Research Korner: Language Policy

ESSAY: MAKING A DIFFERENCE IN THE LIVES OF BILINGUAL/BI-CULTURAL CHILDREN

Making a Difference in the Lives of Bilingual/Bi-cultural Children and Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA)   Bilingualism is the ability to use two languages. Fluency in a second language requires skills in listening comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing, although in practice some of those skills are often considerably less developed than others. Few bilinguals are equally proficient in both languages. However, even when one language is dominant, performance in the other language may be superior in certain situations example, someone generally stronger in Russian than in English may find it easier to talk about baseball in English. Native speakers of two languages are sometimes called equilingual, or ambilingual, if their mastery of both languages is equal. Some bilinguals are persons who were reared by parents who each spoke a different language or who spoke a language different from the one used in school. In some countries, especially those with two or more official languages, schools encourage bilingualism by requiring intensive study of a second language. Bilinguals sometimes exhibit code-switching, or switching from one language to the other in the middle of a conversation or even the same sentence; it may be triggered by the use of a word that is similar in both languages. As the traditional political disposition of contemporary country, like the U.S., reduces and even eliminates – to some extent – programs for the growing populations of bilingual children, language educators are nevertheless projected to instruct linguistically and culturally diverse learners with inadequate background knowledge and resources. These are the main contents and discussions embodied in the book Making a Difference in the Lives of Bilingual/Bi-cultural Children edited by  (2002) involving an anthology of relevant and up-to-date articles on the state of bilingualism and biculturalism in education written by various authors. Meanwhile, bilingual speakers are common in human societies and have acquired at least one language during childhood. This is learned through a series of learning experiences in the classroom setting through formal as well as non-formal education using various approaches. A rather broadly held, yet nearly as broadly criticized view is taken by the American linguist , whose professional life has so far mainly been dedicated to the description of the human language module, the mechanism that enables us to correctly recreate the rules that speakers around us apply to the language they speak. This language module, according to , wears out over time, and is not normally available by puberty, which explains the relatively poor results adolescents and adults have in language learning, as compared to children. In here, the approaches used in the second language acquisition (SLA) illuminates on the most important overall factors needed in the process of language acquisition and learning (, 2005). Looking on the variety of approaches used by language educators, the most renowned and honored collection of approaches gives particular interest toward the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA). This given approach is based on cognitive learning theory that views students as mentally active participants of the teacher-student interaction or learning experience. It is said that the mental activity of learners is describe by the application of prior knowledge to new problems, the exploration for meaning in inward bound information or body of knowledge to higher level thinking, and the emergent ability to fiddle with one’s own learning. These activities are encompassed in the CALLA model wherein recommended ways are presented to the teachers responsible for the language acquisition and learning with the purpose of making the most of the mental activity by asking students to come across their individual learning and develop an effective strategy approach to learning and problem solving (, 1995). The CALLA book includes a significant number of fundamental information that constitute the description of the whole model, its uses and applications as well as useful language learning techniques for both teachers and students. The ideas in the  book cover the concept of bilingualism and biculturalism as seen in sixteen (16) comprehensively written articles as follows: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Teacher Allies: The Problem of the Color Line by  and </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Bilingual Abolitionists: Shadows of Facism – Propaganda of the Third Reich and the English-Only Movement by </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> From  to : Grand Theories and Teaching Practices by </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Doom or Mortal Kombat? Bilingual Literacy in the [Mainstream] Classroom by  and </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> The Case of Repressed Native or Indigenous Languages by </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> What's Policy Gotta Do Wit Dis? by </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Golden Eagle Goes to Kindergarten by </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Are Schools Prepared to Support Excellence for Nonmainstream Children? Latino/a Voices as a Response by </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> A Life Span /Toda Una Vida: The Pain and the Struggle That Will Strike /El Dolor y la Lucha que Embiste by </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> My Story and the Melanesian Knowledge by </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Parents as Guardians of the Mother Tongue by </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> On the Threshold of Biliteracy: A First-Grader's Personal Journey by  and </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Here They Come: Creating Rich Language-Learning Environments for Chinese-Speaking Kindergarten Students by  and </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Early Childhood Bilingual Classrooms by </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Caring Literacy and Identity Struggles: The Transformation of a Chicano Student by  </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Rights and Responsibilities of Educators of Bilingual/Bicultural Children by </li> </ul> All this articles tackle the opportunities and challenges in the bilingual education with further discussion on biculturalism including culture and cultural factors in chosen cases in specific countries and nationalities. According to  and  (1999), bilingualism offers individuals and society a wealth of important cultural, linguistic, and cognitive resources. This could refer to the overall discussions presented in the book. The participants in the language acquisition and learning as well as the perceived strategies to maximize transfer of learning are covered yet there is a call for practical development of recommendations that will address the issues affecting the condition of bilingualism or bilingual education in the global setting. The ideas relate to the urgent call of support from both administrative and institutional authorities as advocates of bilingual education, particularly teachers and linguists, are not getting the anticipated support they need to continue their promotion. Instead, the traditional political characteristics and conditions of contemporary societies including modernized countries like the U.S. and other Westerners, reduces and even eliminates programs for the growing populations of bilingual children. The arguments presented in all the articles are given much credit to the striving condition of bilingual education across the globe. As the process globalization and technological innovations continuously affects many if not all aspects of human life, the need for SLA is indispensable as modern societies are given settings that are characterized as multicultural and multilingual. A special illumination was given on the area of early childhood bilingual education and teaching-learning process particularly on culture. Children display the capacity to develop a new language in a more natural way than do adults (, 2002, 2002). In fact, those children who learn more than one language prior to his adolescence will acquire quickly those languages. Many bilingual children are not balanced bilinguals. It means to say that they do not have equal competence on these two languages. On the other hand, they do acquire their dominant language to a capability equal to that of their monolingual peers. Moreover, the ability of a bilingual child to develop his or her second language can vary from a child who only learns few phrases and little very basic vocabulary in the second language, to a child who listens and comprehends, but cannot or possibly will not speak, to a balanced bilingual who speaks in both languages with the same command as monolingual peers in both languages. Children who have exposure to more than one language, even if they do not have full learning of that language as children, demonstrates higher capacity of learning for foreign language than do teens or adults. Learning two languages has substantial effect to children. It allows them to expand their understanding of people beyond their dominant culture. It is true that they have little exposure to the culture of their second language however; the language itself conveys much of the culture of the people who use that language. Bilingual children develop awareness and understanding of differences between people preparing them to reserve their judgment when they see someone reacting inappropriately to a situation. They only not better appreciate what is human against what is cultural, but also they develop greater appreciation of language. Accordingly, ’s work call upon the attention of educational researchers to form a community where people listen to and hear the voices or recognize the needs of bilingual children, their parents and the whole community (., 1999). It is also recognized that Soto pays particular attention on the role of culture and cultural awareness in the language acquisition and learning process (, 1997). Thus, this identified book and the articles collected reflects on language, culture, and learning as whole. Teachers are also given the needed body of knowledge to further understand bilingualism and biculturalism in the classroom setting.  (2003) believes that it is fundamental to prepare early childhood educators to work in diverse settings particularly in urban areas like the U.S. and other modern countries. The arguments presented in the Soto collection are relevant to this as the teachers needed to offer developmentally programs for language learners especially those who belong in diverse cultural environments.             These ideas from the Soto book are related to the CALLA book in a way that the approach is among the effective solutions to the problems and challenges seen in bilingual education. The ideas of the CALLA book emphasize on the explanation of the whole approach, its uses and applications as well as functional language learning techniques for both teachers and students as principal participants. It is seen evidently in the recommendations provided by most authors in their respective articles that the role of appropriate and effective language learning approach or strategy is highly required in the maximization of learning and language acquisition. According to  (2007), CALLA to second language instruction makes use of students’ cognitive language learning and comprehension strategies. As the students become more familiar with effective learning techniques and strategies, they are encouraged to explore topics in a less structured and more self-directed manner. As a consequence, CALLA offers the context for students to progress naturally through the cognitive, associative and autonomous stages of learning (, 2007, ). The given advantage and beneficial consequence of CALLA to the entire course of SLA enhances the learning and language acquisition process.             The ideas presented in Soto book and related to CALLA are significant in my experience and work in the classroom. For example, by looking on the cases presented and associating the CALLA, I am able to identify the types of learning strategies applicable to my students. According to many authors, English Language Learners (ELL) are trained using four (4) types of learning strategies namely the cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, social/ affective strategies and cross linguistic strategies (, 2007). The issues in bilingual education in terms of ways in which the teacher is going to device materials or anything that relates to classroom instruction are addressed. In particular, lesson planning as an essential activity for teachers is enhanced through understanding of the types of learning the students have. Most teachers who are using CALLA methodology integrate five sequential instructional phases in planning and preparing their lesson plans, that is, the preparation phase, the presentation phase, the practice phase, the evaluation phase and the expansion phase ( & , 1994).             Further, culture and cultural orientation on the part of my students will be further understood and used in more beneficial facilitation of learning and language acquisition. The primary requirement to know the cultural background of the second language students as well as the teacher is very important in the construction of learning or teaching strategies and materials. With the utilization of CALLA methodology in reference to cultural consideration, it will facilitate noticeable development on the academic language proficiency on students while the learning strategy used best matches their given cognitive learning style plus the assigned task. For the field of SLA or on this case per se, it is time to seize opportunity to contribute directly to a broader understanding of language.             In the implementation of the ideas in  book in relation to the CALLA book, I will be an advocate of the principles of Soto and the rest of the authors of bilingualism and biculturalism. I will put them into practice through gradual integrating the given findings in my profession. It is likened to new equipment that will constantly contribute to the development of the language acquisition and learning process. For example, in lesson planning, the consideration of cultural diversity of the students will cater to the needs of all the language participants. The implementation is significantly dependent on my ability as the teacher to understand the needs of my students. If these ideas are deemed to be necessary or basic in the language acquisition and learning process of my students, then, I will device more activities as well as teaching strategies that will incorporate these ideas and eventually reap more successful interaction in my part as the teacher and the students as well.   References

ESSAY: MAKING A DIFFERENCE IN THE LIVES OF BILINGUAL/BI-CULTURAL CHILDREN

Making a Difference in the Lives of Bilingual/Bi-cultural Children and Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) Biling...

Write an essay analyzing the 4 most prominent phonological problem for a tape record segment of speech from a non-native speaker of English

4 Most common Phonological problems from Non-native English speaker         Before we understand some basic problems in phonology let us first understand what it is all about. Phonology - is the science of speech sounds including specially the history and theory of sound changes in language or in two or more related language.  From this point of view we can easily understand that there may be many possibilities that there will be more phonological problem that may arise from different linguistic and cultural background.  But for now we are going to focus from variation of 2 phonological problems that we may encounter when, let us say talk to a foreigner or non native English speaker like Chinese or maybe Japanese or Koreans which may hinder the meaning of the languages they may have spoken. This may bring unintentional misunderstanding in communication since problem in linguistic approach and usage differs from their respective way and cultural upbringing Let us identified the problem. The samples below may not imply a thorough study of the subject matter but will just set samples. ·         First is the segmental - problem which pertains to linguistic, noting or pertaining to the discrete elements of sequential speech, as consonants and vowel. Any discrete unit can be identified as physical or auditory in the stream of speech. Let us say that we talked to Chinese student who speak Cantonese, thus we may say that the first problem we may encounter maybe 1. Vowel Phonemes The narrow divisions of vowel phonemes in the sound system of English makes great demand upon the Cantonese learner. Cantonese only has 3 vowels compare to 5 in English.      2. Consonant  phonemes, because of absence of initial from the range of Cantonese phonemes there may not be able to pronounce such words or letter like B, D, G and the letter V, W, and Z. this means that they are going to experience a difficulty in unfamiliar sounds since they may not heard such letters. Example: tied and died or sink and zinc. Occasionally the letter F will be replaced with V and or the substitution of V to W may take place .Another example of segmental problem is the absence of S the confusion of said and shed or shame or same. Another there is the absence of many consonants like  b, d, and g. The Interchangeability or a change of language like weary to fairy there may not be enough examples to that will constitute such differences or it required a thorough study.   ·         Second is the Supra segmental – Is a vocal effect that extends over more than one sound segment in an utterance. Example is 1.Stress is the relative emphasis that maybe given to certain syllable in a word or to certain words in phrase or sentence. The term is also used for similar patterns of phonetic prominence inside syllable. The word accent is also used with this sense. It is a common for stressed and unstressed syllables to behave differently as language evolve. Example the word volver has the form volvi in the past tense but vuelvo in the present tense. 2. Vowel reduction is any of the various changes in the acoustic of quality of vowels which are related to changes. Examples may be. Marry, merry, mary. You can feel the reduction of contrasting sound when you pronounce the word.             To give solutions to all this barriers you will need to have a translation of your language to English language you may want to use the website www.translate.google.com  since languages are written according to aborigines if they are going to introduce English in their own language they must design a conventionally ways to conform their indigenous norms and ways to make it a reality learning it easily. English language is universal language that is why this is a powerful means of communication and you must have to learn this language in order for you to communicate among nations. The process of learning requires much harder in non-English speaking nations. The time to start is today. You may want to consult professional help or hire a tutor, enroll in an English class or join the Online English course which many Koreans is doing. You may always want to have a book about translation of your language like Japanese – English dictionary or Arabic-English dictionary etc. Generally the language barrier from other nations so as to speak differently does not really depend on the cultural manifestation but on your desire to learn.

Write an essay analyzing the 4 most prominent phonological problem for a tape record segment of speech from a non-native speaker of English

4 Most common Phonological problems from Non-native English speaker Before we understand some basic problems in phonology let u...

Why might Bourdieu’s account of language and power be accounted as a clear sociological alternative to critical discourse analysis and socio-linguistics accounts?

Bourdieu’s Account of Language and Power Bourdieu does not agree with the founding fathers of linguistics – Ferdinand Saussure and Naom Chomsky. In his 1991 book entitled Language and Symbolic Power, Bourdieu attacked Saussure’s concept and stated that “as soon as one treats language as an autonomous object, accepting the radical separation which Saussure made between internal and external linguistics, between the science of language and the science of the social uses of language, one is condemned to looking within words, for the power of words, that is, looking for it where it cannot be found (Bourdieu, 1991, p. 107 cited in Grenfell, 1998, p. 73).  For Bourdieu, words are never just words, language is never just a vehicle to express ideas. Rather it comes as the product and process of social activity which is differentiating and differentiated; and thus, differentially valued within fields of social activity. Language is value-laden and culturally expressive according to standards of legitimacy and opposition to them (Grenfell, 1998). Bourdieu (1977) argues that language should be examined in terms of the relationship from which it is generated. Bourdieu (1991) is his book, Language and Symbolic Power, described symbolic power as a power of consuming the given through utterances, of making people see and believe, of confirming or transforming the vision of the world and thereby, action on the world and thus the world itself. Bourdieu (1991) also showed the innumerable and subtle strategies by which language can be used as an instrument of communication as well as control, coercion as well as constraint, ad condescension as well as contempt (Kumaravadivelu, 2006). Bourdieu (1991) attempts to reconnect the Marxist and structuralist lines by renouncing he structuralist dismissal of the human subject. According to Bourdieu, every area of human activity is a socially charged field. Players in every human activity are called by Bourdieu as “habitus”, a location within a system, inhabited by an active human subject who is defined by the system but, crucially, not merely its passive object, but engaging in exchanges of symbolic power (Davies & Elder, 2005). For Bourdieu, all speech acts are the outcome of two ‘causal series’. First, there is the habitus, the ‘linguistic habitus’ which encompasses the cultural propensity to say particular things, a specific linguistic competence (the capacity to ‘speak properly’) and the social capacity to use that competence appropriately. Second, there is the ‘linguistic market’, which takes the form of sanctions and censorships, and which defines what cannot be said as much as what can. Bourdieu is thus concerned with linguistic practices from the point of view of their production and their reception: the speech act is not to be reduced to ‘mere execution’ (Jenkins, 1992).             Language according to Bourdieu arises out of interactions with language and between people, which are constructing and constructed according to intent, the limits of context, and degrees of share meaning. The market analogy in “Linguistic Market” is used to refer to the ways linguistic products have value in a particular field the way market products have value. Linguistic value is set by relations between different aspects of words and meanings and those of the established legitimate linguistic norm. This ‘norm’ is defined as the most prestigious language, possessing greatest linguistic capital, or the dominating style of language of those who speak from authority. It follows that a field will have its own linguistic norm to which everything defines and differentiates itself. Forms which are deviant in terms of one field can, of course, be the ‘norm’ in another field. It is in this sense, that the language of a field can then be understood as a ‘linguistic market’, as valuing is relative and ‘open’ to renegotiation. Much of Bourdieu’s discussion follows on the basis of this understanding. Language for Bourdieu cuts across and partially integrates these approaches. It is ‘constructivist’ in an almost Vygotskyan way; but also ‘structural’ in that it rests on the belief that generating structures, and the principles on which they are based, are identifiable. Language for Bourdieu is essentially representative of social structural differentiation. It always relates to something. The relation is characterized by meanings that are valued according to differential values—the sense of words. Language, for Bourdieu, is primordial. He is mindful of the way in which social reality is constructed in and through language. He has noted, as have Austin and Searle, the illocutionary force of language; the way it seemingly can cause effects over and above the basic words ‘in themselves’. The way ships are named is a good example of this, or the knighting of someone by the Queen. Both of these are acts of ‘magic’, where power is conferred on someone by the group to act in their name in allotting social prestige and status to others, places or objects (Grenfell. 1998).  In order to expand the field of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), theorists such as Fairclough (1995), incorporated the critical concepts from the works of Michael Foucault, Antonio Gramsci, Mikhail Bakhtin, Roland Bathes and Pierre Bourdieu. Bourdieu’s concept of language and power is used in assuming the discourses generates “symbolic power”. Fairclough’s (1989) CDA marries critical linguistics with the perspectives of Foucault and Bourdieu, and sees itself as capturing the dynamic nature of both power relations and text production by uncovering the hegemonic structures within texts. CDA is both a theory and a method. Researchers who are interested in the relationship between language and society use CDA to help them describe, interpret, and explain such relationships. CDA is different from other discourse analysis methods because it includes not only a description and interpretation of discourse in context, but also offers an explanation of why and how discourses work. The term critical in CDA is often associated with studying power relations. Critical research and theory is a rejection of naturalism, rationality, neutrality and individualism.  Critical research rejects the overdeterministic view of social theory espoused by Marxists and instead argues for a dialectic between individual agency and structural determinism. As with all research, the intentions of critical discourse analysts are not neutral. Another interpretation of the “critical” in CDA is an attempt to describe, interpret, and explain the relationship between the form and function of language. The form of language, as expanded on in a later section, consists of grammar, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics. The function of language includes how people use language in different situations to achieve an outcome. Critical discourse analysts believe there is a relationship between the form and function of language. Further, they start with the assumption that certain networks of form–function relationships are valued in society more than others (Rogers, 2003).             According to Fairclough (2005) CDA is based upon the assumption that language is an irreducible part of social life, dialectically interconnected with other elements of social life, so that social analysis and research always has to take account of language. Fairclough's (1995) basic argument is this: The goal of critical discourse analysis is to denaturalize ideologies that have become naturalized. Ideologies, he explains, are particular representations of some aspect of the world (which could be alternatively represented) that can be associated with some particular “social base.” Such ideologies have become naturalized, “dissociated… from the particular social base” (Pennycook, 2001). Fairclough (1992) discusses discourse as a mode of political and ideological practice. According to him, Discourse as a political practice establishes, sustains and changes power relations, and the collective entities (classes, blocs, communities, groups) between which power relations obtain. Discourse as an ideological practice constitutes, naturalizes, sustains and changes significations of the world from diverse positions in power relations. In a series of books and articles, Fairclough has developed and enlarged this view of CDA. Probably the best known element of his work is the development of what he calls his “three-dimensional” model of CDA (1995, p. 98), incorporating on one level the analytical procedures of description, interpretation, and explanation and on another level the different levels of text, text production and reception, and the larger sociopolitical context.             Fairclough’s CDA is based on the following assumptions: 1. Discourse is both a specific form of language use and a specific form of social interaction – discourse as language use primarily refers to spoken and written language use, but also includes other semiotic modalities such as non-verbal communication. Defining discourse as both a specific form of language use and a specific form of social interaction shifts the focus from language or language use per se to various contexts and implies a dialectical relationship between a particular discursive event and the situation, institution and social structure which frame it (Diriker, 2004). 2. Discourse is socially constitutive and socially conditioned – discourse is never an abstract or objective way of using language. All discourses are intimately intertwined with the way societies are organized and run. There are always a dialectical relationship between discourses and social practices and structures. Discourses are simultaneously constitutive of social identities, social relations and system of knowledge and belief (Diriker, 2004). 3. Discourse is ideological – discourse and ideology are very much intertwined. Fairclough (1995) argues that ideology and hegemony are discursive in nature (Diriker, 2004). 4. Discourse generates symbolic power – discourses are never produced in a vacuum. Since they are always imbricate in social relations, discourses may be formulated to serve the interests of their producers. According to Bourdieu (1992), in addition to the classical idea of economic capital, there are other forms of capital such as cultural capital and symbolic capital. While cultural capital pertains to knowledge, skills and other cultural acquisitions, symbolic capital refers to the accumulated prestige or honor of persons, groups, institutions, etc. It is precisely in the constitution and enhancement of the latter where discourse plays a fundamental role, especially because in the filed there is always room for one from of capital to be converted into another (Diriker, 2004). References Bourdieu, P 1977, ‘The economics of linguistic exchanges’, Social Science Information, pp.645-668. Bourdieu, P 1991, Language and symbolic power, Polity Press, Oxford. Davies, A & Elder, C 2005, The handbook of applied linguistics, Wiley-Blackwell. Diriker, E 2004, ‘De-/re-contextualizing conference interpreting: interpreters in the ivory tower?’, Benjamins Publishing Company. Fairclough, N 1992, Discourse and social change, Polity, Oxford, UK. Fairclough, N 1993, ‘Critical discourse analysis and the marketization of public discourse’, Discourse and Society, 4, 133–168. Fairclough, N 1995, Critical discourse analysis, Longman, London. Fairclough, N 2003, Analyzing discourse: textual analysis for social research, Routledge, New York. Greenfell, MDJ 1998, Bourdieu and education: acts of practical theory, Falmer Press, London. Jenkins, R 1992, Pierre Bourdieu, Routledge, New York. Kumaravadivelu, B 2006, Understanding language teaching: from method to post-method, Routledge, New York. Pennycook, A 2001, Critical applied linguistics: a critical introduction, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah NJ. Rogers, R 2003, An introduction to critical discourse analysis in education, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Why might Bourdieu’s account of language and power be accounted as a clear sociological alternative to critical discourse analysis and socio-linguistics accounts?

Bourdieu’s Account of Language and Power Bourdieu does not agree with the founding fathers of linguistics – Ferdinand Saussure a...

Compare And Contrast The Medium-Of-Instruction Policy Of The Hong Kong SAR Government With That The Following Post-Colonial States: Singapore

Introduction Language policies in education are an important mechanism by which states manage social and political conflict. A central concern of language policy analysis is the role of particular policies in mobilizing public opinion, channeling political energy, and allocating economic resources. Policies can be used to create, sustain, or resolve conflict (Tollefson 2002).  It is important to keep in mind that state authorities or particular ethno linguistic groups in some settings may view language policy conflict as advantageous for their own political aims. In other settings, a major goal of policymakers may be the use of educational language policies to reduce the potential for social and political conflict. Conflicts about language policy usually have their source in group conflicts in which language symbolizes some aspect of a struggle over political power and economic resources. Therefore in order to understand language policy debates and the role of language policy in contemporary states, we must examine the underlying social, economic, and political struggles that language can symbolize. The symbolic value of language can have profound consequences, not only for language minorities seeking to negotiate complex and changing identities, but also for dominant groups seeking to retain various forms of political and economic power (Tollefson 2002). The medium of instruction depends on different countries. The policy that dictates the medium of instruction is affected by various things in the environment. This paper intends to compare and contrast the medium of instruction policies in post colonial Hong Kong SAR and post colonial Singapore. Medium of Instruction policy in Hong Kong Language of instruction has been a controversial issue for more than a century in Hong Kong. On the one hand a majority of official reports and academic studies have called for Chinese as the language of instruction (Li 1999). But the demand was largely ignored and instruction continued to be offered in English because of the exigencies of colonial rule and the need to maintain Hong Kong's international economic competitiveness (Liu 1999). This changed somewhat in 1974 when schools were allowed the choice between English and Chinese, though in practice an overwhelming majority continued to teach in English. More drastic change came about in 1998 when all schools, except those explicitly exempted, were required to teach in Chinese: eventually, 307 schools were designated as Chinese-medium schools and 114 as English-medium schools (Liu 1999).  The public views Chinese schools as inferior and resents the denial of English-language teaching to its children. Businesses too are opposed to the change because they fear that a downgrading of English would reduce Hong Kong's international economic competitiveness. There is no indication that the government is considering a reversal of the policy (Evans 2006).   In Hong Kong, English is an important part of the school curriculum from kindergarten. Students start learning English when they enter preschool. In primary and secondary schools, English is taught as a compulsory subject. The universities in Hong Kong adopt English as their official medium of instruction, with the exception of the Chinese University of Hong Kong, which is the only bilingual university in the territory. At university level, English language-enhancement programs are provided for university students irrespective of their majors to help strengthen their English skills (Braine 2005). The medium of instruction in Hong Kong is both English and Chinese depending on the school and whether it is private or public. Before English was used as a medium of instruction but lately schools under the government are not allowed to use English as a medium of instruction. Chinese has been the medium of instruction. A small number of government primary schools and secondary schools are permitted to use English as the medium of instruction. For private schools English has been the medium of instruction. In these schools English is learned from Kindergarten until they reach a tertiary level of education.   Medium of Instruction in Singapore Although the provision and financing of education in Singapore is more dominated by the state than other emerging countries, the government began to withdraw somewhat in the mid 1980s. Singaporean leaders are sensitive to allegations of educational inequities and go to great lengths to ensure the appearance of fairness. In recent years the government has launched measures it claims are designed to help children from groups that do not perform well in schools (Ramesh 2003). The education system in Singapore consists of six years of primary education and four years of secondary education. Singapore was one of the few countries in the region with no compulsory education, but this changed in 2003 when its six years of primary schooling became compulsory. The turn of the millennium appears to be an exciting time for Singapore. There is constant talk of the need to re-examine old ways of thinking and doing things, and of the concomitant need for creativity and innovation. Education policy has been a prime instrument for the fostering of both economic development and social cohesion ever since the ruling People's Action Party (PAP) came to power in 1959. It is, therefore, unsurprising that education policy-makers, schools, principals, teachers, and students are being swept along in a literal tide of newly launched policy directives (Ramesh 2003).   The Singapore Government continues to be ambitious in its plans to use education as a key linchpin in its efforts to promote economic development and social cohesion. Several issues will continue to bedevil policy-makers for the foreseeable future. One of these is the issue of how to bring about sustained change in such areas as curricular initiatives. No amount of government exhortation about the desirability of such innovations will succeed unless teachers are first given the opportunity to engage in reflective thinking about these innovations. Given the increasingly hectic work schedules of most teachers in schools, it will be very difficult for them to have adequate time to engage in such thinking (Da Cunha 2002). The last thing policy framers desire is for teachers to go about their teaching in an unreflective, uncomprehending manner, giving the appearance of change while leaving fundamental areas of change untouched. Equally troubling would be the prospect of teachers, parents, and students merely treating the new assessment modes and subject matter as yet more hurdles to be cleared in the same way as the current hurdles have been crossed. Other dilemmas related to the tension between diversity and conformity, such as those brought about by the ranking of schools, will continue to trouble schools. The challenges and dilemmas involved in managing a culturally diverse, and now increasingly class-stratified population, will not prove an easy task either (Dixon 2005). The first language learned in Singapore by half the children by the time they reach preschool age is English. English is also the primary medium of instruction by the time a student reach primary school. For most subject English is the language used, Chinese, Malay and Tamil languages are not taught in English, recently there is provision for the use of English at the initial stages. At present few schools have tried to integrate language subjects with mathematics and the sciences, using both English and a second language.   Contrasting and comparing the medium of instruction for the 2 countries In Hong Kong English was used as a medium of instruction but lately schools under the government are not allowed to use English as a medium of instruction. The Hong Kong government initiated changes that would make sure that the use of English as a medium of instruction would be minimized in some schools and Chinese would be the sole medium of instruction. In Singapore English is the primary medium of instruction. The government supports and encourages the use of English as a medium of instruction. In Hong Kong the use of English as a medium of instruction depends on the type of school. If the school is a public school then it is required to use Chinese as a medium of instruction; if the school is a private school it depends on the school if it wants English or Chinese as a medium of instruction.  In Singapore all schools are required to make use of English as a medium of instruction. Private or public schools have to make sure that English is used as the medium of instruction. In Hong Kong there are a few calls to bring back English as the medium of instruction. Some of those who grew up using English as a medium of instruction wanted to bring back the use of English as a medium of instruction. In Singapore the goal is to combine English with the other official languages as a medium of instruction. The country wants to expand further English and its use in the education system.  For both countries English has been an important medium of instruction whether it is primary or not. English contributes to the education of both countries and helps in opening both countries to the international scene. English made sure that communication will not be a cause of strained relationships with various individuals.   How’s the motivation of the new medium of instruction policies? In Hong Kong the new medium of instruction aims to bring a sense of nationality to the people. It aims to promote Chinese to young people. It aims to make sure that the students would remember their past and use it in the present. In Singapore the medium of instruction aims to ensure that no ethnic group or nationality is forced to learn the language of another. It wants to make sure that communication would be easier and easy communication would be learned initially in schools. The use of English as a medium of instruction aims to interconnect Singapore to the world economy. The use of English as a medium of instruction wants to make sure that students can easily understand the global scenario and in the future make decisions that are acceptable to the global standards.   How’s the reaction from the community? There has been a debate in Hong Kong over the use of English as a medium of instruction. Some people prefer to use Chinese as the medium of instruction. They believe that Chinese is still the most acceptable medium of instruction.  They believe that Chinese will help the students reach the goals they have. Some people prefer to use English as a medium of instruction. They believe that English should be learned by the children so that once they grow up they will be ready to study in a university and communicate in the workplace. The proponents of English as a medium of instruction believe that a child needs to have a mastery of English so that they can face the challenges of university and office life.  They believe that English as a medium of instruction will be important for future generations in competing in the market. In Singapore there has been no complains against the use of English as a medium of instruction. The government is behind the use of English as the medium of instruction in schools.  The people have made good use of English as the medium of instruction; it helped them compete with other countries. English as the medium of instruction helped in making competitive students that are prepared for global challenges.   The future of the medium instruction in HK and Singapore It may take some time before Hong Kong replaces Chinese as a medium of instruction. Even if there are people who question the change of medium, the government is motivated to maintain Chinese as the medium of instruction in public schools. The political, social and cultural scenario called for the use of Chinese as a medium of instruction, it contributed to the decision of changing the medium of instruction. Only another change in the political, social and cultural scenario would create a future change in the medium of instruction.  In Singapore the medium of instruction might not be changed but it might be modified and merged with the country’s other language.  English as a medium of instruction has created positive results to Singapore’s education system; this will result to strengthening English as the medium of instruction.    Conclusion Hong Kong has the right to choose the medium of instruction, the change to another medium of instruction is what the government has seen as a plausible solution to the social problems of the region. English might not be used as the medium of instruction for most schools but English is still being taught as part of the curriculum. This might prevent any problems and should still help the students to prepare for studying in a university and working in a multinational firm. Singapore’s use of English as a medium of instruction shows that it is open to global communication. Its move to improve the medium of instruction shows that it gives value to all languages that its people have spoken.   References Braine, G (ed.) 2005, Teaching English to the world: History, curriculum, and practice, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.   Da Cunha, D (ed.) 2002, Singapore in the new millennium: Challenges facing the city-state, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore.   Dixon, LQ 2005, The bilingual education policy in Singapore: Implications for second language acquisition, Cascadilla Press, Somerville, MA.   Evans, SE 2006,’Language policy in British colonial education: Evidence from Nineteenth-Century Hong Kong’, Journal of Educational Administration and History, vol. 38, no. 3, pp.293-312.   Li, DC 1999,’ The functions and status of English in Hong Kong: A post 1997 update’, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 67-110   Liu, LH (ed.) 1999, Tokens of exchange: The problem of translation in global circulations, Duke University Press, Durham, NC.   Ramesh, M 2003, Social policy in East and Southeast Asia: Education, health, housing and income maintenance, RoutledgeCurzon, New York.   Tollefson, JW (ed.) 2002, Language policies in education: Critical issues, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Compare And Contrast The Medium-Of-Instruction Policy Of The Hong Kong SAR Government With That The Following Post-Colonial States: Singapore

Introduction Language policies in education are an important mechanism by which states manage social and political conflict. A centra...

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