Proposal on How to effect quality of mobile telecommunication for customer loyalty

Introduction Research Objective The aim of the research is to provide an explanatory study into the aspects/attributes that customers consider relevant in deciding whether to conti…

A LITERATURE REVIEW PAPER ON THE IMPORTANCE OF READING IN PRIMARY EDUCATION

THE IMPORTANCE OF READING IN PRIMARY EDUCATION   Reading has been one of the few ways that men use to acquire knowledge about the many interesting things that the world can offer. Ever since the childhood stage, men were taught to learn how to read and as they grow up, it served as a valuable tool in education. With this tool, many books have served their dues: journals; literary fictions; textbooks; scholarly research; and many other reading materials, which have been proven beneficial for the development of the human mind. As humans, to be able to read is one of the many points that differentiate us from animals. As humans, we discover our own knowledge and have learned to share it through words – whether it is through verbal communication or non-verbal communication such as signs and writings. The non-verbal acquisition of knowledge is easy when one knows how to read.   The importance of reading in educating the youth has been stressed out many times. Witty (1948) states that the significance in the lives of youth of ability to read effectively has long been recognized. She continued that “it is recognized, too, that if high-school and college students are to become capable citizens, they must not only be trained to comprehend what they read but educated to think about the ideas apprehended and to discriminate among the facts presented in varied types of printed material.” Kameenui and Simmons (1998) depicts that “professional educators and the public at large have long known that reading is an enabling skill that traverses academic disciplines and translates into meaningful personal, social, and economic outcomes for individuals.”   The Definition of Reading             Dechant (1991) depicts that definitions of reading are generally divided into two major types: those that equate reading with interpretation of experience generally; and those that restrict the definition to the interpretation of graphic symbols. To support the first definition, Dechant cited Spencer’s (1946) definition of reading that "in the broadest sense, reading is the process of interpreting sense stimuli . . . Reading is performed whenever one experiences sensory stimulation" Dechant (1991) continues that s significant implication of the definition of reading as interpretation of experience is that pupils must be readers of experience before they can become readers of graphic symbols. They must first be readers of the world. Pupils cannot read symbols without having had those experiences that give the symbol meaning. This last implication will interest us more at a later point in this text.             Reading as an interpretation of graphic symbols has a rather different view on how reading should be defined. Here, reading is defined as involving the comprehension and interpretation of the symbols on the page (Harris -Sipay, 1975, 1985); as a complex interaction of cognitive and linguistic processes with which readers construct a meaningful representation of the writer's message (Barnitz, 1986); or as giving significance intended by the writer to the graphic symbols by relating them to what the reader already knows (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, & Wilkerson, 1985; Dechant, 1964, 1970, 1982; Duffy & Roehler, 1986). Reading is also described as the reconstruction of the message encoded graphically by the writer; as constructing meaning from print (Gillett & Temple, 1986); and as a process of information search or information processing.   THE COGNITIVE-CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF READING             The environment in which a person is engaging with in reading plays an important role in the effectiveness of the learning process. A deafening environment is obviously destructive as the attention of the reader is highly diverted. In a process where concentration is required, the right environment is also required. This is the reason why instructors in primary education do not tolerate noise. They believe that it can be a hazard in the implanting of information on the students’ mind. It is why a solemn and responsive environment is observed. On the other hand, because the definition of distraction is an individual perspective, sometimes it is up to that individual to choose the environment in which he or she wants to read. In general, it is up to the educators to pick a suitable environment for their students. This is basically of the cognitive-constructivist view of learning and is important to a cognitive-constructive reading. Basically, the cognitive-constructivist view of reading emphasizes that reading is a process in which the reader actively searches for meaning in what she reads. This search for meaning depends very heavily on the reader having an existing store of knowledge and on the environment in which the reading takes place. Barr, Kamil, Mosenthal and Pearon (1984), states that reading was no longer a single product that varied according to properties inherent in written text. Instead, reading was now viewed by many as a process involving cognitive construction.              Dijikstra, et al (1997) states that the American cognitive constructivist view of learning positions that an active, self-regulated, goal-directed, and reflective learner constructs personal knowledge through discovery and exploration in a responsive learning environment. The constructivist environment can be activated by interactive technologies that can adaptively and intelligently response to at-the-moment learning needs. An ideal example of this environment is the classroom. The primary classroom perhaps has a significant importance from the rest, because it is the first step and experience of a student in such an environment. Here, different texts that teachers prepare for students' use, such as outlines of lecture notes, worksheets, and graphic organizers; written texts authored by students, such as essays, stories, and lecture notes; and electronic texts used and generated by students             Foshay, et al (2003) states that the cognitive-constructivist view of reading stresses that reading is a process in which the reader actively searches for meaning in what he or she reads. This view also emphasizes that this exploration for meaning depends very profoundly on the reader's having an existing and obtainable store of knowledge or “schemata” that he or she draws on in that search for meaning, and that the active contribution of the reader is significant enough to justify the assertion that the reader actually constructs the meaning he or she arrives at. There are basically three topics that describe three key components of the cognitive-constructivist model - the cognitive orientation, schemata, and construct.   The Cognitive Orientation             Having replaced behaviorism, the cognitive orientation is where cognitive psychologists view the mind as central to learning and the study of learners' thought processes as a central focus of their work (Foshay, et al, 2003). It is also viewed in cognitive orientation that learners are active participants, who act on rather than simply respond to their external environment as they learn. In the cognitive view, reading is very much an active process in which the meaning the reader gleans from a text is heavily influenced by the cognitive work that he or she puts into the reading process. Foshay, et al (2003) further explain that Both the beginning reader - who we might observe carefully sounding out words, and the accomplished reader, who appears to be effortlessly absorbing the contents of the material being read - are in fact actively engaged in making meaning from the text.   Schema             Schema theory is concerned with knowledge; particularly with the way knowledge is represented in our minds and the importance of prior knowledge to learning something new (Foshey, et al, 2003). Based from the theory, knowledge is packaged in organized structures termed schemata. In addition, Foshey et al (2003) cited that according to Rumelhart (1980), schemata constitute our knowledge about "objects, situations, events, and sequences of events, actions, and sequences of actions". Humans have their schemata for objects such as a house, for situations such as being in a class, for events such as going to a concert, and for sequences of events such as getting up - eating - showering – getting dressed and going to work. Humans interpret their experiences - whether those experiences are direct encounters with the world or vicarious experiences gained through reading - by comparing and in most cases matching those experiences to an existing schema. This stresses out that we have the ability to make sense of what we read and of our experience (Foshey, et al, 2003). Schemata assist the reader in initially making sense of what he or she reads, relating information newly acquired to prior knowledge, determining the relative importance of information in a text, making inferences, and remembering (Anderson & Pearson, 1984).   Constructivism             Foshay, et al (2003) depicts that constructivism serves to emphasize a point already made and to introduce an additional point. Constructivism emphasizes the fact that comprehending a text is very much an active, constructive process. Constructivists often use the phrase "making meaning" to emphasize the reader's active role in comprehending texts. Students cannot just passively absorb meaning from texts. A truly passive reading would leave the reader simply having turned the pages. Instead, readers must actively engage with the text, consider what they are reading, and link the information they are gleaning from the text with ideas, topics, and events they already know. Furthermore, the more difficult a text becomes for students - the more new and challenging information it presents - the more actively engaged readers must be. Foshay, et al (2003) further stress that constructivism is a social construct as well as a psychological on. Most constructivists emphasize that the social world in which we live heavily influences the meaning that we derive from our experiences, including our experiences with text. Thus, constructivism strongly supports the inclusion of a variety of sorts of discussion and group work as part of reading and learning (Calfee & Patrick, 1995).              There are three concepts that broaden the view of the cognitive-constructivist view process. These are: the interactive model of reading; automaticity; and metacognition.   The Interactive Model of Reading             According to Foshay, et al (2003), the interactive model of reading serves as a reminder that both the reader and the text play important roles in reading. Dechant (1991) states that reading is described as an interactive process involving both the reader's previous fund of knowledge and the words in the text. The interactive model of reading simply falls in the definition of reading as an interpretation of graphic symbols. To further illustrate, interactive models can perhaps be best understood when contrasted to what have been called "bottom-up" and "top-down" models.               Bottom-up models assume that the text is singularly vital and that the reader processes text by first recognizing lower-level units and then repeatedly synthesizing lower-level units into more multifaceted units (Foshey, et al, 2003). This view has been explained that the reader might first perceive letters, then synthesize numerous letters to form words, then synthesize several words to form a phrase, and so on. Processing operates in a single direction - from the text to the reader (Foshey, et al, 2003). To further elaborate, Dechant (1991) explains that in the bottom-up models, if the text processing falls down anywhere on the hierarchical ladder, remediation is applied at this point. Bottom-up models, at least in the beginning stages, give little emphasis to the influences of the reader's world knowledge, contextual information, and other higher-order processing strategies. Dechant (1991) cited Gove (1983) on the bottom-up model. Gove (1983) suggests that advocates of the bottom-up strategy believe that: readers must be familiar with each word in a variety to grasp the selection; readers should give primary emphasis to word and sound/ letter cues in identifying unrecognized words; reading acquisition requires a mastery of a series of word-recognition skills; letters, letter/sound relationships, and words should receive primary emphasis in instruction; accuracy in recognizing words is significant; and knowledge of discrete sub-skills is important. On the other hand, Foshey, et al (2003) explains that top-down models is the opposite of the bottom-up model in a sense that it assumes that the reader is singularly important and processes text by first hypothesizing about the content of the text and then selectively sampling the text to confirm or disconfirm her hypothesis. In addition, Dechant (1991) states that the top-down models suggest that processing of print begins in the mind of the readers with meaning-driven processes or with a hypothesis about the meaning of some unit of print. In this perspective, the reading procedure begins with the highest-level unit possible - meaning in the mind of the reader - and deals with lower-level units, for example words, only to a limited extent. Again, processing operates in a single direction - but in the top-down perspective that view is from the reader to the text (Foshey, et al, 2003). As cited by Dechant (1991), Gove (1983) suggests that advocates of the top-down strategy believe that: readers can comprehend a selection even though they do not recognize each word; readers should use meaning and grammatical cues to identify unrecognized words; reading requires the use of meaning activities rather than the mastery of a series of word-recognition skills; the reading of sentences, paragraphs, and whole selections should be the primary focus of instruction; reading for meaning is the primary objective of reading rather than mastery of letters, letter/sound relationships, and words; and the most important aspect about reading is the amount and kind of information gained through reading. In the interactive model, processing is neither exclusively top down nor exclusively bottom up. Instead, the reader arrives at understanding of a text by simultaneously synthesizing information from a variety of sources. These include word-level knowledge, syntactic knowledge, and various sorts of schema he or she has internalized (Rumelhart, 1977). In interactive models, reading is perceived to involve parallel and simultaneous processing of all the sources of information. In addition, Dechant (1991) states that advocates of the interactive model suggest that readers process letters and words at the same time as they formulate hypotheses about the meaning of what is on the printed page. This model is useful in the developing the competence and interests of primary pupils because it is a fully interactive activity where the readers. It is on their own understanding, based on their background knowledge that would arrive them to the conclusion on their own understanding of the topic – which would be best with the guidance of an instructor.   Automacticity             An automatic activity is one that we can perform instantly and with very little attention. The human mind’s capability to focus on an attention is sternly limited. Men can only perform one thing at a time. But given with this fact, it is not impossible to achieve automaticity in activities. One example of this is the automaticity of a rock guitarist when performing on stage. The guitarist can strum the guitar, jump all around, sing, and even tricks that are hard to achieve when performing other tasks. Such is the ability of automaticity. This ability can also be achieved in reading. Reading includes a number of subprocesses that need to take place at the same time - processes such as recognizing words, assigning meanings to words, constructing the meanings of sentences and larger units, and relating the information gleaned from the text to information we already have. Foshey, et al (2003) provided an example that if a student is reading and comes across the word imperative, he or she needs to automatically recognize the word and automatically - immediately and without conscious attention - know that it means "absolutely necessary." To achieve automaticity in reading, Foshey, et al (2003) advises that students need to do a lot of reading in materials they find relatively easy, understandable, interesting, and enjoyable; and they need to do that reading in situations that are non-taxing, that is, in situations in which they can read for information and enjoyment and not be faced with difficult questions or other requirements based on the reading. In brief, learners need to be given ample opportunity to read independently in material they find interesting, enjoyable, and relatively easy.   Metacognition             Flavel (1976) defines metacognition as one's knowledge concerning one's own cognitive processes and products or anything related to them. In terms of reading, Foshey, et al (2003) describes metacognition refers to the reader's awareness of his or her comprehension of a text as he or she is reading it and to the reader's regulation of the processes that lead to comprehension. Metacognitive readers basically have the ability to mentally step outside of themselves and view themselves as learners faced with particular learning tasks. Foshey, et al (2003) further states that active awareness of one's comprehension while reading and the ability to use effective fix-up strategies when understanding breaks down are utterly essential to becoming an effective reader (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998), and lack of such metacognitive perspectives is a particularly devastating characteristic of less proficient readers.  To be able to develop the metacognitive abilities of primary pupils is vital in the achievement of high grades and improvement of reading ability.   Psycholinguistics and Reading Reading has long been related with psycholinguistics, which is a branch of cognitive psychology that studies the psychological basis of linguistic competence and performance. Steinberg (1982) states that five fundamental principles from psycholinguistics have been formulated which would provide for optimal results in the teaching of reading to children. These are: reading should involve only meaningful words, phrases, and sentences; reading should depend on speech understanding and not speech production; reading should not depend on teaching new language or concepts; reading should not depend on teaching writing; and learning to read should be enjoyable. These five fundamental principles are hard to be taught in students particularly in primary education but is basically very rewarding. In the first principle, the reason behind it is because research evidence shows that meaningful words are easier to learn than meaningless items such as letters. Steinberg (1982) states that what was crucial were the meaningfulness of what was said along with a written form. This is not to say that the visual complexity of a written form has no effect on learning. Undoubtedly, it does. Its effect, however, is minor with respect to that of the meaningfulness of co-occurring stimuli such as spoken words. In the second principle, it is so because it is not necessary for children learning to read to be able to speak or enunciate clearly. Reading can be learned without speaking. The third point depicts that a reading program should not include the teaching of language. If language is to be taught, it should be done in a curriculum component other than that of reading. Instead of spending time teaching new vocabulary and other aspects of language, it would be better to teach the reading of those words and structures which the child already knows. In the fourth principle, Steinberg (1982) states that because appropriate physical maturation and muscular development are prerequisites for writing and because such prerequisites do not develop early, young children have difficulty in controlling a writing implement, and, they fatigue easily. Such difficulties, however, are not present for reading. The visual ability of the child develops before the first year, when the child learns to identify objects, faces, etc. Then finally in the fifth principle, reading should be made fun for children because through this, not only will children learn to read, they will want to read. Children who are interested, intellectually stimulated, and who enjoy what they are doing will learn willingly and will not mind applying some effort.             Kenneth Goodman’s (1969) miscue analysis is one of the theories in psycholinguistics that specifically depicts a sophisticated procedure for analyzing oral reading errors. Miscue analysis is based on the assumption that oral reading errors are "windows on the reading process" that can reveal the strategies readers use to process written material (Goodman, 1976). The correction and prediction strategies are among the most important in this reading strategy. The prediction strategy is responsible with the types of cues that a reader uses when predicting upcoming text and analyzing unknown words. On the other hand, the correction strategy is concerned with whether or not the reader self-corrects miscues that are unacceptable in context and that disrupt meaning.  If miscue analysis reveals that a reader is weak in either of these strategies, reading strategy lessons can be used to remediate the problem (Goodman & Burke, 1980).             It has been weighed that the relationship of writing and reading in the psycholinguistics perspective is not that that vital. To be able to read properly does not necessarily mean that a primary pupil should be able to write well. To focus on two goals would only complicate things for the learners, as it would confuse them on where they would focus well. Although writing is important, it should not be the main focus along side the reading program. The miscue analysis of Goodman would be the one of the wise steps in developing the reading capabilities of a primary pupil. The psycholinguistics approach in reading will help the pupil achieve the level of interactivity, automaticity, and metacognition needed for a child to acquire. The main point is simple – focus on reading and nothing but that. Anyway, the other skills such as the writing and language skills will soon follow as automaticity develops within a child, and in time would produce metacognitive abilities. All in all, with the discussion as the basis, it has been concluded that developing reading skills is a complex process. It would take determination and perseverance to be able to teach these theories correctly and hopefully would be able to produce positive results. It is perhaps the reason why reading is probably one of the most researched topics in education and the primary focus of instruction at the elementary levels. No wonder the topic of reading is of great social importance - because it pertains to the issues of literacy and intelligence. From a learning perspective, it has been known that reading is closely related to many other cognitive processes or domains including: attention, concept formation, imagery, language, memory, and perception. This importance has been assimilated through the different theories about the topic.   References: Anderson R. C., Hiebert E. H., Scott J. A., and Wilkinson I. (1985). Becoming a nation of readers: The report of the commission on reading. Washington, DC: National Institute of Education. Barnitz J. G. (1986). The anaphora jigsaw puzzle in psycholinguistic and reading research. Newark, NJ: International Reading Association. Barr, R., Kamil, M.L., Mosentahl, P.B., and Pearson, D. (1984). Handbook of Reading Research. Erlbaum Associates. New York. Calfee, R.C., & Patrick, C.L. (1995). Teach our children well: Bringing k-12 education into the 21st century. Stanford, CA: Stanford Alumni Association. Dechant E. (1964, 1970, 1982). "Improving the teaching of reading". Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Dechant, E.D. (1991). Understanding and Teaching Reading: An Interactive Model. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hillsdale, NJ. Dijikstra, S., Schott, F., Seel, M.N., and Teneeson, R.D. (1997). Instructional Design: International Perspectives. Volume: 1. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Mahwah, NJ. Duffy G. G., & Roehler L. R. (1986). Improving classroom reading instruction. New York: Random House. Flavel, J. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L.B. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence. Hillsdale, NH: Erlbaum. Foshay, R., McEvoy, E., Graves, M., and Parks, R. (2003). Teaching Reading with PLATO: An Overview of the New PLATO Solution and How to Use It. PLATO Learning Inc., University of Minnesota. Gillett J. W., & Temple C. (1986, 1990). Understanding reading problems. Boston: Little, Brown. Goodman, K. S. (1969) "Analysis of oral reading miscues: Applied psycholinguistics". Reading Research Quarterly # 5. In Christie, J.F. (1981) The Effects of Grade Level and Reading Ability on Children's Miscue Patterns by). Journal of Educational Research. Volume: 74. Goodman, K. S. (1976) "Miscues: Windows on the reading process". In Goodman, K. S. (Ed.), Miscue analysis: Applications to reading instruction. Urbana, Ill.: National Council of Teachers of English. In Christie, J.F. (1981) The Effects of Grade Level and Reading Ability on Children's Miscue Patterns by). Journal of Educational Research. Volume: 74. Goodman, Y. M., & Burke, C. (1980). Reading strategies. Focus on comprehension. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.  In Christie, J.F. (1981) The Effects of Grade Level and Reading Ability on Children's Miscue Patterns by). Journal of Educational Research. Volume: 74.   Gove M. K. (1983). "Clarifying teacher's beliefs about reading". The Reading Teacher, 37. In E.D. Dechant, Understanding and Teaching Reading: An Interactive Model. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hillsdale, NJ.   Harris A. J., & Sipay E. R. (1961, 1975, 1980, 1985). How to increase reading ability. New York: David McKay Company.   Kameenui, E.J. and Simmons, D.C. (1998). What Reading Research Tells Us about Children with Diverse Learning Needs: Bases and Basics. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Mahwah, New Jersey.   Rumelhart, D. E. (1977). Toward an interactive model of reading. In S. Dornic (Ed.), Attention and performance, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.   Rumelhart, D.E. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R. J.Spiro, B.C. Bruce, & W.F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.   Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (Eds.) (1998). Self-regulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practice. New York: The Guilford Press.   Spencer L. P. (1946). "The reading process and types of reading". In 11th yearbook, Claremont college reading conference yearbook. Claremont, CA. .   Steinberg, D.D. (1991). Psycholinguistics: Language, Mind, and World. Pearson UK. London.   Witty, S. (1948). Reading in the High School and College. The University of Chicago Press. Place of Publication: Chicago.

A LITERATURE REVIEW PAPER ON THE IMPORTANCE OF READING IN PRIMARY EDUCATION

THE IMPORTANCE OF READING IN PRIMARY EDUCATION Reading has been one of the few ways that men use to acquire knowledge about the many interesting things that the world can offer. Ever since the ch…

Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. Each Leaders Changing Perspective

I.      Introduction Contemporary ideologies often regard the need of change in order for development to actually take place. However established norms and traditions often negate the occurrence of these elements, particularly because it poses as a threat to its existence. This has been the case in the African-American plight for civil liberties decades ago. Though there is still room for improvement, the rights of minority groups have considerably handed to them after these agents of change have done their part. In a certain level, their calls for change in the social order was not only limited to the national issues that they are encountering at their period. Malcolm X and King eventually took on positions advocating change in the international arena. Regrettably their deaths have brought their fight in a permanent hiatus. In any case, their ideologies and achievements for the civil rights movement will stay entrenched in American consciousness decades later. This paper will look on the ideologies of the two agents of social change as they take on issues of international level.            II.   Beyond Civil Rights: Malcolm X and King The civil right movement of the African-American people in half a century ago has made icons on individuals like the charismatic Martin Luther King Jr. and the enigmatic Malcolm X. On their way to changing the pre-existing culture in US, they have tackled means of addressing oppression through their works and orations in the public. On such terms, both have addressed the role of the American leadership in addressing the social issues on both national and international landscapes.   In the case of Malcolm X, he has provided the ideology of “ballot or the bullet.” On this condition, the struggle highlighted a nationalist stand by improving the political system. To this end, his claims indicate the empowerment of the voting public in determining who will rise in office. Though it is often initially seen as an indication of fighting oppressive forces in the political system, the perspective of Malcolm X manifest its practicability in these modern times. People who hold the seat of power in the American setting have considerable influence not only on national issues but also how the leader of the free world will address its foreign policies. The ballot, as Malcom X have noted, possess as much power as that of the bullet. Superficially, it appears that Malcolm X condones violence in order to instill change; nevertheless a closer look will provide that the use of violent means is only an option, one of the alternatives and not the sole course of action.   In the case of Martin Luther King Jr. his speech regarding one of the most pressing issues in the nation at that period, the Vietnam War has influenced modern thinking on the opposition in armed conflicts. In the same manner, the speech claims not only the issues of the young American men shoved head-first into the battlefield, but also the responsibility of the United States as a powerful nation to the rest of the world. King claimed that “the world now demands a maturity of America” not only in the essence of economic superiority but also in knowing the implications of political decisions internationally. The core of the speech greatly regards the moral side of the actions of the US government at that time. In the eyes of King, change is not only needed but also indispensable. Moreover, a sense of urgency could be taken to mean in the context of the speech of King who is particularly worried of the imminent spiraling down of the morals of American society with a huge assistance from the leaders of the country.                III.Conclusion The stand of both Malcolm X and King has contributed greatly on modern American philosophy. It highlights both the need for the American leadership to exercise a more judicious way of developing policies those particularly affecting the national and foreign landscape. Both have seen the capability of the American nation to be mighty over and above the other countries in the world. With such power, considerable degree of conscientiousness is required. Malcolm X and King gave emphasis on the power of the people to influence those in the seat of power. Malcolm X claimed the use of the electoral process and justified violence as a means to influence the government while King claimed the use of civil disobedience. In either way, the people is given means where their voices could be heard.

Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. Each Leaders Changing Perspective

I. Introduction Contemporary ideologies often regard the need of change in order for development to actually take place. However established norms and traditions often negate the occurrence of…

Discuss one or two motivation theories and how intrinsic and extrinsic rewards can be motivators?

The word “motivation” is derived from the word “motivate” which means to move, impel, or induce to act to satisfy a need or want (Butkus & Green, 1999). Any consideration, idea or object prompting or exciting the individual to act or move him to do what his leader wants to be accomplished is what motivation is. Motivation may therefore be defined as a willingness to exert effort to achieve a goal or objective for rewards, whether intrinsic or extrinsic. Motivation implies a promise or expectation of reward as a result of an individual’s action. Without motivation or the will to do, not much by way of accomplishment can be made.             Several research studies on motivation have been undertaken by industrial psychologists and behavioral scientists. As a result, some theories about motivation and human behavior have been developed by researchers like Douglas McGregor, Abraham H. Maslow, Frederick Herzberg, Elton Mayo, J. Stacey Adams, Chris Argyris, Rensis Likert, David C. McClelland, Peter T. Drucker, Saul W. Gellerman, and many others (Farazmand, 2002).             For this paper, only two theories on motivation will be discussed with emphasis on an organization environment. Motivation is a very important component of organizations and jobs, anything that is designed to make the individual or group of individuals attain or satisfy their needs is motivation. The two theories to be discussed are Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory and J. Stacey Adams’ Equity Theory. Situational examples based on organization events and elements will be given to further discuss these two theories on motivation. Furthermore, extrinsic and intrinsic rewards as forms of motivators will be discussed.   Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory             Herzberg developed this theory from his research in the 1950’s when he and his associates conducted interviews on the problem of attitudes with two hundred engineers and accountants who worked for eleven different companies in the Pittsburg area. Herzberg asked his subjects to tell about the times when they especially liked their jobs and listed the incidents that they mentioned. Then he asked the same people to tell him about the times when they strongly disliked their jobs and, again, he listed the circumstances they mentioned.             After the data gathered from the interviews were analyzed, Herzberg concluded that people have different categories of needs that were essentially independent of each other and which affect them in different ways. He classified these into two groups; the first group he termed Motivation Factors. These factors were found to be important in motivating employees to superior performance and in improving productivity. The findings indicated that when the employees felt good about their jobs they were motivated to work because they found the job challenging and satisfying with the expectation of accomplishment and rewards (Maidani, 1991).             The following factors were found to motivate employees to do superior performance: 1.      Achievement – a feeling of personal accomplishment or the feeling of having done a job well. 2.      Recognition – being recognized for doing a job well such as being complimented by the boss or receiving a company reward, promotion, or salary increase. 3.      Participation – being personally involved in one’s work; having some responsibility for making decisions about one’s job. 4.      Growth – challenge of the job itself; and the chance to learn skills, acquire knowledge, and achieve development and advancement. As more varied tasks are included in the job under the job enrichment program, the work is made more interesting and challenging, the job becomes more satisfying and the employees more productive. With the second question which asked about the times that the subjects felt they were dissatisfied with their jobs, Herzberg arrived at a second list of factors which he termed hygiene or maintenance factors because the presence of these conditions only maintained current levels of efficiency and production or to better job performance (Hall, 2006). Said conditions concern the environment in which they were working such as company policy, supervision, salary, interpersonal relations, and working conditions. Since people feel dissatisfied with these conditions or factors were not satisfactory, they are also called dissatisfiers. Thus, if the employee’s salary, fringe benefits, and working conditions, and the company policies are inadequate, the workers will feel dissatisfied. In other words, when the hygiene or maintenance factors were not satisfactory, productivity decreased. Examples would be when people felt they weren’t paid enough, didn’t like their supervisors, were not happy about their working conditions or were insecure in their jobs. However, if they felt that the maintenance factors were satisfactory, that is, their pay and other working conditions were good, they only maintained current levels of production and efficiency.             Herzberg classified these two factors as follows: Motivation Factors (Job Content) Hygiene or Maintenance Factors (Job Environment) Work itself Company policy and administration Achievement Supervision Responsibility Interpersonal relations Growth and advancement Working conditions               In applying Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory to create a high level of performance, certain measures must be adopted by management such as job enrichment or restructuring the job to make it more interesting and challenging to the worker. Some authors have criticized Herzberg’s theory because of his research method. However, his job enrichment program has been found effective in application. This application of job enrichment is popular because it can easily be adopted by all levels of management, payoffs can be realized in a relatively short time span, and it cam be measured in specific terms.   Adams’ Equity Theory             Later in the 1950s and 1960s, psychologists began to focus on the role of motivation in the work place, specifically in the areas of job satisfaction and job performance resulting in a variety of equity-based orientations as that of Adams (Drillings & O’Neil, 1994). J. Stacey Adams asserts that when people work in exchange for pay, they tend to think of their contribution to the job (inputs) in relation to what they get for working (outcomes). Inputs are anything workers perceive as deserving of a payoff such as education, experience, skill, job effort, and seniority among many other things. Outcomes on the other hand, refer to factors individuals see as payoff for their invested efforts. Examples are pay, fringe benefits, job status, seniority benefits, and job perquisites.             If a person feels that, in comparison to others, what he or she is giving to the organization is equal to what is being received, equity exists. In essence, it is defined by the following equation:                                     Person’s outcomes   =      Other’s outcomes                                     Person’s inputs                    Other’s inputs               Four basic postulates are propounded, thus: 1.      Individuals strive to create and maintain a state of equity. 2.      When a state of inequity is perceived, it creates tension which the individual is motivated to reduce or eliminate. 3.      The greater the magnitude of the perceived equity, the greater the motivation to act to reduce the state of tension. 4.      Individuals should perceive an unfavorable equity (e.g. getting a very low pay) than a favorable one (e.g. receiving too much pay).   As an example, imagine that you work as a job analyst with another individual in a company. You think you have higher inputs than a fellow worker in the same unit. You have a masters degree in Industrial Relations, trained in computer programming, you have more experience in the rudiments of job analysis and job evaluation, and have worked in the same company longer. However, the other person, who happens to be a relative of the boss’ wife, receives more pay and has a higher status (higher outcomes) than you. This situation makes you feel that you are being treated unfairly, since you think that your inputs are not being rewarded in the same degree as the other job analyst. Equity theory predicts that you should act to eliminate the tension you feel as a result of perceived inequity. There are several alternative ways to reduce inequity, with the individual using more than one if the tension is very strong: 1.      reducing work output 2.      reducing the quality of work 3.      convincing the boss to give a raise 4.      quitting 5.      selecting another comparison person 6.      distorting inputs or outcomes as well as those of the comparison person 7.      harassing the comparison person   These alternative ways are predicted behaviors and is not used in this context as encouraged ways for workers to behave when they feel that inequity persists in their organization, particularly concerning themselves. Empirical studies strongly support equity theory predictions, particularly in relation to money outcomes. For example, Goodman and Friedman (1971) noted that hourly paid subjects who feel underpaid produce fewer units of work and the quality of their work is inferior than those who feel equitably paid. Research results indicate that employees do act to reduce perceived inequities over time, and that they are motivated by considerations of equity. Unfortunately, however, it has been criticized for being vague about certain concepts like mode of inequity reduction an individual will employ and the manner in which a comparison person is chosen.   Intrinsic Rewards as Motivators The best form of motivation is self-motivation with proper attitudes toward his or her work, co-workers and the management because this comes from within the individual. An individual’s own motivators and rewards are his or her own personal drives to achieve his ambition and goals. An individual could reward himself or herself with a vacation for a job well done as an intrinsic motivator. The company may provide the necessary motivations such as good pay, excellent benefits, and good environment but if he or she lacks personal drive, or the will to forge ahead, no amount of motivation will make him strive to great achievement. The employee needs personal initiative and motivation to achieve superior performance. Management should develop in the employees good work attitudes and proper behavior through seminars, conferences, workshops, and consultations.   Extrinsic Rewards as Motivators             There are many positive factors in motivating people, among them is the utilization of extrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards can come in many forms like monetary incentives, job security, praise and recognition, sense of belonging, employee participation, and competition among many others (Cameron & Pierce, 2002). It is up to the management to carefully balance their application because overdoing the use of any can also bring bad results.             The most commonly used incentive to stimulate the worker to greater production and efficiency is monetary renumeration. Money is unquestionably the single most powerful extrinsic motivator for most people (Dorgan, 1992). Unions usually ask for increased pay as a part of their bargaining demand knowing this is what the employees want. While money is important for providing what people need in everyday life, its effect upon work does not last long.             Several research studies showed that workers do not work harder just for the purpose of making more money alone, but are motivated also by intrinsic rewards such as the desire for accomplishment and success in their job. In other studies, majority of workers feel that they will be most motivated to do their best by monetary rewards.             Another extrinsic reward as motivator is praise and recognition. Whenever an employee accomplishes a good job, it is good that management recognizes such accomplishment by praising or rewarding the employee so that he or she would be motivated to always do a good job.             If an employee feels that he or she does not belong to the group, he or she will get dissatisfied and disappointed instead of being motivated. Thus the importance of the sense of belonging within an organization so as an employee will feel motivated. The induction or orientation of a new employee in an organization will make the new employee welcome and make him feel that he is part of the group and that the group accepts him as a member of the team. Any employee who works in an environment where he or she doesn’t feel welcomed will definitely not have the motivation to do their job.             Making employees participate in meetings, conferences, and work in committees are forms of employee development and can be a string motivator. Participation in decision making stimulates the interest of the employee for greater production, provides job satisfaction, and creates in him or her the feeling of importance. Competition, although it sounds like a monster, is also a good extrinsic motivator. When done properly, competition can be a good motivator for the employees because it encourages them to use creativity, initiative, better performance, and improved production. With the use of records and charts, management can encourage their employees to work harder to beat their previous records of performance. REFERENCES Burchell, B., Ladipo, D., & Wilkinson, F. 2002. Job Insecurity and Work Intensification. Routledge. Butkus, R.T. & Green, T.B. 1999. Motivation, Beliefs and Organizational Transformation. Quorum Books. Cameron, J. & Pierce, W.D. 2002. Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation: Resolving the Controversy. Bergin & Garvey. Dorgan, W.J. 1992. Motivators, Incentives and Rewards. Modern Machine Shop. Drillings, M. & O’Neil, H.F. 1994. Motivation: Theory and Research. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Farazmand, A. 2002. Modern Organizations: Theory and Practice. Praeger Publishers. Goodman, P.S. & Friedman, A. 1971. Adam’s Theory of Inequity. Administrative Science Quarterly. Maidani, E.A. 1991. Comparative Study of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory. Public Personnel Management. Rodney, H. 2006. The Link Between Motivation and Loyalty. Professional Builder. So, S. 2003. Positive Effects of Rewards and Performance Standards on Intrinsic Motivation. The Psychological Record.

Discuss one or two motivation theories and how intrinsic and extrinsic rewards can be motivators?

The word “motivation” is derived from the word “motivate” which means to move, impel, or induce to act to satisfy a need or want (Butkus & Green, 1999). Any consideration, idea or object pr…

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