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Research proposal on The effects of dual abstinence and comprehensive sexual education programs on the pregnancy rates of rural adolescent African-American females.

The effects of dual abstinence and comprehensive 	sexual education programs on the pregnancy rates of rural adolescent 	African-American females. 	 	                                                                              	   	 	Introduction    	  	 	High pregnancy rates for African-American females have 	continued to be a problem in rural Georgia despite school taught government 	approved abstinence only sexual education.  Study) has shown that black 	females either do not understand abstinence the way it is taught or they 	make up their own definition of abstinence.  Study) shows that abstinence 	only programs are not as effective as once believed.  It is important that 	other avenues be considered to teach African-American females, especially 	rural females, sexual education that they can understand and identify with 	in order to control teen pregnancy rates. 	  	 	Statement of the Problem 	 	The problem of the research was to investigate  the 	effectiveness of a multidimensional approach to sexual education on the 	pregnancy rates of rural African-American adolescents. 	  	Purpose 	of the Study 	 	Adolescent African-American pregnancy rates have 	continued to be a problem in rural Georgia.  This study is focused on the 	effectiveness of a multidimensional approach to sexual education in order to 	decrease these ever climbing pregnancy rates.  There has been a lack of 	research on multidimensional sexual education programs on rural 	African-American females.  It is believed that the data from this study may 	help influence the gaining popularity of non abstinence-only programs in the 	United States.  If pregnancy rates can be decreased among rural black 	adolescent females these types of multidimensional sexual education programs 	may be considered by the government for implementation in other areas of the 	United States where high teen pregnancy rates are prevalent.    	 	Significance of the Study 	 	Adolescent African-American females would benefit greatly 	by a multidimensional sexual education program.  This program of study would 	clearly help the girls gain knowledge about abstinence as well as sex 	education.  According to a study by Kristin Haglund (2003) on sexually 	abstinent  African-American females all of the girls in her study “agreed 	that abstinence involved refraining from having sex,  particularly vaginal 	intercourse.”  Unfortunately they did not agree on what other sexual 	behaviors counted as having sex therefore had to be avoided to maintain 	abstinence.   Therefore more knowledge needs to be imparted to the girls in 	order for them to make more informed life choices.   According to Somers and 	Eaves (2002), “earlier sex education does not contribute to earlier risk 	behavior.”  Therefore, an additional comprehensive sexual education could 	contribute greatly to the girls knowledge of the healthy aspects of human 	sexuality such as intimacy and love, developmental issues, and birth control 	measures including abstinence.  The Carrerra Model has proven that a 	multidimensional approach to teen pregnancy prevention can work 	(Carrerra,1995).  This study in particular will validate Carrerra’s findings 	and help close the gaps that the educational community my still entertain 	about the effectiveness of any program other than an abstinence only 	curriculum.  	  	 	Delimitations 	1.  Twenty 	African American Females ages 11-15 years old. 	2.  All 	participants will reside in rural Hancock County, Georgia. 	3.  	Participants will be chosen with the help of the school system meeting 	at-risk indicators: female, lower-income family, lack of involvement in 	school, lack of performance in school, and number of previous pregnancies. 	4.  All of 	the participants will have a negative pregnancy history. 	5.  	Multidimensional sexual education program will be utilized.  See Fig. 1 	6.  The 	study will last for a period of seven years and will be ongoing throughout 	each year. 	  	 	Limitations 	1.  The 	sample of rural African-American females may not be representative of other 	rural areas. 	2.  	Program administrators may not follow the guidelines of the programs 	3.  Data 	may not be able to be generalized to other rural populations 	4.  	Unexpected intercourse such as rape or incest. 	5.  Travel 	to areas of education. 	6.  Lack 	of interest in program by parents. 	  	 	Assumptions 	1.  The 	maturational and environmental influences are unique to each child. 	2.  The 	information provided  will increase the girls knowledge of abstinence. 	3.   Risky 	sexual behavior will be decreased.   	4.  	Self-esteem and self-expression will be increased. 	5.  Test 	instruments will be reliable. 	6.  	Pregnancy rates will be decreased.           	7.  The 	multidimensional sexual education model, as modified for the community, was 	      	appropriate for the target population and was a valid and reliable 	curriculum. 	8.  The 	subjects and their parents understood the long term purpose of the study. 	9.  The 	participants were a representative sample of rural Georgia adolescent 	African-American females. 	10.  The 	program administrators were sufficiently trained and capable of utilizing 	the recommended programs and procedures. 	  	 	Hypothesis 	1.  	African-American teen pregnancy rates will decrease 	2. 	Participants knowledge of sexual education will increase 	3.  	Participants knowledge of birth control will increase 	4.  	Participants will be able to utilize decision making techniques 	5.  	Participants will know all the methods of birth control  	 	    	 	Literature Review 	 	For the past 20 years, the U.S. government has been 	funding abstinence-only programs to be taught in the public school systems.  	Abstinence only curriculums usually promote communication, decision-making, 	assertiveness, goal setting, and abstinence as a way of preventing pregnancy 	and STD’s.  According to SIECUS, the Sexuality Information and Education 	Council of the United States, these programs leave out valuable information 	on reproductive health, sexuality issues, and other forms of pregnancy and 	STD prevention.  The government mandates that any school that receives 	federal money for abstinence only programs must also include teachings that 	emphasize that,  “sexual activity outside of marriage is likely to have 	harmful psychological and physical effects.”  Nothing is to be mentioned 	about the positive effects of love and intimacy between two people.   	 	Abstinence only programs are good programs because they 	do teach knowledge and valuable life skills.  In a study of the Sex Can Wait 	abstinence program the results showed an increase in knowledge for 	elementary, middle, and high school, although not as much as expected 	(Denny, Young, Rausch, Spear, 2002).  However,  when it comes to pregnancy 	prevention abstinence only programs are not always effective.  In a study on 	abstinence education for rural youth by Barnett & Hurst (2003), they found 	that the Life’s Walk abstinence program that they were studying was not 	entirely effective. Attitudes toward teen sexual activity did not change as 	a result of the program.  Nor did attitudes change as a result of the Sex 	Can Wait program.  Denny et al states, “the finding that the curriculum did 	not produce more positive attitudes at the elementary school and middle 	school level is puzzling”.  Barnett & Hurst (2003) also reported that sexual 	behavior of the participants actually increased.   To substantiate these 	findings the British Medical Journal reported a meta-analyses of 26 trials 	of pregnancy prevention programs that showed pregnancies actually increased 	in partners of male participants (DiCenso, Guyatt, Griffith, 2002) .    	 	 	Part of the problem with abstinence only programs may be 	the lack of a clear definition for abstinence.  There is not even a 	clear common definition between nationally recognized abstinence programs.  	Haglund (2003) reports in her study “Sexually Abstinent African American 	Adolescent Females’ Descriptions of Abstinence” that      	 	Each state that gets Federal money for abstinence 	programs are allowed to define abstinence themselves.  Some states included 	the federal description that abstinence meant refraining from sexual 	activity but sexual activity was not defined.  Others defined abstinence as 	refraining from vaginal heterosexual intercourse, from all types of sexual 	activity with a significant risk for transmission of a sexually transmitted 	infection (STI), or from any expression of sexual feeling (as cited in 	Sonfield and Gold, 2001). 	So, not 	only are the proponents for abstinence unsure about the definition so are 	the students. 	  	 Haglund 	also reports that the girls in her study was widely confused as to the 	definition of abstinence.  When participants were asked how a variety of 	sexual behaviors fit into their definition of abstinence,  kissing and 	holding hands were unanimously considered abstinent.  But touching a partner 	on the genitals including breasts, clothed or partially unclothed, was also 	considered abstinent because no intercourse had occurred.  Oral-genital 	contact was considered a sex act by participants but most girls believed 	that if genital to genital intercourse was avoided then they were still 	abstinent.  If anal intercourse occurred the person was no longer considered 	abstinent but one could still be considered “technically” abstinent.  	Participants in Haglund’s study believed that vaginal penetration was the 	only “real way” that people had sex.   “Thus, incomplete descriptions of 	abstinence might cause some young people to unknowingly put themselves at 	risk by engaging in other forms of genital sexual activities” (Haglund, 	2003). 	 	 Parents are the last ones that want their children to 	engage in potentially risky sexual behavior.  Parents would much rather 	their children be educated than be ignorant or misinformed about all of the 	topics that sexual education would cover.  A survey by SIECUS and Advocates 	for Youth suggest that most Americans support sex education in schools that 	includes information on abstinence and contraception.  In a SIECUS and 	Advocates for Youth 1999 nationwide poll of adults on their attitudes about 	sex education in the U.S., 93% of those polled supported comprehensive sex 	education and believed young people, “should be given information to protect 	themselves from unplanned pregnancies and STDs”(as cited in Starkman and 	Rajani, 2002).  Reported in the same survey, most Americans believed 	abstinence should be a topic, even though they rejected abstinence-only 	education.  Eighty-six percent of respondents believed that “young people 	need information about sexuality so they will have healthy and happy 	intimate relationships as adults”.   A Kaiser Family Foundation report, 	released in September 2000, 	 	found that most parents want their children to receive 	information on a variety of subjects, including contraception and condom 	use, sexually transmitted disease, sexual orientation, safer-sex practices, 	abortion, communications and coping skills, and the emotional aspects of 	relationships (as cited in Starkman and Rajani, 2002). 	As part of 	the study parents given the choice to remove their children from a 	comprehensive sex education program, only 1% to 5% of parents would remove 	their child. 	 	Teachers in the United States play an important role in 	teens sexual education.  Today’s teachers are not completely in favor of 	leaving sex education to parents (Bowden, Lanning, Pippin, Tanner, 2003).  	Teachers generally feel that they can have a positive influence over the 	direction of their student’s lives and most teachers feel empowered to teach 	the material, hold conversation, respond to individual student questions and 	engage in other influential methods of teaching and learning (Bowden et al, 	2003).  The main problem that teachers are faced with is that much of their 	influence is diminished by student’s peers.   In several studies peer 	“education” has had a negative effect on teens (Haglund, 2003, Forrest, 	Strange, and Oakley, 2002, Weekes, 2002).   Haglund reports that the 	African-American teens, in her study, main source for sexual information was 	peers.  Their “beliefs about sex and abstinence were based on what they had 	heard others say.”       	 	This bit of information is particularly valuable for the 	purposes of this study because African-American adolescent females are not 	only being influenced by their peers but by Black popular culture portraying 	stereotypes in film and music (Weeks 2002).  In Weeks study she found that 	black females were being oversexualized by popular media and by young black 	boys.  Stephens and Phillips writes, “The eroticizing of African American 	women as wild, sexually promiscuous, and amoral continues to be normalized 	by descriptors that are widely circulated, accepted, and used to frame ideas 	about this population” ( as cited in Hooks, 1992).   There are very few 	black female role models on television, print, and music outlets.  	Especially role models that present the pure and chaste image above an 	overtly sexual image (Stephens and Phillips).   The black females in Weeks 	study were having a hard time presenting themselves as respectable but also 	living up to the oversexualized ideal that they felt that should portray 	externally. All of this confusion over who their sexual selves should be, 	pure and chaste or the Diva, Gold Digger, Freak that is being portrayed in 	popular Hip Hop culture, has left African-Americans questioning their own 	body image and how they fit into society.  In a study titled, “Body Image 	and African American Females’ Sexual Health”, the authors report that one of 	the most significant finding of their study was that women with 	 	 negative body image evaluations, through their 	associations with unhealthy sexual attitudes, beliefs, ad behaviors, could 	enhance the risk of unintended pregnancy, STI, and HIV infection.  Moreover, 	women having greater dissatisfaction with their body image were 	significantly less likely to negotiate condom, as they feared that this 	practice would result in abandonment by their partners. [This] fear of 	abandonment and adolescents’ perceived limited control in the relationship 	may reduce the likelihood of negotiating safer sex or using condoms , and 	the consequence, they may feel more concerned about acquiring HIV.          	We may 	already be seeing today the consequences of the negative effects of body 	image on young African-American females.  Studies suggest that some 12 	million new cases of sexually transmitted diseases are reported each year, 	with about 25% of new cases found among teens (Carter, Franklin, Heath, 	2000).  In Georgia alone, the 1999 Georgia County Guide gives staggering 	numbers for STI’s reported.  Reports were: 1,054 cases of AIDS, 2,008 cases 	of Syphilis, 22,041 cases of Gonorrhea, and 31,516 cases of Chlamydia.  	There were 14,208 live births to unwed teen mothers.  Thirty percent of all 	unwed teen births were by African-American females.     	 	The facts clearly show that abstinence only programs are 	not working for African-American females.  It is believed that this 	comprehensive sexual education program will show measurable meaningful data 	to reduce teen pregnancy.  Mainly because this program will include 	components that other research has concluded could be most beneficial.  It 	could be most promising by learning from the studies already performed and 	implementing as part of the curriculum such areas as: clear and concise 	definitions of abstinence, emphasis on the benefits of abstinence while 	teaching contraception and disease prevention methods, comprising 	differential racialised experiences and definitions of sexuality that 	embrace how young black females experience their sexual selves, and body 	image screening to determine levels of dissatisfaction.      It is the hope 	of this study that these components along with the other components of a 	comprehensive sexual education curricula that we can be a successful model 	for future educators and African-American teenage pregnancy 	prevention                                                                              	                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           	 	  	Ideas 	and Deletions 	Mix 	signals = pregnancy ( quote below) ( haglund – abstinence is the best was to 	prevent infections and pregnancy ( Landry et al) 	 	  	 	Teachers and parents want sex ed---- teachers probs with 	sex ed– the study 	 	Black Females and body issues 	 	Earlier sex education 	Barnett & 	Hurst These same students when asked the best way to prevent pregnancy 	reported: abstinence (37%), birth control pills (30%, and condoms (27%).  	   The United States has the highest teen pregnancy rate in the Western, industrialized world. Approximately 9% of females ages 15 to 19 years become pregnant each year.  According to the 2003 Kids Count data book 37% of Georgia female adolescents between the ages of 15 and 17 had a baby in the year 2000.  According to the Georgia County Guide on vital statistics 30.8% of live births to unwed teenage mothers were to African-American females.   Although all of these statistics are alarming  Kids Counts shows that there is a 27% decrease in teen birth rates in Georgia  from 1990 to 2000. The facts still remain that even though these numbers are decreasing they are still alarmingly high and something needs to be done to prevent teen pregnancy. A lot of the responsibility for pregnancy prevention has fallen on the heads of school educators.  But a majority of the teachers are limited by what they can teach youth inside of the school setting.  This is because for the past 20 years, the U.S. government has ben funding abstinence-only programs to be taught in the public school systems.  Programs funded by the government must teach, among other things, that “sexual activity outside of marriage is likely to have harmful psychological and physical effects.”   It is almost like the government wants to use scare tactics like beware of the boogie man to prevent minors from engaging in sexual activity.                                                                Chapter 3 Methods And Procedure This chapter will discuss the method of research to be used, the respondents of the study, the sampling technique, the instrument to be used, the validation of the instrument, the administration of the of the instrument and the statistical treatment of the data that will be gathered. Method of Research to be Used This study will use the descriptive approach.  This descriptive type of research will utilize interview, observation and questionnaires in the study.  To illustrate the descriptive type of research, the researcher will be guided by Cresqell (1993) when he stated: “Descriptive method of research is to gather information about the present existing condition.  The purpose of employing this method is to describe the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the cause/s of a particular phenomena. Although early researchers conceptualized body image as being unidimensional, it is now considered to be, and is measured as, a multidimensional construct. Examples of dimensions are: perception, attitude, cognition, behavior, affect, fear of fatness, body distortion, body dissatisfaction, cognitive-behavioral investment, evaluation, preference for thinness, and restrictive eating (Cash, 1994; Cash & Henry, 1995; Gleaves, Williamson, Eberenz, Sebastian, & Barker, 1995). The way in which body image is conceptualized is not just of theoretical interest, but has implications for the way in which disturbances in body image are treated. Empirical investigation is needed to determine the extent to which these models of body image accurately reflect the grouping of items. The aim of this research is to define body image more clearly and obtain data on the nature of the dimensions of body image. In doing so, it will be possible to develop a clearer idea of the actual dimensions of body image among African-American teenagers. Moreover, positive attitude towards body image may significantly reduce pregnancy rates among African-American teenagers. This construct is aimed to examine and propose to incorporate a multi-dimensional sex education and dual abstinence in African-American schools in rural Georgia. Past conceptualizations of body image have generally incorporated at least one of the following four dimensions: perception, cognition, affect, and behavior. These four dimensions have the appealing features of being simple, functional, and clearly testable, and are the starting point for this paper. The present study is an examination of a multi-dimensional approach to sex education by exploring a model of body image that incorporated perceptual, affective, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions. Thus, the aim of the study was not to construct a measure of body image, but to determine the validity of conceptualizing body image as comprising four dimensions: perception, affect, cognition, and behavior.             The primary source of data will come from a researcher-made survey questionnaire which will be given to the respondents.  The respondents of this study will be randomly selected African-American teenagers in Georgia.              The secondary sources of data will come from published articles from social science, sex education and health journals, theses and related studies on sex education. For this research design, the researcher will gather data, collate published studies from different local and foreign universities and articles from social science journals, distribute sampling questionnaires; arrange interviews; and make a content analysis of the collected documentary and verbal material.  Afterwards, the researcher will summarize all the information, make a conclusion based on the null hypotheses posited and provide insightful recommendations on the dealing with sex education and dual abstinence among African-American in Georgia. Instrument to be Used A questionnaire consisting of 28 questions ranging from perception, affect, cognition, and behavior and statements concerning body image was administered to the respondents. These dimensions were clearly defined at the beginning of the questionnaire and on each of the subsequent pages. The definitions used to classify items were: Perceptual items: The way individuals view their body in relation to its actual form; Affective items: Feelings individuals have about their body; Cognitive items: Thoughts individuals have about their body; Behavioral items: Behaviors that are aimed at changing the body shape of individuals. The items contained in the questionnaire was derived from Ben-Tovim Walker Body Attitudes Questionnaire (BAQ) with some revisions from Banfield and Mccabe (2002) consisting of 28 statements. The scales and subscales chosen were selected because of their good reported psychometric properties, claimed relevance to the four body image dimensions, and best representation of the instruments available. An attempt was made to obtain a range of different measures for each construct. Since these measures contain different numbers of items, a different number of items were included in the final measure for each construct. However, this would not be expected to influence the final factor structure. These items will be randomly ordered in the questionnaire by assigning randomly generated numbers. Ben-Tovim Walker Body Attitudes Questionnaire (BAQ). The BAQ (Ben-Tovim & Walker, 1991) was developed to assess a broad range of attitudes which women have about their bodies. This study used the Feeling Fat Subscale which consists of 12 items, with an example being, "I have a slim waist." Items are rated on a five-point Likert scale from (1) strongly agree, to (5) strongly disagree. Procedure After receiving ethics approval, questionnaires will be distributed to participants. The questionnaire shall take approximately thirty minutes to complete and the participants can complete it on their own time. All items will be categorized (perception, affect, cognition or behavior) according to the dimension the respondent believed the item was evaluating. Responses will be anonymous and confidential. Participants were instructed to return the questionnaire in a stamped self-addressed envelope. All respondents who will agree to participate in the study shall return the questionnaires. Respondents of the Study The general population for this study will be composed of African-American teenagers aged 13-18 residing in Georgia numbering to sixty (60). Validation of the Instrument The Ben-Tovim Walker Body Attitudes Questionnaire has been validated several time in the literature. Thus, it has already established itself to be a reliable questionnaire. However, in order to prove that it applies to the African-American adolescents in Georgia, the researcher will initially submit a survey questionnaire and after approval, the survey will be given to ten African-American teenagers.  After the survey questionnaire will be answered, the researcher will ask the respondents for any suggestions or any necessary corrections to ensure further improvement and validity of the instrument.  The researcher will again examine the content of the survey questionnaire to find out the reliability of the instrument.  The researchers will exclude irrelevant questions and will change words that would be deemed difficult by the respondents, to much simpler terms. Administration of the Instrument The revised instrument will then be administered to the respondents of the study which will be chosen through a combination of cluster and random sampling.  The researcher will exclude the ten respondents who will be initially used for the validation of the instrument.  The researcher will also tally, score and tabulate all the relevant data in the survey questionnaire.   References Banfield, S. and Mccabe, M. (2002) An evaluation of the construct of body image. Adolescence, Vol. 37.   Ben-Tovim, D. I., & Walker, K. M. (1991). The development of the Ben-Tovim Walker Body Attitudes Questionnaire (BAQ), a new measure of women's attitudes towards their own bodies. Psychological Medicine, 21, 775-784.   Cash, T. F. (1994). Body image attitudes: Evaluation, investment and affect. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 1168-1170.   Cash, T. E., & Henry, P. E. (1995). Women's body images: The results of a national survey in the U.S.A. Sex Roles, 33, 19-28.   Gleaves, D. H., Williamson, D. A., Eberenz, K. P., Sebastian, S. B., & Barker, S. E. (1995). Clarifying body-image disturbance: Analysis of a multidimensional model using structural modeling. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64, 478-493. (Temporary, more to be added) Reference List 1.  Introduction of sex education into Nigerian schools: the parents', teachers' and students' perspectives. By: Orji, E.O.; Esimai, O.A. . Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology , Mar2003, Vol. 23 Issue 2, p185, 4p; 2.  Get Your Freak on: how black girls sexualise identity. By: Weekes, Debbie . Sex Education , Nov2002, Vol. 2 Issue 3, p251 , 12p ; ( AN 7558641 ) 3. TEACHERS' ATTITUDES TOWARDS ABSTINENCE-ONLY SEX EDUCATION CURRICULA. By:  Bowden, Rodney G.; Lanning, Beth A.; Pippin, Grover "Rusty"; Tanner, John F. . Education , Summer2003, Vol. 123 Issue 4, p780, 9p ; ( AN 10187531 ) 4.  Is earlier sex education harmful? An analysis of the timing of school-based sex education and adolescent sexual behaviours. By: Somers, Cheryl L.; Eaves, Matt W. . Research in Education , May2002 Issue 67, p23, 10p, 2 charts ; ( AN 6772968 ) 5.  Sexing the Subject: teachers, pedagogies and sex education. By: Kehily, Mary Jane . Sex Education , Nov2002, Vol. 2 Issue 3, p215 , 17p ; ( AN 7558643 )   6.  Interventions to reduce unintended pregnancies among adolescents: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. By: DiCenso, Alba; Guyatt, Gordon; Willan, A; Griffith, L . BMJ: British Medical Journal , 6/15/2002, Vol. 324 Issue 7351, p1426, 5p, 5 graphs ; ( AN 6863526 ) 7.  Sexually abstinent African American adolescent females’ descriptions of abstinence. By: Haglund, Kristin. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, Third Qurarter2003,35(3), p 231-236

Research proposal on The effects of dual abstinence and comprehensive sexual education programs on the pregnancy rates of rural adolescent African-American females.

The effects of dual abstinence and comprehensive sexual education programs on the pregnancy rates of rur...

The impact of HIV/AIDS

The impact of HIV/AIDS. In almost 3 decades nearly 25 million people have died from Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).  (Impact of HIV/AIDS. http://www.globalhealth.org/hiv_aids/, retrieved 13 April, 2011)  Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentvirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).  AIDS is a condition in the humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive. Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate, or breast milk. Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune. The four major routes of transmission are unsafe sex, contaminated needles, breast milk, and transmission from an infected mother to her baby at birth (prenatal transmission). Screening of blood products for HIV has largely eliminated transmission through blood transfusions or infected blood products in the developed world. (HIV.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV, retrieved 13 April, 2011.) “HIV infects primarily vital cells in the human immune system such as helper T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells.[10] HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4+ T cells through three main mechanisms: First, direct viral killing of infected cells; second, increased rates of apoptosis in infected cells; and third, killing of infected CD4+ T cells by CD8 cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize infected cells. When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunity is lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections. Most untreated people infected with HIV-1 eventually develop AIDS.[11] These individuals mostly die from opportunistic infections or malignancies associated with the progressive failure of the immune system.[12] HIV progresses to AIDS at a variable rate affected by viral, host, and environmental factors; most will progress to AIDS within 10 years of HIV infection: some will have progressed much sooner, and some will take much longer.[13][14] Treatment with anti-retrovirals increases the life expectancy of people infected with HIV. Even after HIV has progressed to diagnosable AIDS, the average survival time with antiretroviral therapy was estimated to be more than 5 years as of 2005.[15] Without antiretroviral therapy, someone who has AIDS typically dies within a year. (HIV.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV, retrieved 13 April, 2011.) HIV/AIDS has complicated the fight against poverty, health improvement and development by the following: <ul type="disc" style="margin-bottom: 0in"> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"> 	 	“Diminishing 	a person’s ability to support, work and provide for his or her family. At 	the same time, treatment and health-care costs related to HIV/AIDS consume 	household incomes. The combined effect of reduced income and increased costs 	impoverishes individuals and households. </li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"> 	 	Deepening socioeconomic and gender disparities. Women are at high risk of 	infection and have few options for providing for their families. Children 	affected by HIV/AIDS, due to their own infection or parental illness or 	death, are less likely to receive an education, as they leave school to care 	for ailing parents and younger siblings. </li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"> 	 	Straining the resources of communities – hospitals, social services, schools 	and businesses. Health care workers, teachers, and business and government 	leaders have been lost to HIV/AIDS. The impact of diminished productivity is 	felt on a national scale. 	(HIV/AIDS.  	 	 	http://www.globalhealth.org/hiv_aids/, 	retrieved 13 April, 2011.)”</li> </ul> The number of people living with HIV continues to rise despite global attention and intervention efforts.  <ul type="disc" style="margin-bottom: 0in"> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"> 	 	“In 	2008, globally, about 2 million people died of AIDS, 33.4 million were 	living with HIV and 2.7 million people were newly infected with the virus. </li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"> 	 	 	HIV infections and AIDS deaths are unevenly distributed geographically and 	the nature of the epidemics vary by region. Epidemics are abating in some 	countries and burgeoning in others. More than 90 percent of people with HIV 	are living in the developing world.3 </li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"> 	 	There is growing recognition that the virus does not discriminate by age, 	race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or socioeconomic status – 	everyone is susceptible. However, certain 	groups are at particular risk of HIV, 	including men who have sex with men (MSM), injecting drug users (IDUs), and 	commercial sex workers (CSWs). </li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"> 	 	 	The impact of HIV/AIDS on women and girls has 	been particularly devastating. Women and girls now comprise 50 percent of 	those aged 15 and older living with HIV.1 </li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"> 	 	The impact of HIV/AIDS on children and young 	people is 	a severe and growing problem. In 2008, 430,000 children under age 15 were 	infected with HIV and 280,000 died of AIDS.1, 4 In 	addition, about 15 million children have lost one or both parents due to the 	disease.4  </li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"> 	 	There are effective prevention 	and treatment interventions, 	as well as efforts to develop new approaches, medications and vaccines. </li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%"> 	 	The sixth 	Millennium Development Goal (MDG) focuses 	on stopping and reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS by 2015. </li> </ul> Global funding is increasing, but global need is growing even faster – widening the funding gap. Services and funding are disproportionately available in developed countries. (HIV/AIDS.  http://www.globalhealth.org/hiv_aids/, retrieved 13 April, 2011.)”

The impact of HIV/AIDS

T he impact of HIV/AIDS. In almost 3 decades nearly 25 million people have died from Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). (Im...

Chapter 3 Methods And Procedure: The effects of dual abstinence and comprehensive sexual education programs on the pregnancy rates of rural adolescent African-American females.

Chapter 3 Methods And Procedure This chapter will discuss the method of research to be used, the respondents of the study, the sampling technique, the instrument to be used, the validation of the instrument, the administration of the of the instrument and the statistical treatment of the data that will be gathered. Method of Research to be Used Access to effective sexual health education is an important contributing factor to the health and well-being of teenage African-American females. School-based sex education programs are an essential avenue for providing sexual health education to young people. Educators, public health professionals, and others who are committed to providing high quality sexual health education in schools and other community settings are often asked to explain the rationale, philosophy, and content of proposed or existing sexual health education programs. This study will use the quasi-experimental design. A quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like an experimental design but lacks the key ingredient -- random assignment. Taken as a group, they are easily more frequently implemented than their randomized cousins. This study shall specifically utilize the nonequivalent groups design. In its simplest form it requires a pretest and posttest for a treated and comparison group. It is structured like a pretest-posttest randomized experiment by using intact groups that the researcher thinks are similar as the treatment and control groups. The selection of groups should be as similar as possible. Moreover, the assignment to group was not random. In other words, the researcher did not control the assignment to groups through the mechanism of random assignment. As a result, the groups may be different prior to the study. This proposed study shall utilize the quasi-experimental design in assessing the multi-dimensional approach to sex education program and dual abstinence among 11-15 year old African American females in Hancock City, Georgia. This design was chosen because a pre-test and a post-test shall be conducted based on a 7-year timeframe for the program. This proposed study is designed to support the provision of high quality sexual health education in teenage African-American females in Hancock County, Georgia. It shall provide answers to some of the most common questions that parents, educators, program planners, school and health administrators, and concerned citizens may have about sexual health education. Moreover, it shall investigate  the effectiveness of a multidimensional approach to sexual education on the pregnancy rates of rural African-American adolescents. Programs should both encourage youths to delay or refrain from intercourse and also encourage them to use contraceptives if they initiate intercourse. Programs should be both age and experience appropriate. That is, programs for younger adolescents should focus more upon delaying intercourse, while those for older youths should focus more upon condoms and other contraceptives (Kirby et al., 1994, p. 359). Effective prevention programs clearly focus on reducing specific sexual risk-taking behaviors, provide directly relevant information, give students the opportunity to develop the motivation and personal insight to use the information, and help them to develop the behavioral skills necessary to carry out health promoting behaviors. Effective prevention programs provide the information, motivation, and behavioral skills to help adolescents delay first intercourse and to use contraceptives/condoms properly and consistently if and when they experience sexual intercourse. Research consistently shows that well designed programs employing this dual approach are effective in both delaying first intercourse and increasing the use of contraceptives/condoms for those who are sexually active (Brown & Eisenberg, 1995; Frost & Darroch Forrest, 1995; Kirby et al., 1994; Kirby, 2000).             As an important part of its contribution to adolescent development, sexual health education can play a key role in the primary prevention of significant sexual health problems. Effective sexual health education provides opportunities for individuals to explore the attitudes, feelings, values and moral perspectives that may influence their own choices regarding sexual health. The primary source of data will come from a pre-test and post-test evaluation of sexual activities, body image attitudes, and sexual attitudes of 11-15 year old African Americans in Hancock City, Georgia. This study shall be using the Carrera model in evaluating the effectiveness of the multi-dimensional program in promoting dual abstinence and effective sexual health practices among the respondents. The timeframe for the evaluation is 7 years. This is sufficient time to gather the data and present a sound conclusion regarding the multi-dimensional program.             The secondary sources of data will come from published articles from social science, sex education and health journals, theses and related studies on sex education. For this research design, the researcher will gather data, collate published studies from different local and foreign universities and articles from social science journals, distribute sampling questionnaires; arrange interviews; and make a content analysis of the collected documentary and verbal material.  Afterwards, the researcher will summarize all the information, make a conclusion based on the null hypotheses posited and provide insightful recommendations on the dealing with sex education and dual abstinence among African-American in Georgia and the effectiveness of multi-dimensional sex education programs among female African-American teenagers. Respondents of the Study The general population for this study will be composed of twenty (20) African American Females ages 11-15 years old residing in Hancock City, Georgia. Participants will be chosen with the help of the school system meeting at-risk indicators: female, lower-income family, lack of involvement in school, lack of performance in school, and number of previous pregnancies. Moreover, it is important that all of the participants will have a negative pregnancy history. Instrument to be Used This proposed study shall be implementing the Carrera model of multi-dimensional sex education program in assessing the progress of the respondents in their sexual activities, bodily attitudes and sex attitudes. This approach centers on the belief that success in school, meaningful employment, access to quality medical and health services, and interactions with high caliber, role model adults, have a potent contraceptive effect on teens. The program centers on all the forces and factors affecting the life of a teen at that time in their development, and discusses sexual issues within the context of an adolescent's whole life. The program incorporates a separate parent participation and includes seven program components: educational support, career awareness and job club, lifetime sports, creative expression, comprehensive medical and dental services, mental health services and family life and sex education. The overall philosophy of this approach is based on the belief that young people with whom we work are not "at risk" but rather "at promise." This proposed study shall be utilizing this approach and the measure of this approach in pre-testing the respondents. The seven year time frame shall be also include an evaluation throughout the years so that the study can properly monitor the outcome and the reactions of the participants in the study. Procedure After receiving ethics approval, the researcher shall seek the cooperation of the respondents’ family. The seven year period may prove to be quite straining for the respondents. Thus, the researcher shall be providing a waiver stating that in cases when the respondent may not take part of the study anymore, he/she may freely do so. Thus, in order to avoid a shortage of respondents, thirty (30) will be included in the study. Responses will be anonymous and confidential.   References   Brown, S., & Eisenberg, L. (eds.). (1995). The Best Intentions: Unintended Pregnancy and the Well-Being of Children and Families. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.   Frost, J., & Darroch Forrest, J. (1995). Understanding the impact of effective teenage pregnancy prevention programs. Family Planning Perspectives, 27, 188-195.   Kirby, D. (2000). School-based interventions to prevent unprotected sex and HIV among adolescents. In J. Peterson & R. Diclemente (Eds.), Handbook of HIV Prevention (pp. 83-97). New York: Plenum Publishers.   Kirby, D. et al. (1994). School-based programs to reduce sexual risk behaviors: A review of effectiveness. Public Health Reports, 109, 339-360.

Chapter 3 Methods And Procedure: The effects of dual abstinence and comprehensive sexual education programs on the pregnancy rates of rural adolescent African-American females.

Chapter 3 Methods And Procedure This chapter will discuss the method of research to be used, the respondents of the study, the samp...

Socio-Cultural Factors that Contribute to the Spread of HIV/Aids in Tanzania Research Proposal

Socio-Cultural Factors that Contribute to the Spread of HIV/Aids in Tanzania Background of the Study and Problem Statement When the issue of sex is stated on the paper, the main idea that came to mind is childbearing. It became risky when it arrived in the pubescent age. There are clinically findings that reveals on the fact that when a person is sexually driven or can be easily arouse, therefore, he or she has a psychological problem which is sometimes lead to the undesirable behaviors. The rapid changing of sexual partner is not good and in this case, the idea of HIV or AIDS became once again popular. Although there are medical assessment that tells that HIV/AIDS can be transferred through the needle sharing or an accidental needle-stick (SFHIV, 2004). Sex is the center of the study can’t avoid touching the areas of childbearing, psychological behaviors, and sexual diseases. However, the focus will be on the people despite knowing that they are HIV-positive or aware that their partner is HIV-positive, still having the unprotected sex. Purpose of the Study The research is supported by the four core objectives. The first purpose of the paper is to help reduce the spread of HIV and STDs through the awareness and promotion of safe sex and medical examinations. The second is to help the HIV-positive people achieve and maintain the physical, emotional, sexual and reproductive health and well-being. The third purpose of the paper is to assists the people who are unaware that they are the carrier of HIV diseases. And the fourth is to push the campaign for the developmental phase of an advanced cure for the HIV/AIDS-positive patients. Review on Literature There is a high risk behavior in unprotected sex. Meaning, there is an action or behavior that increases the individual’s probability of acquiring or transmitting the HIV/AIDS. It is seen on the people who have multiple partners and injecting drugs. A person who is also under the influence of alcohol is also at risk in obtaining or spreading the disease because there is an effect on an individual’s ability to make decisions such as safer sex. Also, the women are identified to be more prone or vulnerable to HIV/AIDS based on the three factors – epidemiological (getting married at young age), physiological (female anatomy), and socio-cultural factors (rape or molestation) (Parekh, 2008). The sexually transmitted infections can be easily transmitted to through the vaginal sex. Meanwhile, the other form of sexual intercourse can also deliver the infections (NAM, 2003). When a woman is declared as child-bearer and recognizes the existence of the HIV/AIDS in her bloodstream, there is a great risk that the transmission of the disease may be passed on the baby, more specifically when the partners are both HIV positive. But beside from the sexually transmitted disease, there are other infections that can be passed on the each partner during the unprotected sex (AFAO, 2001; NAM, 2003). Meanwhile, unsafe sex is also popular in the community where there are shifting of norm through the existence of gay men and lesbians and can be also the carrier of diseases (Maguen and Armistead, 2000; SFHIV, 2004). HIV infections, in the context of clinical studies, have the number of stages. Therefore, it is important that the HIV treatments should be developed according to its progression before the damaging of the immune system that can cause AIDS or illness. However, there are a small number of people that can live with HIV in a long time and there are available pills that can support or help prolong the life of the HIV-positive individuals. When a person recognized his condition with sexually transmitted infections, there is a great effect in the life of a person and most of them are negative impacts. An individual should seek the medical attention and the doctor will be the most important person in their decision making (AFAO, 2001). Methodology The applied the two methods of research and both served as the engine of the study. The first method is the interview which covers the demographics of the participants such as the gender, age, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. They were interviewed according to the privacy of their own and asked about their sexual history, the identified risk and outcome, and the present sexual status. The second method is the case-study method which is also used in analyzing the risk involved in the revelation of the participants that were engaged and/or currently engaged in unprotected sexual intercourse. References: AFAO, (2001) “What You Need to Know If You Are New to HIV”, Positive Living Australian Federation of AIDS Organizations, Accessed 16 December 2010, from http://www.afao.org.au/library_docs/positive_living/pl_nov_02.pdf Maguen, S., & Armistead, L., (2000) “Prevalence of Unprotected Sex and HIV-Antibody Testing among Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Youth”, The Journal of Sex Research, 37(2) NAM, (2003) “Unprotected Sex”, National Association of Manufacturers, Accessed 16 December 2010, from http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Unprotected%20Sex.pdf Parekh, A., (2008) Dealing with the Headline “She came and spread AIDS”, Gender Sensitive Reporting, HIV/AIDS Reporting Manual. Kaiser Family Foundation, Assessed 16 December 2010, from http://www.kff.org/hivaids/upload/7408-02.pdf SFHIV, (2004) “Community Assessment”, HIV Prevention in San Francisco, Accessed 16 December 2010, from http://www.sfhiv.org/files/plan_2004/2004_plan_ch_3.pdf

Socio-Cultural Factors that Contribute to the Spread of HIV/Aids in Tanzania Research Proposal

Socio-Cultural Factors that Contribute to the Spread of HIV/Aids in Tanzania Background of the Study and Problem Statement When the i...

Critical Analyze - Human Rights Of People Suffering From AIDS

Human Rights of People Suffering from AIDS   AIDS has been an epidemic  which widely spread all throughout the globe.  Besides the agony that it is brought to the victim, it even  fuels the endless  stigma and discrimination on the people that are HIV positive in every country.  Obviously, it  greatly increases the negative impact associated with the fatal disease. The stigma and discrimination  that goes along with AIDS  is an obvious fact nowadays in every institution  of the society at large.  Well,  the rest of the people in the society have their own personal reason to act that way.  Since AIDS is a contagious disease, and the worst of it all, it can be reason for the death of anyone.  And, if a person will not take extra precautions in dealing with AIDS  victims, they may suffer the same fate.  This is the major reason that  the entire  world is  creating major barriers  in how to  prevent further the infection, as well as in  alleviating the negative  impact of AIDS, so as to provide the adequate care, support and treatment for the AIDS patients. In addition, the  stigmatization and discrimination associates\d  with AIDS Stigmatization associated with AIDS is underpinned by many factors that include the lack of understanding about  the disease, as well as the  misconceptions about how HIV is transmitted  from person to person, so as the lack of access to treatment among the  victims.  Not only that, the  irresponsible dissemination of information by media, implying that  AIDS is incurable, and prejudice and fears relating to a number of socially sensitive issues including sexuality, disease and death, and drug use. All these crucial factors even led to violations of human rights  of these  people.  Apparently, these AIDS victims  more often  are  being deprived of the  right to healthcare, employment, education, so as the right of doing things on their own way among many others.  The truth is the well-being of people living with HIV  is being controlled by the society they are belonged. http://data.unaids.org/publications/irc-pub06/jc999-humrightsviol_en.pdf In this regard, AIDS issue was highlighted by the Declaration of Commitment adopted by the United Nations General Assembly Special Session on HIV/AIDS in June 2001.  The global consensus on the on the importance of tackling AIDS-related stigma and discrimination was being addressed during the Declaration. Foremost, the Declaration announced that the confronting stigma and discrimination is a prerequisite for effective prevention and care, and reafﬁrms that they are both  acts of violating the  human rights of the AIDS victims.  Secondly, it is also necessary to address such discrimination and stigma in order to achieve public health goals and fight against  the epidemic. The negative effects of stigma and discrimination can be seen as one of those many negative responses of the society towards the people with AIDS.  However, the most  helpful way  to help these people is to take voluntary actions  through giving confidential  counseling, as well as   extensive   laboratory  tests  that can prove if a person is positive or  not of AIDS.  If the person is positive,  his or her  HIV's stage must be identified and  medically evaluated without any fear of repercussions. For those who  happen to be test HIV-negative should receive further  prevention counseling  and medical measures in order to stay negative all the time.  The most important part of all, those who test HIV-positive should receive  immediate  treatment and care, and prevention counseling to protect others from infection and themselves from reinfection as well. Moreover, people  with HIV and AIDS  should live in reality with full of positivism outlook in life.  They also must  get compassion, support system  from their families, relatives, friends and within their communities. http://data.unaids.org/publications/irc-pub06/jc999-humrightsviol_en.pdf   HIV-related stigma and discrimination undermine prevention efforts by making people afraid to seek out for the truth and information that can reduce the risks of HIV exposure.   This kind of mentally  and behavior of people should be changed  at this time and age because   it even leads to  the inability of the  HIV or AIDS victims  to protect themselves from further harm.  The fear of stigma and discrimination in the society  also discourages people living with HIV from disclosing their real  health condition to family members and sexual partners. The secrecy that surround HIV infection  is resulted from the fear of stigma and discrimination causes people to imagine that they are not themselves at risk of HIV infection.  These are already  the ways of violating the individual rights of these people; that is even resulting  the  victims of less likely to receive care and support from the  concerned institutions in the communities. This   misconception about HIV and AIDS  even  endanger the life of the entire family such as the spouses, children, and caregivers who suffer stigma and discrimination. This stigma and discrimination needlessly elevates the personal suffering and shame of all the people concerned.  And, these are the main reasons why people living with HIV and AIDS do not  seek treatment, medical assistance from any government agencies because they think that  no one can understand their situation.  The shame  feeling of the patient can have a strong psychological effect on him or her, it makes the person more   vulnerable to blame, depression and self-imposed isolation. http://data.unaids.org/publications/irc-pub06/jc999-humrightsviol_en.pd References: http://data.unaids.org/publications/irc-pub06/jc999-humrightsviol_en.pdf http://www.welovelmc.com/diseases/hivproject.htm

Critical Analyze - Human Rights Of People Suffering From AIDS

Human Rights of People Suffering from AIDS AIDS has been an epidemic which widely spread all throughout the globe. Besides the a...