Research Korner: Employee Ownership

Effects of Strategic Human Resource Management on Organizational Success

Effects of Strategic Human Resource Management on Organizational Success               Strategy, which is defined as the direction and scope of organization over the long-term within a challenging environment, is being attached with organizational functions that purport to turn strategies into action as a key to achieve cost and competitive advantages. These advantages in turn translate to organizational success with strategic human resource management (SHRM) as the most notable.             SHRM is regarded as the reconciliation of HR practices and its determinants from a strategic context. SHRM does not limit itself on putting human resource at the heart of the business. SHRM, rather, is a holistic approach that builds on the human asset and the relationship between them and among them as value-adding factors. As SHRM aims for continued subsistence of any organisation, it is only plausible to investigate and analyse how internal human problems could affect such the survivability of that organisation (McCourt and Eldridge, 2003).             SHRM is a valuable element of organizational success since it aids in achieving the competitive edge in terms of quality, cost and flexibility. There is the need therefore for SHRM to embrace the people whom the organization does business with. It is through this people that sustainability can be achieved whereby the values are created that direct and indirect rivals could not implement (Smale, 2008).             From a resource-based perspective, the various categories that SHRM can build upon include physical, organizational, financial and technological as well as human resources. As assets, the mere existence of human within the organization is inadequate. However, the relationship among them should be controlled towards achieving long-term organizational success. Sustainable competitive advantage potential of the human resources is central to the idea that human resources are valuable, rare, inimitable and non-substitutable (Thite, 2004).             Nevertheless, such a valuable resource, human resources are heterogeneous because of the fact that organizations require different jobs that require different skills and capabilities. The value of the differences among the people could be realized on the contribution of individuals to the organization which means to provide value at diverse degrees. The rarity of high quality and ability workers is because of their skills and competency levels. Included in here is the supposedly normal distribution of skills, competencies, expertise and capabilities (Maxwell and Farquharson, 2008).             For the human asset to imitated, further, there is the need for competitors to identify the exact source of such and duplicate exactly the elements of the human capital. Suffice to say, this is a difficult endeavour since the dynamics of human capital is also considered as organizational intelligences. On the other hand, human resources should not be imperfectly mobile so that they cannot be traded. Human resources should not be also substitutable (Pritchard, 2007).             Organizational success is also based on the collective practices internal to the organization but is intended for the outside environment. Some of these areas are employment security, recruitment selectivity, employee ownership, information sharing, participation and empowerment, self-managed teams, training and skills development and succession provision. There should be an emphasis on envisioning individual workers as sources of organizational success (Sims, 2002).             Organizational success could be also realized when the organization through SHRM is continuously invest on its reputation or image, stressing the need for sound human resource policies and practices and aligning such with the business strategies and its external context. Cost and quality is the focus whereby there are definite processes, systems and procedures that consolidates competencies, continuous education, proficient performance at individual and departmental levels and balanced monetary and non-monetary reward systems (Morris, 2004).             In sum, SHRM is not just a strategy that puts the human aspect of the organization at its core. SHRM is a holistic approach that builds on the human asset and the relationship among them as value-creating factors. These are realized on inclusion and diversity as well as the process of building on organisational reputation or image through internal-to-external policies, systems and procedures.            References Maxwell, G & Farquharson, L 2008, ‘Senior managers’ perceptions of the practice of human resource management,’ Employee Relations Journal, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 304-322. McCourt, W & Eldridge, D 2003, Global human resource management: managing people in developing and transitional countries, Edward Elgar Publishing. Morris, D 2004, Strategic Reward Systems: Understanding the Difference between ‘Best Fit’ and ‘Best Practice, National University of Ireland Publication. Pritchard, N 2007, ‘The destructive forces of human resources – turning people management and development initiatives into positive impactors,’ Industrial and Commercial Training Journal, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 104-107. Sims, R 2002, Organizational Success through Effective Human Resources Management, Quorum Books. Smale, A 2008, ‘HRM integration: a knowledge transfer perspective,’ Personnel Review, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 145-164. Thite, M 2004, ‘Strategic positioning of HRM in knowledge-based organizations,’ The Learning Organization Journal, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 28-44.

Effects of Strategic Human Resource Management on Organizational Success

Effects of Strategic Human Resource Management on Organizational Success Strategy , which is defined as the direction...

OPERATIONS & LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT: GLAXOSMITHKLINE

OPERATIONS & LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT: GLAXOSMITHKLINE   Introduction             In any given week, a large percentage of adults in the United Kingdom use some form of medication, half of these prescribed by a doctor. Sales of creams, ointments, vitamins, herbal supplements, headache pills, digestive aids, and other over-the-counter medications amount to a large sum of money. The pharmaceutical industry comprises of physical products which can be packaged, stored, and shipped, a primary reason this part of health production is truly international.             Yet, the pharmaceutical industry is in an increasingly complex and dynamic environment. There have been a lot of changes in recent years in the pharmaceutical industry and this trend is likely to continue. The opening of markets, increased buyer cost sensitivity, global competition and technological advances have increased levels of uncertainty. There has been an inexorable rise in patient expectations, increased costs of health-care and the inability of economies to meet the increased costs. Consequently, governments have introduced a number of measures aimed at increasing competition and accountability and thus reducing costs (2002). The top brand name blockbuster drugs have more than $2 billion in annual sales, and a single drug can make or break a company. The largest pharmaceutical companies (Merck, Johnson & Johnson, Pfizer, GlaxoSmithKline) each have more than $30 billion in sales. For this paper, the pharmaceutical giant GlaxoSmithKline will be used for discussion. GlaxoSmithKline is the world's largest pharmaceutical company with pro forma sales of 15 billion pounds ($22.5 billion). It has leading market positions in four classes of therapeutics. GlaxoSmithKline has number-one positions in central nervous system drugs, anti-infectives, respiratory products and vaccines. It also has the number-two position in gastrointestinal and metabolic drug sales, taking into account the Kytril, Famvir and Vectavir divestitures, according to the company. It holds an 11.6 percent share of the central nervous system drug market, 6.1 percent of the gastrointestinal and metabolic drug market, 16.7 percent of the anti-infective market, 17.7 percent of the respiratory market, and 26 percent of the vaccines market. Change is never easy, and the merger between Glaxo Wellcome and SmithKline Beecham in December 2000 to create GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceuticals certainly caused a lot of change as the organization chose the best structures, systems and solutions with which to move forward. Now, nearly seven years on, information management (IM) is emerging with an improved, streamlined information service to serve research and development (R&D) business needs with a holistic article access strategy, of which document delivery is recognized as an important part. This situation is changing as new methods of accessing full text emerge. Funds that flow into GlaxoSMithKline are used in a variety of ways. For example, they are used to support research and development efforts as the pharmaceutical company seeks to develop newer and better drugs before their competitors. These funds are also used to support marketing and promotional efforts needed to get physicians to prescribe their drug rather than a competitor’s drug. In addition, some of these funds are used to cover the costs of manufacturing, distribution, and administration that go along with any production process, and a portion of these funds are profits, which are either given to stockholders in the form of dividends or reinvested in the company in the form of retained earnings (2004). A breakout of the uses of funds is shown in the table below:   Uses of Funds for Pharmaceutical Products ________________________________________________________________ Cost of goods                                               30% Research & development                          13% Sales, Marketing, administrations                        31% Taxes                                                               6% Net income                                                   20% Source: CMS Health Care Industry Update – Pharmaceuticals, 2003.               Before being able to analyze and comprehend the strategy used for a pharmaceutical company, it is important to first understand industry structure and competition. The market of pharmaceutical products can be divided into three segments based on the type of buyer: individual patients, group purchasers, and government ( 2004). The competition for sales differs significantly across these segments.             The structure of the pharmaceutical industry is dictated by a single fact: the large and important costs are all sunk costs. The value of a drug depends on how useful it is in treating disease, not how many years it took to conduct clinical trials or perfect the production process, nor on the number of failed projects the company had to fund in order to get a winner. Research and testing to bring a pill to market costs so much more than manufacturing that there is essentially no rational connection between price and cost, however measured. Instead, value and price depend on therapeutic effectiveness (1998).             Marketing creates additional divergence between price and “unit cost” because the value of each pill increases as it becomes better and better known as a brand name drug. While clinical value may not depend on marketing, economic value does. Once the drug is launched in the market, any distinction between the value added from increased therapeutic effectiveness and the value added from increased marketing is not wonderful.             Once GlaxoSmithKline marketing launches a drug, the brand name is worth something even if the drug has been superceded by superior competitors. The brand-name version will often continue to sell at the old high price even after the patent has expired in order to capture the consumer surplus of customers who are not price sensitive.             In addition to broadening its product portfolio, GlaxoSmithKline has strengthened its sales and marketing position. The merger creates a company with one of the drug industry's largest sales and marketing forces. It has more than 40,000 sales and marketing personnel throughout the world, including roughly 8,000 representatives in the US. Overall, the combined company will have 100,000 employees.   Part A To some, providing a global service may feel a little daunting and it certainly does have its complications – differing copyright laws being just one of them – but on other levels it feels like the most logical way of providing a service which when it comes down to it, is the same whatever country you happen to be in. When Jean-Pierre Garnier became boss of Glaxo Wellcome and SmithKline Beecham when they merged four years ago, he realized that without huge innovation the company was at risk. Increasing competition from other pharmaceuticals and practically empty pipelines meant that Garnier had to rethink how the firm could maintain its 7 percent market share. His solution was Tadataka Yamada, his top researcher, who was instructed to find a totally new way to discover drugs. It is easy to understand why quality is of utmost importance in the field of pharmaceuticals. Alongside other industries where safety is critical, the pharmaceutical industry is heavily regulated and for obvious reasons: mistakes in product design or production can have severe, even fatal, consequences for patients (1999). To ensure a place in the emerging market, given today’s competitive environment, industries must achieve internationally accepted quality levels. Global competition calls for higher levels of quality, efficiency and service. As the pursuit for global manufacturing expanded, several standards organizations worldwide developed guidelines on quality. Terms like quality control, quality assurance, quality management, quality policy, quality plan, quality system, etc., acquired different or conflicting meanings in different countries. However, it is all easier said than done. Pharmaceutical companies cannot make new drugs just at a whim. Neither can they sell them as easily. These processes have to go through certifications and quality management. There are certain series of standards such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Recognizing that there was a need of standardization for quality management as well as for quality assurance, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), headquartered in Geneva, established ISO-TC - which was a technical committee on quality - to write new quality standards (1996). There creates the basis for thorough and unambiguous documentation and that each pharmaceutical product runs through various stages of the quality control process during production - from the laboratory analysis of the base materials and tests during each individual production stage right through to the final checks (1993). These tests and checks, for example, verify that the active agent content and its release correspond precisely with the manufacturing specifications. When numbering individual production batches and managing test and release information, provides the manufacturer with assistance (2002). More extensive analysis options are also available, enabling product quality to be tracked through analyses of the number and type of fault reports per batch. This industry solution is also augmented by options for total quality control in the production of medications and sample data for various administration forms For example, pharmaceutical companies need to accurately weigh out all the substances and materials according to the formulas prescribed by the authorities before production actually begins. (2002) The security of documents in the pharmaceutical industry has become a critical issue since the advent of electronic data transfer. The regulations also require that secure, computer-generated, time-stamped audit trails are used to record the date and time of operator entries and actions that create, modify or delete electronic records.   èAdvantages             Expectations of the standard, for the most part, are based on previous experiences or claims made for it cited in the literature of the major ISO certification bodies, such as the British Standards Institute (BSI), Lloyd’s Register Quality Assurance (LRQA) and SGS as well as from empirical research studies. Among the cited benefits of ISO 9000 are: <ul type="disc" style="margin-bottom: 0in"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> increased market opportunities, as customers will see you as more effective and better organised; </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> reduced costs; </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> stronger reputation in the eyes of stakeholders; </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> reduced waste (time and materials); </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> win more business through complying with an internationally recognised and respected standard; </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> compete more effectively through increased customer satisfaction (SGS, 2001); </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> improved management control; and </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> higher profit margins, sales per employee and a higher profit per employee than the industry average (1993). </li> </ul> Empirical studies conducted in the USA ( 1994) and in the UK (1996) found that the main external benefit of the standard was higher perceived quality by the customer, the main internal benefit being better documentation. The preservation of reliable records depends in part upon the maintenance of essential metadata as it is a vital tool in helping an organization fulfill the recordkeeping specifications required by external bodies, including compliance with ISO 9000 requirements. The purpose of the guidelines is to improve the quality of products and services while increasing productivity and reducing costs. This standard has increased the importance and profile of many records management programs. Organizations have always kept records, but prior to ISO 9000 such managers considered them to be a necessary evil instead of an essential component of a quality system (2002).  (1996) found the highest ranked benefit to be improved efficiency, followed by an improved awareness of procedural problems – both internal benefits.   èDisadvantages              (1997) outlined ten main criticisms of ISO 9000 including: (2) quality by inspection is not quality; (b) too heavy reliance on people’s and, in particular, assessors’ interpretation of quality; and (c) when people are subjected to external controls, they will be inclined to pay attention only to those things which are affected by those controls.              (1996) identified eight major disappointments with becoming ISO 9000-certified. The main one cited was the time required to write the associated manuals, while the high cost of implementation came a close second. Of the seven major problems of the standard, once it was implemented ( 1996), the highest ranked was the high cost of maintaining the standard, closely followed by the high volume of paper work.              (2001), while agreeing that ISO 9000 was based on good intentions, suggested the following problems with the standard: (a) the fact that the standard creates unnecessary paper work is unquestionable; (b) the four main areas of cost (time, training, consultants, and registration) may never actually be recouped; (c) the standard may interfere with new and better ways of operating; and the standard is too general and not industry-specific.               Part B Comparing the contribution of TQM and ISO, it will be found that the companies adopting TQM achieve higher improvement than those adopting ISO at all levels of application. Companies which had fully implemented ISO had an average improvement of 36 per cent, while companies which had fully implemented TQM had an average improvement of 99 per cent. The comparison shows that TQM as a whole is more beneficial than ISO (1999). The ISO 9000 series is currently used in more than 90 countries. The standards that it provides apply to a variety of areas of manufacturing and service organizations. The standards developed by ISO and the implementation of these standards are voluntary. ISO does not have any legislative power and is not a part of any government or the United Nations. Governments as well as individual companies make the decision to voluntarily integrate ISO standards into their systems on a voluntary basis. Also, many companies decide to implement ISO 9000 to reduce costs related to quality problems such as after-the-fact inspections, warranty costs, and rework. ISO 9000 is also implemented to have an edge over the competition. A few governments require that some industries meet the international standards that ISO 9000 has created. On the other hand, the total quality management (TQM) philosophy of many organizations stresses a systematic, integrated, consistent, organization-wide perspective involving everyone and everything (1999). Quality standards for pharmaceuticals have been built up over the years from experts from industry, pharmacopoeial authorities, regulatory agencies and academia and are based on experience and the need to safeguard the safety and efficacy of the product, for the sake of the patient’s health (2002).             Pharmaceutical companies also followed the path of achieving a quality certification; namely, ISO 9000 accreditation, in the pursuit of excellence (1993). Certification is attractive as a means of impressing new customers and convincing existing ones that they are dealing with a progressive company, which is continually seeking improvements. However, certification was seen as a stepping-stone on the journey towards excellence. Certification was found to represent a milestone, a recognition that progress is being made and that TQM efforts are paying off. Enthusiasm for TQM can quickly fade if there are no tangible results. The survey indicates that commitment to TQM among senior management is high. Strong leadership has directed companies to attempt to make the TQM process “belong to the company” and so foster employees ownership.             Total quality management has demonstrated its potential to be a successful way for organizations to eliminate costs, improve productivity and gain a competitive edge in the marketplace (1999). One of the main elements of TQM is the need for adequate customer focus. Companies have to identify current and future consumers’ needs and their level of satisfaction and loyalty. It is foreseeable that in the future global consumers will become increasingly demanding, in particular with the development of TQM in the less-advanced countries (e.g. China, South America and South-East Asia). Any changes which are made have to be undertaken with customer’s needs given full consideration, therefore this TQM dimension constitutes a stimulus to business innovation ( 1999). In the late 1970s and early 1980s, a great awareness of the need to provide a greater level of protection than was required by simple legal compliance led to the development and adoption of internal global EHS standards by all the heritage companies that merged to form GlaxoSmithKline. These standards defined the ways of working that met or exceeded legal and regulatory requirements in all countries in which heritage GlaxoSmithKline companies did business. Compliance with both legal requirements and internal standards were tracked through routine audits of all manufacturing and research and development operations ( 2004).             Total quality management strategy at GlaxoSmithKline called for establishing a formalized, ongoing quality assurance program that would improve the company's efficiency and enhance service to customers, which would help the company to grow and become more profitable. ISO certification requires that the company develop a quality-management system to ensure that products and services conform to customer requirements. The system must be subject to continual performance improvement. There is perhaps no better way to demonstrate return in a service industry than through measurable quality of service and ISO certification to be a powerful tool in measuring and maintaining customer satisfaction ( 1993). TQM led to measurable bottom-line benefits and many other organizations was quick to follow down the TQM route to quality ( 1990). Henceforth, the TQM adoption strategies suggested that many had simply attempted processes that could be described as overlay and resulted in low levels of ownership and poor integration far from being of advantage to quality management, it became counter-productive with staff losing motivation and are able to demonstrate quality improvements with concomitant improvements in production and decrease in costs (1996). A successful implementation of TQM can lead to improvements in the quality of products and services, reductions in the waste of resources, and overall increases in efficiency and productivity. Such improvements contribute to good customer relations, growth in market share and sustained competitive advantage (1990). The benefit of the use of management systems has recently been demonstrated by the ability of the company to maintain its levels of compliance and environment, health and safety performance during the last merger of companies to form GlaxoSmithKline. The company is now embarking on a programme to embed sustainable development into the fabric of the operations. The initial phase is to look at natural resource utilization, both to improve efficiencies and to examine the possibility of a greater reliance on renewable resources. The emphasis at present is to develop and implement processes in research and development, procurement, capital expenditures and other related areas. These areas will be controlled through the use of management systems and then tracked by audits (2004). There is a commonality between TQM and ISO in terms of contribution. For both factors, the contribution from “little use” to “much use” increases slightly. The contribution increases dramatically at the high use stage. This result has many implications. Theoretically, it suggests a learning effect in applying quality methods. Practically, the suggestion is that companies should not be half-hearted in applying quality methods, and that companies should not be frustrated at the slow contribution of quality methods at their earlier stage of application. It also suggests the necessity of continuous improvement.

OPERATIONS & LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT: GLAXOSMITHKLINE

OPERATIONS & LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT: GLAXOSMITHKLINE Introduction In any given week, a large percentage of adults i...

Human Resource Management: Application of Ideas and Concepts to a Specific Organization

Human Resource Management: Application of Ideas and Concepts to a Specific Organization   Introduction             Every business organization or company has different internal organizations, having a variety of functions, and these internal organizations that comprise the whole business or company are interrelated and are working together to ensure the company’s success in profiting from the market. The more functions each of the organization perform, the better is the performance of the company as a whole. This gives each of the companies their corresponding advantages and benefits from the market and their consumers.             One of the company’s basic internal organizations is the Human Resource Management team, which is highly responsible with the maintenance of the company’s employees. The Human Resource Management team does a variety of tasks and functions, and is crucial in its objective concerning the work and interests of the employees in the company. Oftentimes, they are being encountered during job interviews or job openings, and the people behind this team are performing various activities, including recruitment, training, rewards, performance appraisal, and other concerns, such as the health and safety of the employees of a certain business firm or company. In addition, the team is also responsible for the training and development of its staffs, and promoting effective interrelationships within the company. Being a crucial team in the company, it is essential that they promote the development of their employees, not only in relation to job performance, but in relation to effective communication and interrelations as well.             This report intends to create an opportunity to apply the ideas and concepts regarding Human Resource Management in the analysis of a real organizational situation. In this report, the case of PricewaterhouseCoopers will be discussed. The paper will be stating the profile of the organization in reference with, and will be discussing its current problems in the company. From the discussion of the problems, the concepts and ideas regarding Human Resource Management will be demonstrated. Form this, the analysis will be attained.     Company Profile of PricewaterhouseCoopers             PricewaterhouseCoopers or PwC is the world’s largest professional services firm that was formed in 1998 from a merger between Price Waterhouse and Coopers & Lybrand. Its earning aggregated worldwide revenues of $22 billion for 2006, employing over 140,000 people in 149 countries (2006).   History and Services             An accountant named Samuel Price started his practice in London in 1849, and went into partnership with William Holyland and Edwin Waterhouse in 1865 in Southwark Towers in London. In 1874, the company was known as Price, Waterhouse & Co, soon after Holyland left from the partnership. By the late nineteenth century, Price Waterhouse had gained significant recognition as an accounting firm, even in the Americas. As a result of this, the firm opened an office in New York in 1890, being a consequence of the trade between the United Kingdom and the United States of America. The original British firm also opened more offices in the main countries in the British Empire, each time establishing a separate partnership in each country that gave each partner a strong incentive to expand their local practices (2006).             Similarly, Coopers & Lybrand had also originated in the nineteenth century, for in 1854, William Cooper established his own practice in London, which became Cooper Brothers seven years later when his three brothers joined him. In the United States, Robert Montgomery, William Lybrand, Adam Ross Jr. and Edward Ross formed Lybrand, Ross Brothers and Montgomery in 1898. Coopers and Lybrand is the result of a merger in 1957 between Cooper Brothers & Co; Lybrand, Ross Bros & Montgomery and a Canadian firm McDonald, Currie and Co., and in 1990 Coopers and Lybrand merged with Deloitte Haskins & Sells in the United Kingdom (‘2006).             On July 1, 1998, Price Waterhouse and Coopers & Lybrand merged to form PricewaterhouseCoopers or PwC, creating one of the world’s largest full-service professional organizations, and this move was an attempt to meet the increasing client needs for scale and global presence (2003). As a result, PwC engage in six lines of business across 24 industries in over 152 countries worldwide, with over 150,000 representatives (2003). According to  (2003), the merger announcement was spurred by this growing need for global scale and presence. The larger size of the new company gave both the firm and its clients the advantage of scope and economies of scale, and in the light of increasing competition, achieving global presence in terms of scale and scope was one way to gain an advantage over competitors. Achieving organizational economies of scale became important, especially as business became more technology-oriented, because in a business environment where speed was one of the important elements for success, companies required new technologies that would enable them to provide better ways to conduct business. Keeping the firm updated in terms of technology required vast capital investments, and consolidation was a solution to boost capital as well as utilizing it efficiently (2003). Moreover, scale also enabled the firm to respond to requests from certain market segments that were not fully covered prior to consolidation, and expanding its scope was important as it enabled clients to be provided with more comprehensive services and solutions. It also differentiated the company from its competitors (2003). The use of technology such as Intranets, and the ability to share information fundamentally improved communication between PwC clients, and its workforce and business clients, organizationally and globally. In addition, the focus of PwC on the knowledge management system would bring value to its clients, by ensuring success to greater resources, with faster deployment of specialists and of new products and services through more efficient management of a larger investment pool (2003).                It has been reported that PwC provided unprecedented service to global, national and local companies in markets worldwide; offering a comprehensive range of business assurance, business advisory, tax, management, information technology, and human resource consulting services and a commitment to helping clients formulate and implement strategic solutions that drive growth and improve business performance (2003). The Price Waterhouse and Coopers & Lybrand companies were similar in terms of business lines and geographical coverage; however, they were not similar in terms of industry coverage, and the uniting of the various practices offered by the two firms was expected to bring significant benefits to clients, particularly to industries that were rapidly converging and in which sector distinctions were becoming less pronounced and competition more intense ( 2003). Furthermore, PricewaterhouseCoopers provides a wide variety of industry-focused services for public and private clients in order to build public trust and enhance value through the application of the company’s concept and approach of “connected thinking” (2006). Services include Audit and Assurance, Crisis Management, Performance Improvement, Tax, and Transactions. From these services, the company is committed to serving as a force of integrity, good sense and wise solutions to the problems facing businesses and the capital markets today. Transparency and good standards of corporate governance in both clients and employees are central to the company’s ability to achieve their objectives. In addition, the company also aims to continue to achieve their objectives from a position of strength as the undisputed leader in the industry ( 2006).   Current Organization and Problems             It has been reported that knowledge management plays an important role in the merger process of PwC, as the ability to share knowledge and intellectual capital across the firms was to become the key for successfully achieving rapid integration with continued client service ( 2003). Technical evolution has enabled cost-effective methods of capturing, updating and distributing knowledge throughout by company through the Intranet, and this becomes the entry-point to capture and distribute firm-wide knowledge. It serves to be the foundation for stored knowledge, the core asset of a knowledge-intensive organization (2003).   The Intranet of PwC is named Knowledge Curve or KC, where the knowledge management system of the company is incorporated, including the company’s assets, such as its knowledge and people skills to be utilized by the entire firm. Its use enabled the company its profiling from three dimensions, namely its geography, industry and line of business. Furthermore, PwC also has a global database named ‘The Bridge’, which is a merger product and the first internal communications product. In line with developing the knowledge economy of the firm is the company’s Knowledge Team, a group of consultants, information professionals, and technical experts, who are responsible for conducting research, harvesting knowledge, managing contents, and ensuring an open communication channel between knowledge headquarters. In line with the company’s focus on making the firm a global entity, and since the merger the Knowledge Curve team had been moving towards global repositories rather than small databases, the industry group knowledge workers managed the content that belonged to their industry group within the global repositories (2003).             Although the strength of the function was the involvement of all the different industry and service groups, it was still difficult to coordinate the entire system. Difficulty in coordinating the system lies on the fact that due to its large scale, it is hard to inform and educate every employee on the use of the database and on the available information in the KC, to understand its capabilities and applications. The limitations of the function were mainly related to the team’s ability to create awareness about KC, having a big challenge of going after thousands of staffs, communicate with each one of them, and change over to using the global KC. Moreover, problems also include the limited access of staffs to the knowledge base within the entire system, the difference in IT systems and organizational structure, and integration of databases and servers. Pragmatism was driving the essential forward planning and business culture, the coordination process was streamlined, and there were fewer bureaucratic procedures. In addition, senior people or employees in age and experience, propelled the business, whereas people in support functions would do what they are told to do. Senior people are less involved in decision-making in the day-to-day business, being less in touched with the processes in the company, while younger partners and directors make most of the decisions. With this, a lot of conflicts happen between the two groups ( 2003).               Application of Theories and Concepts of HRM             It has been reported that the idea of a knowledge-based economy, which advances the notion that knowledge creation is the most important source of economic growth, has been around since the 1980s, and the core of this theory was that sustained economic wealth was most effectively created by focusing on knowledge and knowledge-based products (2005). Moreover, knowledge could be applied an infinite number of times with no decline in value, was relatively durable through time and space, and could be stored at very little cost using digital media ( 2005). This is why, PricewaterhouseCoopers has been using a knowledge-based economy to improve and develop their services. An important point to recognize is that enormous emphasis has been placed on the emergence of knowledge networks that facilitate the kinds of interactions between people and ideas, and the diffusion of tacit knowledge is thought to be facilitated in such networks, access to such networks becoming critical for knowledge workers and knowledge transfer (‘2005). From this, it is evident that PricewaterhouseCoopers has been implementing a knowledge-based economy for utilizing knowledge in the company’s advantage. However, problems have been presented, in relation to the management of the company. The first problem or challenged being experienced by PricewaterhouseCoopers is the fact that because of large scale or size, they are not able to effectively communicate with one another. Team leaders are having difficulties in coordinating their subordinates due to their size, in the company’s aim to implement and educate its employees regarding their database. With this problem, the Human Resource Management team has a role of coming up with ways in terms of implementing an effective communication and coordination by building the company’s hierarchy. Being a large company, the issue of control is essential. Because of this, the company must be able to implement and apply effective leadership strategies. The complexities generated by the larger size often lead managers to implement more bureaucratic controls to manage the combined firm’s operations, and bureaucratic controls are formalized supervisory and behavioral rules and policies designed to ensure consistency of decisions and actions across different units of the firm ( 2003). Bureaucratic leadership style has several characteristics, including imposing a strict and systematic discipline on the followers and demand business-like conduct in the workplace, empowering the workplace via and office or position power that they hold, promoting based on their ability to conform to the rules of the office, and obliging employees to obey because authority is bestowed upon the leader as part of their position in the company (2006). This type of leadership will be suitable for a large firm because it entails the immediate compliance from its employees. This is also appropriate when it comes to implementing change, especially when it comes to implementing new technologies. However, it must be taken note of that as time passes; bureaucratic leadership style must not be used for long, as it entails a rigid and standardized managerial behavior. With this, the company must be able to adopt different leadership styles and use them in their advantage for the internal success of the company. In relation to this is the problem of the company regarding its difficulty in creating awareness and educating its employees. This problem is also related to implementing effective communication among the company’s employees. Due to this problem, the company implemented an open database, so anybody will be able to access the data of the company. Moreover, to effectively coordinate with the company’s employees, it would be essential if the company will be able to develop its leadership style appropriate for its team. In this way, team leaders will be able to easily coordinate and educate their teams regarding the new knowledge system of the company.             The third problem presented was the company’s difference in IT structure and organizational structure. It has been reported that the company’s organizational structure depends on the products to be developed, with functional and project organizations are its types ( 2006). Functional organizations are organized according to technological disciplines, where coordination occurs through rules and procedures, detailed specifications, and shared traditions (2006). In addition, the structure of an organization is concerned with the distribution of power and authority in organizations, having dimensions, such as specialization, or the number of jobs and job specialists found in an organization; the span of control, or the number of people reporting to any specialist manager; its distribution of power, which can be both vertical, or the levels of hierarchy and horizontal, referring to how close a particular department or manager is to the core, mission-critical decisions; and its departmentalization, or the basis on which departments are developed (20054). Theoretically speaking, PricewaterhouseCoopers must be regarded as a functional organization, however, due to its difference in organizational structure and IT structure, it attains difficulty in functioning properly. Due to this, the company will be implementing the development of its different teams to develop the technical infrastructure of the company. The focus of this individual team’s development is to develop its internal policies and procedures, and to communicate better with their clients (2003). Given the fact that PwC is a service-oriented organization, which serves a variety of clients and offers different services, it can be taken note of that this difference may be the cause of difficulty in strengthening its internal organizations. However, through the development of the teams, its members can have the chance to coordinate with one another with the use of the company’s new IT systems. In response to this, what the Human Resource Management team can do is to promote employee and organization awareness, through activities such as team-building and employee development. In addition, the resource management team can sponsor leadership-training seminars that will tackle ways on motivating their employees on working effectively. Moreover, the company must be able to enhance the motivation of its employees through job or work redesign. This can be done occasionally to somehow divert the attention of employees to its current work, and give them a chance to entertain change and accumulate new knowledge, information and work experience. Work redesign include a set of principles and practices designed to increase the performance of individual workers by stressing job simplification and job specialization, where job simplification is the breaking up of the work needs to be performed in an organization into the smallest identifiable tasks, while job specialization is the assignment of workers to perform small, simple tasks (). Moreover, the concept of Job Redesign entails ways on enriching the job of employees. <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Enriching an employee’s job is by combining tasks, which increases their skill variety and task identity, reduces alienation and increases satisfaction. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Creating natural work units or teams, which increase employee ownership of the work, making it more meaningful and increase skill variety </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Establishing client relationships, which increase skill variety, task significance and feedback for the employee</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Increasing responsibility and reward for good performance within a specific responsibility</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Aggressive socialization and the creation of a strong corporate culture, which improves task identity and job significance</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Open feedback channels, which include self-set goals negotiated with employees</li> </ul> ().             Another problem to be addressed is the problem with pragmatism, or the collection of many different ways of thinking (2006). Having different ways of thinking in an organization can affect its production and communication entirely because their thoughts and views are not towards a specific goal only. If pragmatism were being observed then, it would be difficult for the organization to adopt with organizational change. An organization must create a shared vision or values framework to direct the culture change effort (). Having several ways of thinking would hinder the company or the organization to arrive at a specific goal, and hinders effective communication due to conflicts. However, it could also invite healthy conversations and debates among employees. This could also be used to brainstorm on certain ideas in coming up with providing solutions to company problems. With this problem, PwC can utilize some of the images of knowledge in their company, namely, embrained knowledge, embodied knowledge, encultured knowledge, and embedded knowledge. Embrained knowledge is knowledge that relies on conceptual and cognitive skills, and is usually abstract and involves higher levels of reasoning and understanding to make connections, and this can be used in relation to embodied knowledge, which is usually acquired in action, and depends on face-to-face interaction and discussion, emotional and sensory information, and many others. By applying this knowledge, the company will be able to develop encultured knowledge, or the process by which a company arrives at shared understandings of the group, organization, or even national, cultures. This involves the concept of socialization, which involves conversation conducted by individuals, and involves learning from experience and from experienced people by sharing such knowledge. These concepts build up embedded knowledge, a knowledge located in organizational routines or capabilities or, in the social and institutional arrangements, and it is found in systems in relations between technologies, the roles of people perform, the formal procedures of the organization, and the emergent routines (2005). This knowledge can be utilized and maximized to lessen pragmatism and promote the unity and harmony of the internal organizations in the company. In relation to this is the problem between the young and the old employees of the company, which triggers conflicts, for the senior employees in PwC are not informed or asked regarding the decisions of young directors and staffs. This presents discrimination among the employees, as each belongs to specific groups, and creates gaps among them. This must not be so, for in relation to the concepts of Human Resource Management, a workplace must be promoting equality and justice among its employees. With this problem, the company must be able to implement a Talent Management Strategy, for with disciplined talent management, through rigorous and continuous assessment, the company can develop the skills of their managers and match them with their jobs. Moreover, the company can retain creative recruitment and retention through refined and meaningful employee value propositions, and attain thoughtful executive development, through coaching, mentoring, and on-the-job experiences at key points in managers’ development (3). In addition, the company must be able to promote effective communication among its employees, including allowing its employees to participate it the decision-making of the company. In this way, every member of the company will be able to have a chance to state his or her opinion regarding problems, and even raise suggestions for solving the problems in the company.   Conclusion             PricewaterhouseCoopers is one of the largest international organizations, which offers a variety of services such as in Audit and Assurance, Crisis Management, Performance Improvement, Tax, and Transactions. Like many organizations, Human Resource Management is also important for this company for this concept encompasses a wide range of ideas that are applicable in assessing the performance and policies of an existing organization.             This paper has presented a variety of problems being experienced by PricewaterhouseCoopers in their organization, and several concepts and ideas regarding Human Resource Management have been used to evaluate the problems and present possible solutions. The main problem of the company is on implementing effective communication among its internal organizations, which was given solution through implementation and development of an effective and efficient information system. Another major problem is in terms of knowledge, which was given solution through providing training and employee development. In addition, through work or job redesign, employees will be given the chance to improve, increase work identification and increase productivity. With the problems presented, it is essential that a company must not only be aware of it and its effects, but its solutions and the concepts that can be used to solve them.

Human Resource Management: Application of Ideas and Concepts to a Specific Organization

Human Resource Management: Application of Ideas and Concepts to a Specific Organization Introduction Every business...

Improving Organizational Performance through Transition to

Introduction Performance improvement has evolved over the past year training, to human resources development, to human performance improvement and to the most recent which is workplace learning and performance. Training focused on providing employees with new or additional knowledge and skills to improve their performance of job requirements (Rothwell, Sanders, and Soper 1999). Early studies helped to define trainer roles (Kenny 1976; Lippit and Nadler 1967; McLagan 1983; Nadler 1962; Pinto and Walker 1978; U.S. Civil Service Commission Studies 1973, 1976).   While, human resources development (HRD), "integrated the use of training and development, organization development, and career development to improve individual, group, and organizational effectiveness" (McLagan and Suhadolnick, 1989). Human resource development went beyond training to include organization and career development. Nine major competency studies (Chalofsky and Lincoln, 1983; Gilley 1998; Harris and DeSimone, 1994; Kenny, 1982; Nadler and Nadler 1989) were conducted between 1970 and 1989 that helped shape the HRD field (Gilley and Eggland, 1989).   According to Rothwell (1996), human performance improvement (HPI), however, required everyone in an organization to contribute to improving performance and enhancing organizational competitiveness. Human performance improvement recognized that the trainers themselves could no longer solely determine the role of trainers. Human performance improvement required a shared responsibility, among HRD practitioners, management, and non-management employees, for improving organizational performance.   And lastly, the most recent which is workplace learning and performance (WLP), requires the combined talents of many organizational members from various disciplines to improve human performance. Workplace learning and performance is "the integrated use of learning and other interventions for the purpose of improving human performance and addressing individual and organizational needs. It uses a systematic process of analyzing and responding to individual, group, and organizational performance issues. Workplace learning and performance creates positive, progressive change within organizations by balancing human, ethical, technological, and operational considerations" (Rothwell, Sanders, and Soper, 1999).   Organizations are in a constant state of change, requiring a workforce that is not only prepared to adjust quickly to the changing environment but to simultaneously maintain or improve overall organizational performance. Over the years, organizations have implemented a variety of major organizational-improvement techniques, including total quality management/continuous quality improvement (TQM/CQI), zero-based budgeting, management by objectives, reengineering, and, most recently six sigma.   In addition, Hammer (2004) argued that "operations can often be the foundation of strategy and the basis for superior performance." Improving processes with the goal of enhancing the firm's competitive position requires an analysis of both construction and performance processes and also a critical assessment of how individual processes contribute to the firm's business model and strategy. This paper attempts to develop a work plan on the improvement of organization performance through the transition to a process view of management.   Goals 1.      Develop a clear set of organizational improvement objectives, complete with time lines, budget, and responsible parties. 2.       Organize a steering committee to facilitate the transition to organizational improvement. The steering committee should include skilled persons appropriate for their responsibilities. Committee members should have the authority to make changes and start projects, within the established time lines and budget. Part of the control process for the steering committee is to establish key measures of performance so progress can be gauged. 3.      Describe any needed structural changes, such as development of teams, and develop a timetable for achieving the structural changes. 4.      Communicate about transition activities to employees at every level throughout the organization, and celebrate when goals are met. Objectives 1.      To improve organizational performance 2.      To increase productivity, efficiency and effectiveness of the organization   Requirements Requirements are needed to be considered when working on a work plan for organizational performance improvement. Considerable effort is required to train employees to use organizational-improvement techniques. Some employers routinely build training into employees' schedules and count training as productive time. Motorola, for example, requires managers to receive 40 hours of training per year. In other organizations, productivity may decline during the time employees are being trained. For any organizational-improvement method to work, managers need to plan carefully for the time and resources needed for training and for maintaining productivity. Training and education constitute most of the resource allocations for massive change efforts such as TQM/CQI, a well-known and long-lived organizational transformation methodology. Changing an organization's culture is a slow process, during which the organization requires additional resources to accomplish the research and the education needed. In addition, organizations also need to recognize that change management requires considerable money and time. If employees receive only a one-time exposure to the new ideas or new methods, the result will be that employees who have not mastered the necessary skills will become stressed and burned out because of the increased expectations, and the work processes may deteriorate instead of improve. Moreover, implementing process improvement requires careful planning. Implementing process management faces several significant challenges. First, process management requires structural changes that enable a business to operate around processes instead of functions. For example, process management often uses both technology and cross-functional teams to integrate activities that span traditional functional boundaries. Second, the rapid changes associated with moving to a process management environment often require workers to adapt. Pressure to improve and change the status quo can result in constant tension among individual workers. Finally, process management requires knowledgeable individuals who are able to manage in the increasingly complex process-oriented environment.     Team Members Involvement Employee participation is among the more popular strategies touted to enhance the productivity and competitiveness of companies. Its advocates claim that empowerment can increase employee satisfaction, boost employee morale and motivation, enhance organizational performance and effectiveness, and facilitate greater acceptance by employees of organizational change. In order for the work plan to be at its success, it is important to encourage extensive employee participation. To do this, employee empowerment is encouraged. Employees should be given an active involvement in their work. They should be given a greater responsibility in their workplace. According to Sashkin (1984, 1986), majority of the employees wish to become actively involved in their work, desire and have the ability, knowledge and expertise to assume greater responsibility in their workplace and can make significant contribution to their organizations; seek to fulfill many of their psychological needs through their work; and management participative management stimulates employee enthusiasm and willingness to carry out decisions in which they have been involved. It is evidently seen in the most of the organizations that encouraging employee participation satisfies employee’s inner needs and serves as motivating vehicle resulting in greater productivity, effectiveness and commitment in the organization. This may also result to a greater acceptance of employees to organizational change. In addition, organizations should provide with greater intrinsic rewards from work than do traditional forms of management. These greater rewards from work increase job satisfaction and, in turn, increase employees' motivation to achieve new production goals (Miller and Monge, 1986; Hammer, 1988). Moreover, it has also been proposed that giving workers access to management information increases mutual trust and commitment to organizational goals (Hammer, 1988). Hence, employee-supervisor relations improve (Cooke, 1990a), employees are willing to be more flexible regarding changes in human resource policies (Delaney et al., 1993), and employees are more inclined to channel their power in positive ways than they otherwise would be (Strauss, 1990).   Transition to Process View of Management A process is any activity or group of activities that takes an input, adds value to it, and provides an output. The product or service that a process delivers may be tangible or intangible. Management processes such as strategic planning and labor relations influence customer and administrative processes on both a long term and day-to-day basis. Anupindi, et al. (2006) defined four key features of any process: predictable and definable inputs, a linear, logical sequence or flow, a set of clearly definable tasks or activities, and a predictable and desired outcome or result. Almost all processes involved in delivering products and services to customers are of this type. It becomes clear that superior operational performance most often hinges on the capabilities of cross-functional processes that involve two or more departments. This aspect of process management is worth noting in light of the success of six sigma projects that have been fairly limited to activities within one functional unit (Hammer, 2002). Rummier and Brache (1990) described the key aspects of managing this process capability as: ·         Establishing sub goals for each critical process which drives functional goals ·         Obtaining feedback on process outputs to track performance, provide feedback, and reset goals to current requirements ·         Providing resources to support each individual process goal and its contribution to the overall process ·         Managing the "white space" between process steps, or hand-offs between functions. In describing this important element of managing process capability, Duck (1993) states that "the critical task is understanding how pieces balance one another, how changing one element changes the rest, how sequencing and pace affect the whole structure." Only a comprehensive organization-wide view of managing processes can achieve this understanding. Rothwell, Sanders, and Soper (1999) identified seven roles which include: (1) manager, (2) analyst, (3) intervention selector, (4) intervention designer and developer, (5) intervention implementor, (6) change leader, and (7) evaluator. These roles are the key to the success of the work plan since a person in the organization would be given a specific function. A role represents "a grouping of competencies targeted to meet specific expectations of a job or function" (Rothwell, Sanders, and Soper, 1999, 43). Role theory developed from the earliest analyses of behavior at work and served as the impetus for the identification and development of motivation theories, which are some of the means to determine why individuals act the way they do at work. Motivation theorists argued that individuals behave in a prescribed manner for a number of reasons. Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) suggested that expected behavior was the result of a valued outcome, which is the attractiveness or value of rewards to an individual for practicing behaviors expected by an employer. Goal theory (Locke, 1968) argued that an employee's behavior was based on his or her desire to achieve personal goals, assuming that the goals were clear, specific, and attainable. According to Pfeffer (1982), individual job behavior stemmed from the combination of work desired by an organization and the values, goals, and needs of the individual. Role theory identifies what individuals might do based on motivational conditions. Katz and Kahn (1978) attributed roles and role behaviors to the relationship between an organization's structure and its supporting environment. Role theory suggested that if an organizational structure supported role behaviors, the desired roles or inputs most likely will create the desired outputs. Table 1. Roles and Function Role Function Manager Plans, organizes, schedules or monitor, and leads the work of individuals and groups to attain desired results; facilitates the strategic plan; ensures that workplace learning and performance is aligned with organizational needs and plans; and ensures the accomplishment of the administrative requirements of the function. Analyst Troubleshooters and isolates the causes of human performance gaps or identifies areas for improving performance Intervention Selector Chooses appropriate interventions to address root causes of human performance gaps Intervention designer and developer Creates learning and other interventions that help to address the specific root causes of human performance gap Intervention implementor Ensures the appropriate and effective implementation of  desired interventions that address the specific root causes of human gaps Change leader Inspires the workforce to embrace change, creates direction for the change effort, helps the organization’s workforce to adapt to change, and ensures that intervention s are continuously monitored and guided in ways consistent with stakeholders’ desired results. Evaluator Assesses the impact of interventions and provides participants and stakeholders with information about how well interventions are implemented   In addition, Harrington (1991) proposes a basic five-phase approach to be successful in process improvement. These are organizing for improvement, understanding the process, streamlining, measurement and control, and continuous improvement. Tennor and DeTorro (1992) discuss three skill and knowledge sets that individuals need to succeed at process improvement. These include job knowledge, team skills, and process analysis skills. Job knowledge describes what and how to do a task or activity. Teams skills are describe as being able to function and interact in a group or team environment to enhance overall performance of the system. Process analysis skills is described as being able to measure and analyze processes, determine the effects of changes on those processes, and implement an improvement model. Any approach that fails to ensure these skills are in place will surely fail to improve organizational performance. However, education and training alone do not guarantee success. Gilbert (1978) presents six categories of potential causes for deficiencies in performance: data, resources, incentives and rewards, skills and knowledge, capacities, and motives. The first three are generally provided by management. Individuals must have relevant data that can be transformed into useful information to conduct their work. Resources such as appropriate tools and equipment are needed. Incentives and rewards that reinforce behavior and support the organization's goals are a must. Education and training, however, affect both the fourth and sixth causes of performance deficiency. This is due to a lack of training in the essentials of process analysis, education in viewing work as processes, and education in decision-making directed at improving processes. Appropriate training and education can overcome a lack of motivation for individuals to change the way things are done and reduce the fear of failure. Finally, overcoming the fifth deficiency, the capacity of individuals, involves matching specific individuals' abilities with job requirements.                                   References   Anupindi, R., Chopra, S., Deshmukh S.D., Van Mieghem, J.A., and Zemel, E. (2006). Managing business process plows. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Chalofsky, N. E., and C. I. Lincoln. (1983). Up the HRD Ladder: A Guide for Professional Growth. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. Cooke, William N. (1990a). "Factors Influencing the Effect of Joint Union-Management Programs on Employee-Supervisor Relations." Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 43, No. 5 (July), pp. 597-603. Delaney, John, Jack Fiorito, Paul Jarley, and Susan Schwochau. (1993). "Employee Cooperation Program Structures and Organizational Flexibility." 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Alexandria, VA: The American Society for Training and Development. Miller, Katherine I., and Peter R. Monge. (1986). Participation, Satisfaction, and Productivity: A Meta-Analytic Review." Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 29, No. 4 (December), pp. 727-53. Nadler, L. (1962). "A Study of the Needs of Selected Training Directors in Pennsylvania Which Might Be Met by Professional Education Institutions." Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms. Nadler, L., and Z. Nadler. (1989). Developing Human Resources, 3rd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Pfeffer, J. (1982). Organizations and Organizational Theory. Marshfield, MA: Pitman Publishing Inc. Pinto, P. R., and J. W. Walker. (1978). "What Do Training and Development Professionals Really Do?" Training and Development Journal 32 (7): 58-64. Rothwell, W. J. (1996). The ASTD Models for Human Performance Improvement: Role, Competencies, and Outputs. Alexandria, VA: The American Society for Training and Development. Rothwell, W. J., E. S. Sanders, and J. G. Soper. (1999). The ASTD Models for Workplace Learning and Performance: Roles, Competencies, and Outputs. Alexandria, VA: The American Society for Training and Development. Rummler, G. A., and Brache, A. P. (1990). Improving performance: How to manage the white space on the organization chart. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Sashkin, M. (1984). Participative management is an ethical imperative. Organizational Dynamics, 12, 5-22. Sashkin, M. (1986). Participative management remains an ethical imperative. Organizational Dynamics, 14, 62-75. Strauss, George. 1990. "Participatory and Gain Sharing Systems: History and Hope." In Myron J. Roomkin, ed., Profit Sharing and Gain Sharing. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, pp. 1-45. Tenner, A. R., and DeToro, I. J. (1992). Total Quality Management: Three Steps to Continuous Improvement. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley U.S. Civil Service Commission. (1973). Disincentives to Effective Employee Training and Development. 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Improving Organizational Performance through Transition to

Introduction Performance improvement has evolved over the past year training, to human resources development, to human performance impr...