Research Korner: Learning / Teaching Strategies

LEARNING/TEACHING STRATEGIES

INTRODUCTION      Since the dawn of time, human had always had this thirst for knowledge.  No one knows for sure, but to my opinion, because this is our only advantage in the animal world.       We don’t have claws, bony plates for shield, nor abilities as speed and strength that can outmatch other creatures in the animal kingdom.    That’s why we developed our brains, to learn and have an advantage over other creatures, even over our own kind.      Learning is a continuous process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values, through study, experience, or teaching, that causes a change of behavior that is persistent, measurable, and specified or allows an individual to formulate a new mental construct or revise a prior mental construct. (cited in )      This process depends on experience and leads to long-term changes in behavior potential. Behavior potential describes the possible behavior of an individual and not his actual behavior in a given situation in order to achieve a goal. But potential is not enough.  If individual learning is not periodically reinforced, it becomes shallower and shallower, and eventually is lost in that individual.  (cited in )      Often, learning is synonymous with education.  Education is the conscious attempt to promote learning in others. The primary function of "teaching" is to create a safe, practical, and productive learning environment. Teaching is managing of the total learning environment to promote, enhance and motivate learning.  (cited in )        Learning environment is the place, which is usually physical, where teaching and learning occurs.  The learning environment can have both positive and negative effects on the mentor’s ability to teach and the student’s ability to focus on the learning task.  A constructive learning environment is a place where social interaction is encouraged (, 1972), provide spaces for student privacy ( 1986), and facilitate and maintain suitable degree of sensory stimulation.      And as our technologies develop, so does our learning environment.  And with the development of the hypertext, hypermedia, Multimedia, thought the Internet and the World Wide Web, a new kind of learning environment developed, the Virtual Learning Environment.        The Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) is a software system designed to facilitate teachers in the management of educational courses for their students, by helping teachers and learners with the course administration.      The system can track the learners' progress, which is monitored by both teachers and learners.         These systems usually run on servers, using one or more databases and a programming or scripting language such as PHP to serve the course to students as internet pages.  (cited in )      Components of these systems usually include templates for content pages, discussion forums, chat, quizzes and exercises such as multiple-choice, true/false and one-word-answer. Teachers fill in these templates and then release them for learners to use. New features in these systems include blogs and RSS. Services generally provided include access control, provision of e-learning content, communication tools, and administration of the user groups.  (cited in )      This computer program facilitates computerized learning or e-learning for distance learning, this is commonly used in face-to-face classrooms too.  These e-learning systems are also called: Learning Management Systems (LMS); Course Management System (CMS); Managed Learning Environments (MLE); and education via Computer-mediated Communication (CMC) or Online Education.  (cited in )          HYPERTEXT, HYPERMEDIA, MEDIA, AND MULITMEDIA     Media      Media are the tools we use to store, process, and communicate information. Media imply physical devices, formats about how to write and read the information exactly and not to forget the organizations around these media enabling us to function in society.  ( 1996) Hypertext      Hypertext is a method to create and access nonlinear text. Texts in hypermedia are small, self-containing paragraphs. Essential words or groups of words called hot spots in a paragraph refer to other paragraphs or to other words or groups of words in other paragraphs.      The user is free to decide whether to create a link or not: Any semantic relation or mental association may be an argument for defining or tracing a link. After clicking on a highlighted term, the user jumps via the link and will immediately see the requested explanation.  (. 1996)      The idea of hypertext appeared first in 1945, when there was an ever-growing problem of investigators shocked by the enormous quantities of available information created by colleagues, which costs researchers years and years to search for relevant ideas.        Instead of card boxes with records indexed by a limited set of key words.  thought about a personalized information base, called a memex, which stores all books, records, journals, annotations and communications of a person.      Too many words obscure the meaningful links between text fragments and also introduce ambiguity: The same word usually has quite different meanings in different contexts. Creating only a few links simplifies the preparation of a hypertext system, but is not helpful for those users who ask for subtle semantic relations.   Multimedia      Multimedia are those computer-based applications that allow the user to see and hear different types of information via one screen with audio support. The combination of more than one modality of information such as text, pictures, video, animation, and sound fragments on one screen with simultaneous control of one software application brings the user a bigger variety in information and realizes important elements for virtual reality.  ( 1996)      A video, a slide projector, an audio tape recorder, and computer screens or teletype keyboard printers could be considered as multimedia.      Media combinations or multi media is quite complex.  It needs one integrated computer device that has the facilities to capture, store, and display video sequences from different sources and synchronize them.  That’s why traditional hybrid multimedia configurations were too complex to build up, debug and maintain even for instructional designers who has high skills in technology and instrumentation.  (. 1996)      This is also the reason why multimedia players which are strictly for CD - ROM or Compact Disc - Read Only Memory, and CD - I or CD - Interactive uses the standard way and has very little innovation, though they are widely used.        Now a days, CD - ROM are being integrated in computer environments such as the Macintosh and MS - Windows.  While, CD - I are fitted into normal television sets of the low - end consumer market such as academic institutions.   Hypermedia      Hypermedia are computer-based applications for consulting multimedia information resources. The access of new information is equivalent to the previously described hypermedia method, clicking on relevant areas such as texts, pictures, and video, animation, and sound fragments. The hot spots in time-based fragments can be situated on a time scale, an oscillogram, or a scenario line.  (. 1996)      Hypermedia gives a better concept on how to utilize multimedia resources.  Hypermedia implicitly supports how to access information elements and how to crisscross in information space.      This figurative space is typical for the complexity that arises in creating and using hypermedia. Orientation and navigation are the costs that emerge from the desire to interconnect information elements and from the ambition to browse freely between semantic elements that you would normally find at different locations in books, different books, different libraries, and the like.   HYPERMEDIA AND CONSTRUCTIVISM      According to  (1993), "The concept of Computer programmed instruction has continued to be an effective and enjoyable method to motivate and reinforce student for learning". Programmed instructions usually involve breaking the contents down into many small pieces of information.   (1997) say that programmed instruction was more effective than traditional teaching methods for three reasons: first was because it has immediate knowledge of results; second, it is an individualized learning; and third, it is an expert’s instruction.      But also,  pointed out the behavioral models of computer programmed instruction’s weaknesses: first, it has isolating factual information; second, the learning is in isolation; third, it has a linear structure that does not match some learning activities; and fourth, its lack of flexibility and user-friendliness          The human mind is unlike some particular computer that needs to be programmed in a particular way in order to operate systematically or efficiently. Information systems can not cover the complicated, vague, and perspective -sensitive processes of meaning making of the human mind. Therefore, even well programmed instruction can not process human learning appropriately.      Based on human cognition, the innovative educational computer programs, like hypermedia, are developed on constructivist learning theory. Constructivist models of computer programs have emerged from the work of developmental theorists such as .       One side is called cognitive constructivist, which states that learners construct their own knowledge of the world through assimilation and accommodation.  While another side, called social constructivist places more emphasis on the social context of learning ( 1997).      Environmental experience is the key concept in 's cognitive theory and 's learning principles. 's theory has three processes that form the basis of environmental and experiential theories, and these are: assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration (, 1983).      Assimilation is the incorporation of new experiences into existing experiences. Meaning, accommodation develops new cognitive structures with the same subject or content with the existing structures.  This means, the child's existing cognitive structures are modified and adapted in response to her/his environment. Equilibration is the process of achieving balance between things that were understood and those yet to be understood.  This refers to the dual process of assimilation and accommodation of one's personal environment.      Meanwhile, according to  (1938), the three learning experiences are situation, interaction, and continuity.      Situation represents experiences of an environment affecting the child, which is similar to ’s assimilation.  While interaction is concerned with the current transactions taking place between the person and their environment. This is similar to ’s accommodation. And last, continuity refers to the longitudinal learning or to situations and interactions that follow, similar to ’s equilibration.      While the cognitive constructivist approach focuses on problem solving, thinking skills and learning strategies, the theory of social constructivism emphasizes the student's ability to solve real-life practical problems.      In general, constructivist learning environments have these following six characteristics: 1) These environments provide multiple representations of reality; 2) These environments emphasize knowledge construction instead of knowledge reproduction; 3) These environments emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context; 4) These environments encourage thoughtful reflection on experience; 5) These environments enable context-dependent and content-dependent knowledge construction. And 6) these environments support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation.      Since these viewpoints, computer technology in a constructivist learning environment should attempt to match human learning processes. Computer technologies, such as hypermedia, multimedia, and simulation, should be developed in a constructivist approach (, 1997). The learning environment should basically have the following characteristics: 1) Users should be more actively involved; 2) Users should have more controllable opportunities; 3) Users should have a great deal of control of the interaction between users and machines; And 4) users should aim at accomplishing more creative tasks, such as problem solving and critical thinking skills.   THE HYPERMEDIA-BASED LEARNING THEORIES      The concept of the hypermedia-based learning environment can be examined from four different learning theory’s perspective, and these include: 's three-form theory; dual coding theory; the theory of multiple representations; and cognitive flexibility theory.       (1996) posits that there are three ways in which individuals can represent the real world, and these are through forms of action, icons and symbols.   People can convert these realities into their own unique perception of reality.      Action would include enactment and demonstration, icons include images and pictures, and symbols include words and numbers.  The active form, which is based on stimulus-response theory, is the state of doing.  The summary image or a mental picture of a path or pattern is the iconic form.  The symbolic form, mainly consists of language, is an abstract form since the word is a disconnection from the reality it represents. These three forms of representation are based on the argument that development must be connected to a theory of knowledge and to an effective theory of instruction (, 1997).      As had pointed out, it is possible to modify instruction according to the nature of the subject and to the nature of the learner when instructors lean more heavily toward the abstract, symbolic form for advanced students.   While  (1997) suggested that it is possible to develop more creative and efficient ways to help students to better represent computer-reality using action, images and language.       stated that, "Teaching by telling is out of context of action.” It is clear that learning by doing is a powerful way of learning. In addition to this, (1995) also pointed out that hypertext and hyperlinks are too complex unless the three forms of representation are used in the instruction.      Indeed, the hypermedia tool can create an integrating environment that combines enactment, icons, and symbols.  But still, it is still in the hands of the educators how they will put the curriculum into hypermedia, and create a positive learning environment for acquiring knowledge.      Meanwhile, from the point of view of the dual coding theory, it emphasizes that two separate systems can work independently or together for verbal and imagery processing ( 1996).  The dual coding theory suggests that pictures are easier to remember than words.  And also, when information coding in both systems, information is easier to be remembered than information coded only in the verbal system.      For example, it was found that text materials that are lacking of pictures are more difficult to understand and recall than the same text materials presented with a presentation of an organizing image (, 1995).  Another study by  (1990), the results indicated that iconic representation could not replace the symbolic ones, but however, it has adequately shown that words and images together make a powerful team in an effective learning.      This theory consists of verbal and imagery subsystems. The verbal subsystem specializes in presenting and processing language-based events and information. This subsystem includes verbal codes for concrete objects and events, such as books or computers.  This subsystem also includes representation for abstract, non-concrete information, such as ethical issues.      Meanwhile, the imagery subsystem specializes in representing and processing information related to nonverbal objects and events. This subsystem includes images for shapes, sounds, actions, emotional responses and other nonverbal objects and events.      Another theory that supports hypermedia-based learning is multiple representations. According to the knowledge processing approach from learning and cognitive theories, a monolithic depiction of a subject matter from one perspective may not be adequate for ill-structured domains and may not be sufficient for inducing learners to construct a mental representation of subject matter content ( 1991).      Multiple representations indicate different conceptual views. Cognitive processing of multiple external representations is assumed to: 1) Enhance the likelihood that a particular mental representation may be adequate for solving a particular problem; 3) Support the construction of context-indexed mental representations; 4) Enable situated learning experiences for enhancing memory performance and usability of knowledge; 5) Improve the construction of mental representations of different views of subject matters with multiple representational modes; And 6) enhance cognitive flexibility and knowledge transfer ( 1997).      Cognitive flexibility theory, like multiple representations theory also emphasizes the complexity and ill – structure of many knowledge domains of the real world (, 1991). From an ill-structured aspect of knowledge, advancing knowledge acquisition, such as attaining an understanding of important elements of conceptual complexity, the ability to use acquired concepts for reasoning and inference, and the ability to flexibly apply conceptual knowledge to novel situations, can be facilitated by the principles of this theory.  This cognitive flexibility theory is systematically applied to an instructional theory.  In general, this theory has the following characteristics: 1) Random access; 2) the major learning activity is a nonlinear exploration of the learning environment; And 3) multiple representations of the content are presented (, 1997).      Cognitive flexibility theory points out those traditional instructional designs, like textbooks, lectures, computer-based drill, are inadequate for implementation within ill-structured domains because they depend on organized and linear techniques. This theory suggest that instructional designs should be easily accessible in amanner that it closely mimics non – linear nature of domain for it to fully comprehend the complexcity and unpredictable variability of information (1995). DESIGNING A HYPERMEDIA LEARNING MATERIAL      Designing a hypermedia-based learing material consists of the following phases: Preparation; Development; and Evaluation. Phase 1: Preparation      Determining the users' characteristics.  Learner characteristics is one of the most important factors effecting the design of hypermedia learning material.  Specifically, it is necessary to examine the level of prior knowledge that the learners have on the subject.  If the learner has prior knowledge, it is easier to integrate the new knowledge into the existing knowledge structure and decide on meaningful learning steps in the instructional tool.  In addition to this, the age and maturity of the users are other important aspects to be considered.      Identifying the objectives of the units.   Before one develops a hypermedia learning material, one should identify the objectives of the units.  In other words, what he learners should ought to achieve after taking these units.      Conducting content analysis. Content analysis should be conducted and concepts, interrelated concepts, and procedures should be determined on the basis of the objectives of the units determined.  Systematic relationships between the concepts should be organized.  A subject-matter expert should be called to evaluate the semantic relationships of the concepts determined.      Determining the learning strategies.  According to  (1996), meaningful learning involves gaining ideas, concepts, and principles, and then relating new knowledge to existing knowledge.      This means one should first provide general and simple knowledge, then detailed and specific knowledge.  At the beginning of each unit, a short video episodes that explains the units overall can be used as advance organizers to help users relate new knowledge to the existing knowledge in their memory.      Identifying the knowledge organization approaches that best suit the learning strategies.  One should manage the issues of knowledge organization and linking nodes to each other at this point.  One is suggested to use hierarchical links in the material, by first presenting the basic concepts, and then subordinate concepts related to the basic concepts. In addition to this hierarchical links, one should elaborate to explain the concepts from simple to complex and from general to specific. Phase 2: Development      Concept mapping.  To ascertain interrelations between concepts determined in content analysis, one should construct concept maps of the units.  This stage is important because this shows each node and links between the nodes.      Story boarding.  Story boarding is the last step before the programming stage. Story boarding involves showing each navigation window on a page.  This includes active keys, the names of linked windows, links, text, visuals, video, sound, and graphics of the page.      Programming.  One can use any hypermedia program available in the market, such as Microsoft FrontPage 2.0, an HTML editor.   It is advised to seek help to a computer software technician or computer software engineer to what kind of program is suitable to you. Phase 3: Evaluation      After the material is developed, seek an instructional technology specialist, a subject-area expert, and three subject-area teachers for evaluation.  Then revise and improved the material according to the feedback received from those experts. AVANTAGES AND DISADVATAGES OF HYPERMEDIA-BASED LEARNING Advantages      In the building hypermedia-based learning instruction, four advantages of this learning environment can emerge: 1) multiple perspectives, 2) collaborative learning, 3) learner-orientation, and 4) interdisciplinary learning. Multiple perspectives      Hypermedia-based learning instruction offers multiple linkages and contextual learning environments. Owing to its having multiple perspectives, hypermedia provides an environment that goes beyond the traditional instructional approach rather than settling for a single dimension ( 1996).      From a constructivist point of view, individuals using their experiences as a foundation can construct knowledge personally from internal representations.  In this kind of learning activities, knowledge is based on individual constructions that are not tied to any external reality, but rather to the learner's interactions with the external world (, 1993).   Collaborative learning      Hypermedia learning instruction offers interactive communication and creates a potentially collaborative learning environment. In this system, learners can engage in side-by-side and online discussion, debate, or negotiation. In addition to this, this simultaneously synchronous and asynchronous nature provides a productive environment for group problem-solving activities for the generation and testing of new ideas. Moreover, this feature of the networking process for collaborative learning is a democratic environment where all learners have an equal opportunity to share their views. Learner-orientation      Hypermedia provides a "high learner control" environment.  These learner control systems enable learners to make decisions about which paths to follow through instructional materials, the scope and extent of inquiry into different domains and contents that will be followed.  In fact, increasing learner control can aid learning by individualizing the instruction and making it more motivating (, 1989).  The Web system, based on hypermedia and hypertext linking, facilitates student-centered instructional settings and creates a motivating and active learning environment (, 1994). Interdisciplinary learning      The characteristics of hypermedia facilitate interdisciplinary learning through its massive information database, multiplicity, multiple linkages, multiple mixed media, and responsive interactive navigation tools (1996).  The hypermedia learning environment, based on non-linear and interactive communication, encourages learners to explore related knowledge and information to promote interdisciplinary learning activities.  When hypermedia are integrated with the Internet, this web-based hypermedia system allows all individuals with a browser to transfer files and information from thousands of possible real-life sources to themselves ( 1998). Disadvantages or Limitations      Also, there are four limitations of hypermedia-based learning, and these are: Learner's background discrepancy, Disorientation, Over-rich information, and Ineffective user-interface. Learner's background discrepancy      Unlike structural computer-assisted instruction (CAI), hypermedia provides loose structure and more interactive learning circumstances.  Many users of hypermedia systems have found that they could not take advantages of this medium if they lacked the required computer skills (1998).  Making learners lacking the necessary basic skills and self-discipline may do better in a traditional delivery mode of learning.      Although a hypermedia learning environment provides a transformable relationship among the learners themselves, their collaborators, their teachers, and the information base, learners' self-regulated skills are still a crucial factor to build a successful implementation and integration of hypermedia learning instruction into the curriculum ( 1996).  Before engaging in a hypermedia learning environment, one should ask what the teacher and the student’s attitudes towards hypermedia. Disorientation      Although the characteristics of hypermedia of providing nonlinear and learner-controlled instructional environment match human metacognitive skills and assist users to understand what needs to be done in a particular situation and to navigate and process information (1995), one drawback of this structure is the potential for users to become disoriented or "lost" in hyperspace ( 1990).      To avoid losing learners in hyperspace, a potential approach might be developed using the "big picture" at first ( 1996). This means that learners first focus the majority of their attention on the structural aspects of the instructional lesson.  Once learners have a grasp of the main structure, then they could be instructed to focus more attention on the details of important concepts and ideas.  Another approach would be is to create more user-friendly interfaces to assist learners to control their directions, and this is beginning to happen in the field. Over-rich information      The problem of over-rich information is one of the typical issues with hypermedia instruction in Internet systems. This situation presents users with cognitive overload. Typically, in a hypermedia environment, users are no longer merely consumers of information; they are also expected to create and add their own knowledge to this instructional system. So the information sources become increasingly varied (1998).      From a sociocultural viewpoint, knowledge can not be divorced from learners' historical and cultural backgrounds ( 1992). This means that learning is the interpretation of knowledge by learners, and learning best occurs in the context that it will be used (, 1995). When information overloading occurs, learners find it more difficult to select and interpret information into their own knowledge. Moreover, they may become frustrated searching endlessly in cyberspace. Ineffective user-interface      User-interface, or the information landscape, refers to the way information is organized and the interface through which the users have access to the information.  Today, the problem is not so much in finding information but sifting through the huge amount that is readily available and locating the particular pieces that are of most interest at the moment.  So the quality of user interfaces has a great deal to do with whether a new media program is easy to use and helpful or frustrating and irritating ( 1997).      User interface design is a crucial role in hypermedia systems.  Commonly, tools like browsers, search engines, concept maps, guide tours, and metaphors are all user interfaces in hypermedia instruction. Owing to individual differences, educators should pay more attentions in users' attitudes while designing hypermedia learning environments.  An effective user-interface is a key factor to provide users with an ability to arrange the information in nonlinear ways. CONCLUSION      Hypermedia learning environment may help students learn course-related knowledge in several ways.  This environment should be used not only for distance learning but also an instructional aid in traditional learning to help students enhance their learning, and provide an interactive rich environment.      But still, further studies should be made for the future of hypermedia learning, such as combining it with other type of software.  In addition, different cognitive styles might also affect knowledge acquisition and retention in hypermedia learning environments and this should also be studied.                       BIBLIOGRAPHY:

LEARNING/TEACHING STRATEGIES

INTRODUCTION Since the dawn of time, human had always had this thirst for knowledge. No one knows for sure, but to my opinion...

A REPORT ON THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL ON VISUAL ARTS TEACHERS IN HONGKONG

A REPORT ON THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL ON VISUAL ARTS TEACHERS IN HONGKONG                       The Research Project entitled “The circumstance of Visual Arts teachers participating in visual arts creation activities and factors affecting their motivation to participate” is an endeavor to identify the types of visual arts creation activities that Visual Arts teachers in secondary and primary schools in Hong Kong participate in, the factors affecting their level of motivation to participate in the said visual arts creation activities, and the teachers’ opinions on the significance of participating in the visual arts activities to their teaching effectiveness.   The Researcher gathered preliminary data for the study through an initial interview in order to identify the questions that needed to be asked in the preparation of a questionnaire as the primary data gathering instrument.  The results of the preliminary interviews revealed that many Visual Arts teachers seldom have visual arts creation activities due to heavy workloads.  Most of them agreed that they needed more time and access to visual arts creation activities since they think that it would help them improve their teaching skills and thus enhance their effectiveness as educators.                         The purpose of the study is premised on the education reform in Hong Kong launched in 1999 which essentially called for developing a new culture of learning and teaching as well as bringing and strengthening relevant subject contents within the context of the new political situation (2003). The Education and Manpower Bureau (EMB) (2004) in its Advisory Committee on Teacher Education and Qualifications (ACTEQ) stipulates that every teacher should be a continuous learner in order to advance the quality of the education system and the quality of students’ learning (p.1).  The government recommends approximately 4,200 hours of total lesson time over six years of primary schooling in whole-day schools-- 23.5 hours per week (or 4.7 hours per day) and thirty teaching weeks per year.  Furthermore, to improve the existing teaching and learning environment in pre-primary schools, the initiatives on teacher-to-student ratios have been implemented in three stages over a three-year period to bring the 1:20 ratio in nursery classes and the 1:30 ratio in kindergarten classes to a 1:15 ratio.  However, most teachers are concerned that the routine curriculum cannot handle the number of subjects, and that too little attention is given to artistic and extracurricular activities and social and personality development ( 2003).                          Initial findings from the study revealed that under the education reform in Hong Kong, teachers' work loads are heavy.  Their functions are becoming more complex and encompass a more comprehensive scope (2004).  They spend time in administrative work and they are obliged to promote the school as the Government cut the number of schools.  This affects the flexibility of their time schedules to participate in continuous learning programs and thus run contrary to the purpose of the Education and Manpower Bureau.  Most of the Visual Arts teachers regard continuous learning like participating in visual arts activities as helpful in supplementing their skills and knowledge which in turn would facilitate a more effective learning environment for the students.  The difficulty posed on the teachers by the teaching environment is an issue on balance.  The heavy workload and teacher’s commitment to the profession make them pay little attention to activities or programs that would enhance their skills because they are already preoccupied with their official responsibility of managing the classroom discussion and other tasks required of them by the school.                         A teacher is valued as a person and Hong Kong’s educational system takes into consideration their physical and spiritual well-being as a critical part of their profession.  Because of the strenuous nature of the profession, teachers must learn how to balance their lives in order to maintain effective professionalism.  They are expected to retain sound harmony between physical well-being, time management, emotions and stress tolerance and other areas of their lives in order for them to achieve full professional and personal growth (2004).  The observation made by the Researcher in the workshop led to the conclusion that Visual Arts teachers are tired and have lost interest in creating art works.  Art works require ample time for conceptualization and creativity and the stress that the Visual Arts teachers are feeling with regards to their teaching functions affect their level of creativity.  The heavy workload makes them less interested in using their already stressed body and mind in coming up with creative and useful pieces of art work.               Moreover, observation on the teachers during the seminar uncovered the fact that Visual art teachers are not acquainted to the current issues in art.  Continuing professional development programs which may include visual arts creation activities are favorable venues for sharing of latest trends and contemporary themes in art.  These activities bring together different kinds of persons with different kinds of experiences that would help facilitate a more current pool of information for the visual arts community.  The visual arts teachers who do not have time and motivation to attend some of the visual arts creation activities are deprived of a valuable opportunity to become informed of the most recent innovations in the field which would also be useful for them in their role as educators in a past-faced society.

A REPORT ON THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL ON VISUAL ARTS TEACHERS IN HONGKONG

A REPORT ON THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL ON VISUAL ARTS TEACHERS IN HONGKONG The Research Project entitled “Th...

What is the research evidence for the part the “critical period" plays in second language learning? What might be the implications for teaching?

Critical Period in Second Language Learning   What is the research evidence for the part the “critical period" plays in second language learning? What might be the implications for teaching?   Introduction One of the arguments about adolescent or adult second language learning is that they cannot learn another language the same way as they have acquired their first in spite of the claims that the two processes are similar in many aspects. Native speakers acquire their mother tongue at an early age by picking it up in the rich cultural and linguistic environment they were born or grew up in. Adolescent or adult learners cannot feasibly do so in learning a second language because they have already lost their "magic" for picking up a language.   Critical Period in Second Language Learning Critical period is defined by  (1989) as “selected timed in the life cycle in which may structures and functions become especially susceptible to specific experiences that may alter some future instantiation of that structure or function.” In addition,  (1992) also defined “critical period as environmental events in which must happen at certain times in the development of an organism for normal development to occur.” ( 1991) defined it as “any phenomenon in which there is a maturational change in the ability to learn, with a peak in learning in some maturationally defined period and a decline in the ability to learn, given the same experiential exposure, outside of this period.” Originally, critical period is used in species-specific behavior. It is the period when imprinting is observed in certain species such as young birds and rats.  (1987) lists four characteristics of the imprinting as below. ·         It tends to appear under well-defined developmental conditions. ·         It cannot be forgotten or revised once it has been established ·         It involves the recognition of species' characteristics rather than individual characteristics. ·         It may be learned long before it is manifested.  (1987) assumes that only the first characteristic above is applicable to the human language acquisition. A pioneering work by (1967) explores the critical period hypothesis and concluded that “Between the ages of two and three years language emerges by an interaction of maturation and self-programmed learning. Between the ages of three and the early teens the possibility for primary language acquisition constitutes to be good; the individual appears to be most sensitive to stimuli at this time and to preserve some innate flexibility for the organization of brain functions to carry out the complex integration of sub-processes necessary for the smooth elaboration of speech and language. After puberty, the ability for self-organization and adjustment to the physiological demands of verbal behavior quickly declines. The brain behaves as if it had become set in its ways and primary, basic skills not acquired by that time usually remain deficient for life.” (1967) In second learning, two very important factors which comprise the critical period hypothesis are age factor and length of learning process (1959). According to their critical period hypothesis, after puberty when the plasticity of the brain is lost, the functions of the various parts of the brain cannot be rearranged, and "complete or nativelike mastery of languages, first or second, is difficult and unlikely" (1988). Therefore, language learning is difficult for adult learners after puberty.  (1967), who further developed the critical period hypothesis, believed that the lateralization of language functions in the left hemisphere is considered to be completed by puberty. If we assume that second language learners were adults, we would not expect them to go through the similar process as children growing up in a target language situation. Grown-ups tend to have their own psychological egos and they may have been influenced by many other affective factors that may prevent them from mingling, socializing, or learning the way native-speaking children or even non-native speaking children do. Their language learning may be hindered by many affective factors or may be limited to certain situations. The second factor is the length of the learning process. If adults learning a second language follow the similar process of children acquiring their first language in general, it may not expect any adult language learners to take all the time they need or learn in the fashion as children do to attain their proficiency. It may be theoretically sound, but realistically impossible. Time is usually not on adult language learners' side since they themselves need to survive or support their families in the new target language environment and culture by working on jobs. They are not in a position to choose the kind of language environment that is optimal in learning a second language. Because of the biological, socio-cultural, and socio-psychological constraints, adult language learners have other problems young learners do not have. These problems include, but not limited to such affective factors as attitude, motivation, social distance or perceived social distance from the target language group. As research (1977;  1977) has indicated, adult language learners may develop an attitude problem that will impact their learning or proficiency in a second language in one way or another. This attitude has something to do with the target language, its culture, and people. If second language learners have resentment or prejudice against a certain ethnic group, they may have a difficult time dealing with the language and culture of that particular group. Target language, culture, and its people are often closely linked together. Any bias against an ethnic group may end up affecting the learners' attitude toward whatever symbolizes that group, including their language and culture. Attitude, in turn, is closely linked to motivation. Non-native speakers learning a second language may have different motivations.  (1972) studied several kinds of motivations of second language learners. Some may have an instrumental motivation, which means that their desire to learn a language is totally utilitarian. It is driven by the pragmatic concerns of being able to utilize a language to enter a college, get a job, or further a career. Some others may have an integrative motivation, which means that some second language learners are willing to integrate themselves within the culture of that language group and become part of that society. Generally speaking, the attitude and motivation of second language learners usually play an important role in their second language learning process. If adult learners have a negative attitude toward a language, an ethnic group, or even the target language environment, they may not be motivated to learn the said language willingly. Another chain reaction coming out of the attitude factor is the social distance or perceived social distance proposed by  (1979). When second language learners have an attitude problem and lacks motivation, they may also have developed some perceived social distance, holding a negative view or assuming certain kind of opinion based on their understanding of the target language, culture, and its people. Acton explained that it was not particularly relevant what the actual social distance was between cultures, since what the learner perceives formed the person's reality. People perceive the cultural environment through the filters of their own worldview and then act upon that perception. When learners encounter a new culture, their acculturation will be affected by how they perceive their own culture in relation to the culture of the target language. Implication to teaching Adults who spend the time and effort to learn a second or new language may do it for different reasons and purposes. The majority of them may not have the luxury of having an optimal learning environment envisioned by certain language acquisition or learning theories. They need the basic interpersonal communicative skills (1984) to survive in the target society first. The purpose of acquiring or learning a language is for communication. To achieve such a purpose, a native speaker or a non-native speaker alike will have to possess certain degree of competence. In second language learning and teaching, the communicative competence theory proposed by  (1980) and  (1981) is the most commonly espoused and relevant. There are four areas of communicative competences that they depicted. These include grammatical competence or linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic competence. “Grammatical competence or linguistic competence includes the mastery of the language code such as lexical items, rules of word formation, sentence formation, literal meaning, pronunciation, and spelling. Sociolinguistic competence indicates the mastery of appropriate language use in different social contexts, with emphasis on appropriateness of meanings and forms. Discourse competence refers to the speaker or writers mastery of combining meanings and forms to achieve a unified text in different modes such as a telephone conversation or persuasive essay through the use of cohesion devices relating utterance forms and coherence rules to organize meanings. Finally, strategic competence requires the communicator's mastery of verbal and non-verbal strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication for lack of the previously mentioned competence or performance limitations such as use of dictionaries and paraphrasing to enhance communication effectiveness.” (1980; 1981) The reason second language learners need to resort to learning grammar is that it provides some general and systematic guidance on the structure and syntax. However, some second or foreign language professionals do not consider grammar to be an important element in second or foreign language learning or teaching. They believe that language can be learned holistically through the context without explicit instruction in grammar.  (1992) claimed that "the effect of grammar is peripheral and fragile" and that "direct instruction on specific rules has a measurable impact on tests that focus the performer on form, but the effect is short-lived." In the same context, other professional believe that grammar is the only substance in second or foreign language teaching. They would equate language learning and teaching with grammar. Learning a second language is learning the grammar of that language. The traditional grammar-translation method is a typical example. Age factor is an important element for us to consider in second language learning. Teaching grammar to children is easier since children are capable of acquiring a new language given the rich cultural and linguistic environment and necessary exposure to the target language. For children with less knowledge of the world, rules are acquired through hypothesis testing, not grammar teaching. It is a waste of time to teach children grammar. However, adult second language learners are more mature compared to children. Adult are more worldly knowledge and are able to use their analytical powers in language learning. Adult language learners may have already lost "the magic" of acquiring a language that children possess; explicit grammar instruction can play a major role in their language learning process. Adult learners are able to comprehend the rules of grammar with the knowledge from either their first language or other experiences derived from their worldly knowledge. They are ready to apply the rules they have learned, and the rules of language will provide them with some perspective on the basic patterns of that language. With analysis of grammar rules and practice, they can induce or deduce meaningful hints out of these rules. In other words, by offering rules of grammar to adult learners, we are offering them a useful and pragmatic tool to compensate for their lack of intuition on the target language. Grammar instruction does not mean presenting meaninglessly structural information that learners cannot use. On the contrary, it serves as a tool to refine and further "build on what learners already knew and to give them opportunities to deductively construct new meanings" (1999). Grammar plays a very important role in second language learning for adult learners. It provides rules and general guidance that facilitate better understanding of the structures of the target language. The purpose of language learning is to be able to effectively communicate in the target language. Linguistic or grammatical competence is an integral component of the communicative competence. Explicit grammar instruction can enhance the development of the linguistic competence and improve on second language learners' fluency and accuracy so they can use the second language effectively to advance themselves in every aspect in the target language society.

What is the research evidence for the part the “critical period" plays in second language learning? What might be the implications for teaching?

Critical Period in Second Language Learning What is the research evidence for the part the “critical period" plays in second la...

LEARNING/TEACHING THROUGH STORY AND DRAMA ASSESSMENT

Learning English through story and Drama Assessment task Part I General Objectives: After _ days of teacher and student interaction, the students will be able to gain adequate knowledge, positive attitude and good skills in the activities shared over in the classroom in context with the learning module guide. Specific Objectives: Teacher – centered: After 2 hours of teacher – student interaction, the teacher will be able to: <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> establish rapport with the students.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> inform students that the activities they will be having for the next few hours is all about story telling activities such as finding story in a song, story circle, front door: an imaginary journey, chain story and describing a stone.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> ask feedback from the students regarding with the activities presented such as suggestions, comments and reactions (positive or negative).</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> inform the students of the next meeting as to date, time and place.</li> Student – centered: After 2 hours of teacher – student interaction, the student will be able to: <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> establish rapport with the teacher.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> participate in the activities prepared by the teacher.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> provide feedback concerning with the activities presented by the teacher.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> consent with the teacher of the set meeting as to time, date and place.</li> Lesson No 1: Story Telling Activities Activity No. 1: Finding Stories in Songs Find and learn songs which tell a story. Folk ballads to contemporary songs often suggest a larger tale. Listen to records and then have students retell the story in the song in their own words. Or have a "story song" concert. Activity No. 2: Story Circle             One person begins a tale and stops after a few sentences. The next person picks up the story thread and continues it, then stops. Next person adds to it and so on until the tale comes to a resolution. The story could begin with a pre-selected title or subject to guide the improvisation. Try recording the story circle on a tape recorder for later listening. Activity No. 3: Front Door: an Imaginary Journey             Working in pairs consisting of a listener and a speaker, have each set of students imagine that they are standing outside of the speaker's front door. Have the speaker verbally give the attentive listener an imaginary errand to do. The speaker must carefully explain to his or her partner how to go into the house, travel to the bedroom, and, once there, describe where to find a special treasure somewhere in the room. Have the speaker tell the partner a story about why the thing to be retrieved is special and then have speaker verbally explain how to travel back to the front door to bring the special thing out to where the speaker will be waiting.  Points to remember:             This improvisational speech exercise encourages confidence in one's ability to describe a sequence of events. The journey from one's own front door to one's bedroom is well known by the speaker. The speaker may discover in discussing this exercise afterwards, that he or she imagined the house clearly and "saw" more detail than was mentioned. Telling a folktale has a similar process. The teller imagines the landscape of the tale and guides the listeners on a mental journey. Activity No. 4: Chain Sentence             Teams of two students orally construct the first sentence of an invented story. To orally make the sentence, each says one word, trusting their ears to recognize conventional grammar, until a long sentence evolves. Make the first sentence of: <ul type="disc" style="margin-bottom: 0in"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> a ghost story</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> pirate story</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> love story</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> mystery</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> any story, etc. </li> </ul> Additional Instructions: Beginnings: This exercise can be used to generate the first sentence of a Chain Story where each participant adds a section to a tale. Endings: The chain sentence exercise could generate a "last sentence." This sentence is written on a piece of paper and placed in the middle of the story circle. The game is over when the story has woven around to the point where someone can say the "last sentence." Activity No. 5: Describing a Stone             Pass a stone around a circle of students. Each student must say one word describing the stone without repeating what has been said. See how many times the stone can go around the circle without repeating words. Adjectives such as hard, smooth etc. are a start, but any word that comes to mind is acceptable as long as it is inspired by the stone. For example, a smooth, round, white, oval stone could suggest "egg."       Part II             Specific Objectives: Teacher – centered: After 2 hours of teacher – student interaction, the teacher will be able to: 1.      discuss the definition and parts of a story. 2.      help pupils develop an appreciation for a well-told fairy story. 3.      give them practice in reading a story for a later dramatization 4.      help them learn to identify themselves with characters in a story. 5.       entertain comments, suggestions and reactions whether positive or negative from the students. 6.      set with the students the next meeting as to time, date and place. Student – centered: After 2 hours of teacher – student interaction, the student will be able to: 1.      continue establishing rapport with the teacher. 2.      answer the questions asked regarding the said story. 3.      give any feedbacks, comments or suggestions of the discussion. 4.      agree with the set contract with the teacher as to time, date and place. Lesson No. 2: Story 101 Definition: Story is defined as a piece of fiction that narrates a chain of related events that portrays a life of a character behind the plot. Parts of a story: The three main parts of a story are the CHARACTER, the SETTING, and the PLOT. These three elements work together to hold your reader's interest. CHARACTER: A person, animal or imaginary creature in the story. There are usually one or two main characters. There can be many secondary characters too. The rule here is to make the characters interesting so that they hold your reader's interest. SETTING: This is where your story takes place. The setting is a time - the future, the past, or now. The setting is also the place - on the moon, in Chicago, at the Whitehouse. The setting is an important part of a story. PLOT: The plot of the story tells the actions and events that take place in the story. Your plot should have a beginning, middle and an end. The plot tells the events of your story in a logical order. Below is an example of a story and an activity to help the student to further identify the parts of the story. Below is an example of an old story that is a good one to act out and help the students to further identify the parts of the story. The Princess who could not spin             Once upon a time a prince married a beautiful princess. Now, this princess was good. She could sing well. She knew how to be nice to be nice to people and how to help rule a kingdom. These are the things most princes learn and she had learned them well. However, the prince thought that a princess should do more. He told her that she had to learn to spin. First she hurt her finger. Then, she got the thread knotted. Then the spinning wheel fell over, and, what with one bad thing and another, the poor princess ran out to the garden and began to cry. Suddenly she heard a humming noise. Looking about her, she saw a tiny cottage almost hidden in the trees. She tiptoed to the door and saw three old ladies, spinning, spinning, and spinning. The first old lady had a left thumb as big as her hand. The second lady had a lower lip that hung over her chin. The third lady had a right foot twice as big as her other foot. “We have been looking for you,” said the first old lady.  “Why haven’t u come sooner?” asked the second old lady. The third old lady asked, “Why were you crying?” the princes told her sad story and said, “I shall never learn to spin well, and my prince will be unhappy.” We will spin all the cloth you need,” said the first old lady. “But how shall I pay you?” asked the princess. “We don’t want any money,” said the second old lady. “But we do want just one small promise.” “What is it?” asked the princess. “ I will surely do anything I can.” “Promise that you will invite us to -,” said the first old lady. “Dinner on the first night that -,” said the second old lady. “Your husband comes home-.”Said the third old lady. “And tell him that we are your aunts who have come to teach you to spin,” they all finished together. “Oh, I promise, I promise,” said the princes. On the day the prince came home, the princess had a party. She invited the three old ladies. She had them meet the prince as she had promised. The prince looked at each of the old ladies. He didn’t sat much at first, but soon felt that he had to ask some questions. Turning to the first old lady he asked, “Why is your thumb so large?” The old lady answered, “from pulling thread through my fingers when I spin.” Then the prince turned to the second old lady and asked, “ Why is your lip so long?” “From wetting the thread when I spin,” she replied. The prince asked the third old lady, “Why is your one foot large?” She answered, “from using my foot to make the spinning wheel turn.” The prince looked at his princes and said, “I want you to be always to be beautiful. Promise me you will never spin again.” The princess promised that she wouldn’t spin if he would invite the three old ladies to live in their home and spin for her. They promised to come, and they all lived happily ever after. Suggested Procedure: 1.      Stimulate interest by discussing with the students about the story previously read or listened. Ask questions as: What is the prince asking? Why do you thinks so? Is the princess happy? How can you tell? 2.      Develop the lesson content by having the pupils read the title aloud. Let different pupils read the three paragraphs of the story, part by part, stopping at the end of the first paragraph to discuss such questions as: if you were a beautiful, kind and good princess, would you be happy? At the end of the third paragraph ask: how would you fl if you tried and tried to learn how to do something, and had such bad luck? Complete the oral reading and spontaneous discussion of the rest of the story. 3.      Strengthen understanding be having the pupils tell how the princess became happy. Have them retell the story, putting the events in proper sequence. Be sure they all include all the characters and what they did, the setting and the plot. 4.      More able pupils may draw the three old ladies in costume, to use later for design in the play or dramatization. Part III Specific Objectives: Teacher – centered: After 2 hours of teacher – student interaction, the teacher will be able to: <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> help pupils learn how to dramatize a story previously read.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> help them determine characters and dialog for their play</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> help them divide into parts in right order for the play.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> assist students with any clarifications in the context of preparations for the play.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> inform students that this will be the last activity of the said module.</li>   Student – centered: After 2 hours of teacher – student interaction, the student will be able to: 1. act out  the story, the princess who could not spin. 2. determine the main parts of the story, (each main parts can be part one of the play). 3. divide among themselves on who’s going to play the part of the Narrator, Princess, Prince and the three old ladies. 4. prepare the themselves and perform the play simultaneously. 5. agreed to terminate the said contract. Lesson No. 3: Drama or Acting out a Story Drama: is a form of literature, usually consisting chiefly of dialog between characters, and usually intended for performance or dramatic production, rather than reading. Introduction:       Boys and girls find it fun to make a play from a story. They like to make believe they are people in the story. You may call these story people as characters (char ac ters). To play a part well, you must feel that you know how the character in the story looked, how he felt, and what he said. Suggested Procedure: 1. Stimulate interest by having pupils tells about they have enjoyed play-acting. Tell them that the story they have just read would also make a good day. 2. Develop the lesson content by having the pupils read out aloud the story. Help them pronounce the word characters, and understand its meaning. Encourage pupils to read aloud dialog from the story. Discuss the main happenings in the story, and lead the pupils to see why these must be acted out in order. 3. Helps for acting out a part, discuss the following: ·  Forget yourself and really try to be the person in the story. ·  Talk and act as the story character would. ·  Speak clearly and loudly enough for all to hear. ·  Turn at least partly toward the people who will be watching whenever you speak. 4. Practice talking and listening: ·  Tell how you think each person felt and looked in each part of the play and what each one might say. ·  Take turns acting out the parts of different actors. ·  Choose pupils to act the whole play. Watch as they give it. Then tell what was well done and what could have been done better. Reference:

LEARNING/TEACHING THROUGH STORY AND DRAMA ASSESSMENT

Learning English through story and Drama Assessment task Part I General Objectives: After _ days of teacher and student interaction, t...