Research Korner: Schools

HISTORY OF THE DESEGREGATION OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS

History of the Desegregation of American Schools   Social inequality and racial collectivism in America did not only misplace and isolated the black community geographically but also crippled them in different aspects of their society.  Such aspects are: economy, politics and culture. The geographic isolation of blacks undermines the power of pluralist politics and means that whites have less to gain when public funds and resources are channeled to all black areas and away from multiethnic communities. The isolation contributes to the disinvestment and decline in many urban black areas by making them vulnerable to cutbacks in public funds and services. White politicians are more apt to target black neighborhoods for spending cuts because of the minimal political fallout.   According to  (1996), the story of international action against racial discrimination as of international action against many other evils, is that of the great effort to extend the rule of law. It is a highly political struggle, because it is about cajoling states to give up a little of their sovereignty. They are uncertain to do this unless they can get something in exchange. By complying with a convention they may be able to contribute to a cause they think important, to improve their image in the diplomatic world, or to put pressure on some other state of whose policies they disapprove.   The African American culture has been of great interest to a large number of studies. This is due to the unique and fascinating character and personality of its people. African Americans have a history and life experience that they alone fully understand. The civilization they experienced and the current social and economic pressures they endure are largely different from the more popular and highly researched lives of the Caucasians and Asians. As a race, these people have suffered greatly in the long story of their existence, and until these days, it is still evident in the low treatment of the racist and narrow-minded groups of people that, for some people, is inevitable in the global community that is now shared all over the world. This is evident in the calls that concerned individuals and private institutions, foundations and sectors that address anti-racism and anti-discrimination in the national and international setting. Such social stigma related to skin color is doubled by the discrimination felt by the African American gays and lesbians in their community and in the workplace. In effect, it is highly relevant that the roots of the nature of gender orientation be given light to others to fully understand and empathize with African American homosexuals.   The segregation and discrimination of the black urban community is the result of politics and economy in the mainstream history of the United States. It is also a given fact that the black community is in the side stream of America’s history. From 1450 -1750, the North American continent experienced enormous changes. The European explorers ventured to what they called then as the “New World” in search of vast amounts of natural wealth.  Corollary to these exploratory activities, these European explorers also traveled to Africa and began a trans-Atlantic slave trade.  Millions of Africans were brought to the Americas and traded there as slaves. This mass movement of people led to a new social and economic system; with the color of the skin as a determining factor whether one would live as a slave or as a free citizen. By 1750, both the free and enslaved black people showed an intense attachment to America. After 1750, many African-Americans already found their freedom. In 1830, Philadelphia held the first meeting of the American Society of Free Persons of Color (later became the National Negro Convention). This organization for the black people was created to establish a black community and seek true freedom ( 1998).            America is a country that places great values to education as an important characteristic in sustaining the democracy maintained and uphold by the Constitution.  The significance of education has long been hailed through the innovations in science and technology pioneered in the United States in the goal to provide the best kind of learning experience to the young members of the population. The support of the government and private sectors and organizations in promoting and upholding the right to education of every student has long been the driving and mechanical force in putting children in schools for them to avail the needs to be educated.  The United States in particular has been known to uphold freedom and equality in experiencing the good life.  The individualist cultural orientation of the country made the people of America to place importance in the concept of independence in the effort and time dedicated in advocating the relevance of individual choice and freedom.   And the application of such concepts in the everyday life importantly covers the aspect of education. The problem it seems, with the educational system is that it has been too complacent or too comfortable to address the issues of institutionalized racism. The academe has taken refuge in its insistence that racism could not exist in an academic institute because of the ideals that the institute claim to uphold. In the University, no student or employee shall, on the basis of their race, color, or national origin be disqualified or excluded from participation in, be denied or deprived of the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any University program or activity. University programs and activities include, but are not limited to, admissions, recruitment, financial aid, academic programs, student treatment and services, counseling and guidance, discipline, classroom assignment, grading, recreation, physical education, athletics and employment (Campus Conduct). Most of the time, discrimination is associated with the act of making a disparity, as in favor of or against a person or thing. It is a form of behavior that shows prejudice, but not only the form. It is the failure to treat people in the same way. In most cases, discrimination exists because there is no acceptance and respect. It has also been influenced by traditions and cultures.   The rise of civil rights movement in America since 1940 brings a significant change in the life of the African-American people. Two of the primary goals of the modern civil rights movement are to push for educational change and to improve the educational situation of African-Americans. However, the reforms demanded by the movement were not well received by the majority of school personnel and researchers ( 1991). Many years of bloody revolutions and social uprisings took place before American schools; lunch counters and worksites were desegregated. President John F. Kennedy issued an executive order in 1961 offering opportunities to the African-American community as compensation for years of discrimination. By the late 1960s, President Richard Nixon instructed companies working on federal projects to attain minority-hiring objectives. On the other hand, President George Bush, taking side against the Michigan in the Supreme Court case, said that he strongly supported diversity of all kinds including racial diversity in higher education ( 2003).               In 1965, there were only few African-American students who chose to enroll at the previously all-white schools of Cave Street Elementary for grades one to six and Deshler High School for grades seven to twelve in Alabama. In Deshler, one’s race interfered with one’s right to have a decent education.  Maria, an African American student, recounted some incidents that demonstrated her perceptions of hostility about the educational atmosphere in Deshler ( 2000).  By the 1970s, African-Americans have shown intense interest in pursuing their educational goals. In 1992, 52 percent of them planned to proceed directly to a four-year course after high school graduation as compared to 32 percent in 1972.  Also, there was an increase on the percentage of African-Americans to enter academic programs at two-year colleges. During the 1980s and 1990s, the number of bachelor degrees given to African-Americans increased noticeably. In spite of these gains however, their number was still lesser compared to the number of white Americans and Asian-Americans who wanted to enroll in college after high school. The U.S. Census Bureau in 2000 revealed a lesser percentage of African-Americans who received bachelor’s degree in their 20s and 30s. This statistic is smaller than the percentage for all racial and ethnic groups in America, taken together. This discrepancy caught the attention of the political leaders in the United States that is why they wanted to increase the participation of African-Americans in higher education, as one of the country’s educational objectives (, 2002).               According to the report made by the National Assessment of Educational Progress last 2000, the standardized test scores of average African-American and Hispanic students are lower, as compared to the scores of white students at comparable grade levels. The U.S. Department of Education concluded after its examination on 27 school reform models, that most of the reform models failed to make significant improvements. In January 2002, President George W. Bush, signed the No Child Left behind Act into law. This new education reform bill was designed basically to close the achievement gap between white upper-and middle-class public school students and poor children and children of color ( 2003). According to , U.S. Secretary of Education, he optimistically said before the National Press Club that every day our service to our children becomes better and each day we come one step closer to the future of excellence and inclusion, discarding the deficiencies and rectifying longstanding problems (   2004).                (1996) authored a book that deals with racism in schools, its effects on the academic performance, interpersonal relationships as well as the general outlook on life of African American students as well as other students of ‘color’. He pointed out how most academic institutions, in their confidence that racism has no place in such an idealistic institution often forget that some of their actions and behavior actually have racist implications. Accordingly, racism shows itself repeatedly in classrooms owing to the ignorance of individual teachers as well as administrators through institutionalized racism. The article entitled “A Pernicious Silence: Confronting Race in the Elementary Classroom” by   talks about creating classroom communities which are supposed to be, constructive, developmentally appropriate communities of learning that are necessary for solid learning to happen. There is an emphasis on everyone’s need to feel comfortable in order to take risks, and learning that is built on risk-taking. The problem is that teachers may also unwittingly create communities of silence (, 2003).    The provision of appropriate educational needs for children with special disabilities has long been a common issue in education. Arguments and debates have been raised in line with the right policies on how to educate children with special educational needs (SEN). According to (1997), children with disabilities are traditionally educated in segregated classrooms, specifically designed to cater the students’ certain incapacities. Educators find this segregation system beneficial, as they are able to apply curriculum formulated specifically for special children. Likewise, children with disabilities benefit from this system not only because of the appropriate curriculum but the thought of attending classes with classmates of the same disabilities enhance their confidence or self-esteem as well. Furthermore, being segregated assures the security and sufficient support the special children needs. While social skill development may vary based from numerous results of previous studies, inclusion is capable of enhancing children’s academic achievement through speech and language programs, improved parent–teacher communication, greater use of group work, a student participation in class discussions, and increased community acceptance of people with disabilities. Furthermore, several educators have argued that exposing children into ordinary education settings will be the most effective means of equipping children into better self-supportive adults in the future.   There are concepts of schools as ideological state apparatuses, and of cultural capital, used to analyze curriculum knowledge that has been selected, and cultural behaviors privileged and rewarded through both the formal and the hidden curricula. There are also identified mixture of gains and losses created by the National Curriculum in terms of educational equality regarding 'race', gender, special needs, sexual diversity and social class. The general principle is that policies are being directed toward school populations which are differentially recognized for educational purposes and for whom higher levels and different modes of financing are required. A whole range of school populations, however they are delineated by country authorities, according to various social, cultural, linguistic, racial, ethnic, geographic, physical and mental characteristics, are the subjects of special educational attention. A new comparative study could usefully follow the precedent established in the present report to examine the general principles in this field in which policy is related to finance ( 1979).   For the positive aspects in integration, it is included that the additional resources should now be available for all students. Although the validity of normalization as a basis for integration was questioned from the start, the concept played a significant role on pressures towards integration, and continues to do so. Critics claimed that normalization did not recognize the fact that the society includes a wide range of individual differences. Moreover, it did not adequately recognize the diversity of educational, vocational and other opportunities that are available to people in the adult world. For the advocates of integration, however, the right to education meant the right of students with disabilities to receive an education mean. These are speech and language programs, improved parent–teacher communication, greater use of group work, a student participation in class discussions, and increased community acceptance of people with disabilities. Students at mainstream schools were more likely to have higher academic achievements than those at special schools, even when developmental level was similar. Against these benefits, inclusion also brought its share of challenges. Although the concept of inclusion may have its own set of drawbacks, such disadvantages can be resolved primarily through effective training of educators.   Human development is crucial. It was said that no country can secure sustainable economic growth or reduce poverty without healthy, well-nourished, and well-educated people. The love for learning is so great that it should be associated with a way of life. Education helps people to be more objective in their approach to life’s problems, more analytical in trying to understand them and more aware of the consequences that can arise when handling them. Education can help lead a fuller and richer life and to be more conscious of the economic and social environment.   Annotated Bibliography: (1996). However, in democratic countries people are accustomed to seeing their governments criticized daily in many of the morning newspapers, but when a foreign official criticizes the same government, reactions are different. People would ask whether conditions in the foreigner's country are such that he or she is entitled to complain. Diplomats, in particular, are trained to defend their countries' honor. They are always on the look-out for fear that the rules of international relations are applied unfairly to their countries' disadvantage ( 1996).    Individuals are being treated unequally due to the influenced of some strong factors like religion, sex, national origin, sexual orientation, and even disability. Efforts towards establishing an earnest multicultural institute are being made however to address and handle this problem and it begins with initiating a self examination on one’s awareness in detecting racist forms of behaviors and attitudes. Common solutions propose to break the silence by gaining enough courage to talk it through with the kids in order to gain a better understanding of themselves as well as growing in a culturally diverse environment ().    (1979). A study of British Policy and the Political Impasse in India Through contacts with the parents much has been learned by the teachers about the children, which has, in many cases, enabled them to solve problems and unexplained difficulties which they had encountered. But a great deal remains to be done. The policy is to be implemented thoroughly and completely. There are crucial areas where policy has failed to effect change in the past and where it can succeed in the future, particularly in relation to equality. Policies legitimate certain concerns, provide resources to further them, and provide a basis for evaluation and refinement ( 1979).   (1997) These argument concerned academic achievement, the detrimental effects of labeling associated with placement outside the mainstream, the racial imbalance in special education, and recent advances in individually paced curricula which would make it possible to accommodate students with disabilities in the regular class. Most importantly, it was argued by educators that these centers are the best way of preparing students with disabilities for ultimate integration into the community as self-support adult (1997).   (1996) In both urban and suburban schools, students of color experience inequality by being given a smaller amount of instructional time biased texts and curricula, harsh sanctions (suspension and detention), lowered teacher expectations, and teacher/administrator and school denial of racist actions. White students who lack sufficient understanding of racism on the other hand often accuse the victims of using their ethnicity or race as a crutch in order to get special treatment due to their laziness to do things on their own initiative. As a result, some potentially brilliant student of color represses his skills and talent out of fear of being bullied and a resentment of not being taken seriously ( 1996).  (2000).   During that time, African-American students were treated unfairly and unjustly by some teachers and white students ( 2000).   (2003). Race matters: this year, the Supreme Court could dismantle affirmative action. Would it be ending an unfair practice or hurting the cause of racial equality?.   This affirmative action does not only help the minorities who have been subject for discrimination for so many years but also improved the educational experience of everyone in the university. One student from a university in Michigan said that she is proud for having friends who are black (, 2003).        (2003).   The article states that when teachers avoid the subject, and pretend that it doesn't exist as an issue, or when the issue is treated lightly, they are sending a very strong message which may be unintentional but it produces stifling results. However, when teachers find ways to address the issues surrounding race in society it has been found that children feel liberated. They begin to be more open about their questions and there is more space for them to focus on all kinds of learning ( 2003).     Many societies were founded by the blacks. The black community in Philadelphia created schools for their children because they were denied access to public schools. However, the conflict between the blacks and the whites worsened which led to the Civil War in 1861. After four years, African Americans were promised of rights of citizenship and slavery was abolished (1998).   (2003). The law requires every classroom to have a highly competitive teacher likewise; the states are required to measure the students’ performance regularly. Recent reports show that the law is working well and the strategies are very effective ( 2003).    (2002). Aside from being a political and social issue, this issue is also economic. The economic success of young people also relies on their achievement of an academic degree ( 2002).  (2004).   There are various opportunities offered to African-American students. The African American Cultural Program (AACP) offers experiences beyond academic pursuits. It provides training in the areas of news casting, promotions and public affairs. The Central Black Student Union (CBSU) extends help in planning and sponsoring social, educational and cultural programs for students through early events like “Cotton Club” ( 2004).  (1991).   One important milestone in the African-American education was the landmark case of Brown versus the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954, in which the Supreme Court unanimously overruled the “separate but equal” doctrine of , holding for the first time that the de jure segregation in the public school clearly violated the principle of equal protection under the law guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution. The decision was then applied to mainly southern school systems ( 1991)

HISTORY OF THE DESEGREGATION OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS

History of the Desegregation of American Schools Social inequality and racial collectivism in America did not only misplace and isol...

ST. JAMES ACADEMY

ST. JAMES ACADEMY Rizal Ave. Ext., Brgy. San Agustin, Malabon City     HISTORICAL PROFILE OF ST. JAMES ACADEMY             St. James Academy of Malabon City broke ground from the vestiges of Malabon Normal School, the first Archdiocesan Catholic teacher training institution, conceived by the Manila Archbishop Michael O’Doherty in 1925 and formally opened in June 1926, with the Maryknoll Sisters taking the reins of the administration.             The first Grade School graduation took place in 1931 with 20 graduates whiles the High School had it in 1933.  In April 1936, the normal school and the pre-school departments were moved to Isaac Peral St., Manila now United nations Avenue, while the grade school and high school departments remained patron of Bishop James Anthony Walsh, M.M. the co-founder of the maryknoll Congregation with the maryknoll Sisters still supervising the institution.             When Wolrd War II broke out in 1941, the school was closed down but classes continued at the private residence of the Punzalan family and managed by lay teachers while the Mryknoll Sisters were interned by the Japanese in Los Baños, Laguna and the University of Sto. Tomas.             The school reopened in 1945 when the war end.  The first high school graduation after the war took place on March 26, 1946 with 20 graduates.             In 1960, St. James Academy, being an Archdiocesan school, became an automatic member of the Manila Archdiocesan and Parochial Schools Association after the Archdiocesan of Manila promulgated a decree creating MAPSA.             In 1980, the Maryknoll Congregartion, formerly The Foreign Mission of St. Dominic, veered its charism to full-time missionary work thus, bequeathing their 54 years of management of the school to another St. Dominic-inspired congregation as approved by His Eminence Jaime  Cardinal Sin, then Archdiocesan of Manila – the Dominican Sisters of St. Catherine of Siena.             On October 20, 2003.  in view of the canonical establishment of the new Diocese of Kalookan, St. James Academy became a diocesan school under the aforementioned diocese, known as kalookan Diocesan  School Association (KADSA). However, SJA is still a part of Manila Archdiocesan and Parochial School Association, Inc. (MAPSA), the latter being an umbrella organization of all diocesan schools in Metro Manila, Antipolo and Bulacan.             Presently, St. James Academy, a PAASCU accredited institution, affords quality Catholic basic education to students from the Greater Manila area comprising the cities of Malabon, Valenzuela, Quezon city, Kalookan, the municipality of Navotas and as far as Obando and Marilao in Bulacan.             Through the years, St. James Academy has tremendously changed Malabon’s landmark. Its physical contour and instructional facilities have met the benchmarks of an excellent learning institution.   Admission info Program being offred • Pre-school • Grade School • high School   Admission Policies             Admission is a very important task of the school if grants an applicant admission to the school, with a definite understanding that the student and his/her parents or guardians agree in writing to comply with the rules and regulations as this school, its scholastic standards as well as the ideals of Catholic Education.     Admission requirements A. For New Students and Transferees      Submit the Application Form at the Registrar’s Office with the following requirements. 1.  Birth Certificate with registry number (original & Xerox copy) 2.  Baptismal Certificate (original & Xerox copy) 3.  One recent colored ID picture (1”x1”) 4.  Complete immunization record (original & Xeorx copy) 5.  Passing mark in the entrance examination and interview 6.  Long Brown envelope   Additional requirements for Grade School/High School students: 7.  Form 138/Report Card or record of latest quarterly grades (original & Xerox copy) 8.  Letter of recommendation from the Principal/Guidance Counsilor 9.  An Average conduct mark of 85% 10. A minimum general average of 84% (for High School Applicants: no grades below       80% in any academic subject in the Final Rating.  Students with grades below 80% in       any subject but not in the Final Rating are placed on probation if they pass the       entrance test.) 11. If an Alien, a Photostat copy of the Alien Certificate of Registration and Immigration       Certificate of Residence is required. B. For SJA Students. 1.  A student who fails I one two-unit subject or two one-unit subjects at the end of the      school year will be advised to transfer to another school.  However, a student who       fails in one-unit subject at the end of the school year will be advised to take summer       class and if he passes may be admitted to the next year level of the following school      year, subject to academic probationary conditions.  If the same student fails again in      any subject in the succeeding school years, he will be asked to transfer to another       school. 2.  Students with two suspension for major offense during the school year will not be re-      admitted for the next school year, unless a marked improvement has been manifested       and the parents are willing to sign an academic and/or conduct contract.   Admission Procedure 1.  Secure Application Form from the Registrar’s Office (Monday to Friday) 2.  Submit the Application Form and the requirements at the Registrar’s Office 3.  Pay the Testing fee at the Cashier’s Office and secure test permit. 4.  Come on the date scheduled for testing and interviews with members of the Screening      Committee. 5.  Present the test permit to the Guidance 6.  Come for the test result on the date scheduled at the Registrar’s Office 7.  If an applicant passes, secure reservation and contract forms at the Registrar’s Office. 8.  File the accomplished reservation and contract forms at the Registrar’s Office, Grade      School or High School Secretary.   Payment of Fees             There are four terms of paying tuition and other school fees; fully upon registration, semestrally, quarterly and monthly. The school allows payment on installment with surcharge of 1% per month on gross assessment. Delayed installments shall be further subject to penalty of 3% per month based on outstanding balance.   Refund of Fees A student may withdraw from the school after enrollment with the following conditions: 1.  He will be charge 5% of the total amount of tuition and other school fees if he      withdraws within the first week before classes begin. 2.  10% of the total amount of tuition and other school fees if he withdraws on the first      week after classes; 3.  20% of the total amount of tuition and other school fees if he withdraws after two      weeks of classes. 4.  100% of the total amount of tuition and other school fees if he withdraw after three       weeks of classes.   Scholarship Academic Full free Tuition • Grades 2,3,4,5,6, First Honors of St. James Academy • Students from other schools who passed the scholarship exam • I,II,III First Honors of St. James Academy   Academic Half Free Tuition • Grades 2,3,4,5,6 Second Honors of St. James Academy •  I,II,III Second Honors of James Academy   Partial Privilege Scholars • Children of SJA Faculty and Personal • Academic 25% tuition fee discount for Third honors of St. James Academy   Fourth and Fifth Child Scholarship • If four or five siblings are presently enrolled for the school year, the fourth child will have a HALF Free Tuition Fee while the fifth child will have a FULL Free Tuition Fee   Dep. Ed Regulation Scholarship • As per DepEd regulation of 1 full free tuition for every 500 students   SJA-PTA Scholarship • This scholarship is given to poor but deserving students of St. James Academy   M. Francisca Outreach Programs Vocational Courses Offered: 1. Cosmetology                       4. Tailoring 2. Hi-speed                              5.  Food Processing / Baking / Cooking 3. Dressmaking   Panggabing Klase sa St. James Academy             Mga Tuntunin sa Pagpasok para sa Panggabing klase sa St. James Academy. 1.  Humingi ng application form sa Registrar’s Office 2.  Sagutan at Sumite ang application form sa Registrar’s Office kasama ang mga sumusunod na requirements; a)      Birth Certificate with registry number (original and Xerox copy) b)      Baptismal Certificate (original & Xerox copy) c)      Form 138/Report Card or Phil. Educ. Placement Test (PEPT) result (original and Xerox copy) d)     Pinakahuling kuhang litrato 1”x1” colored e)      Sertipikasyon ng pamasmasukan (kung nagtatrabaho) f)       Long brown envelope 3. Pumunta sa itinakdang araw upang malaman ang resulta ng unang pagsusuri o screening ng apikasyon. 4.  Kung nakapasa sa unang pagsusuri o screening, bumalik sa itinakdang araw at oras ng pagsusulit (examination). Magdala ng school ID o anumang bagay na pagkakalilantan. 5.  Alamin ang resulta na ipapaskil sa paaralan sa itinakdang araw nito. 6.  Kung nakapasa sa pagsusulit, bumalik para sa panayam o interview. 7.  Kung ang aplikante ay makapasa sa lahat ng mga nabanggit na pagsusuri, kunin ang      reservation at contract forms, lagdaan at isumite sa Registrar’s Office.     CALOOCAN CITY SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL 10th Ave. corner P.Sevilla St., Caloocan City   Mission: A center for learning that creates individuals who are scientifically and       technologically educated but highly humans in their behavior, creatively resourceful       but environmentally militant with great reservation for moral decency.   Vision:  The center of learning shall be founded on the four pillars of educational       excellence which are Teachers who act as academic parents.  Educational Managers       who are sensitive to rapid changes. Democratic Instructors that will individuals self-       stimulated learners, and Human Values that will keep them men for other men.   Admission info Program being offered • Science High School   Tuition No Tuition   Selection Test Qualification 1.  He/She must be a Filipino. 2.  He/She must be a sixth grade who is a candidate for graduation from either a public or      private school preferably in Caloocan City. 3.  He/She must be of good health condition, of good moral character and should not have      been involved in any violation of school rules and regulations or case of misbehavior       during his/her stay in the elementary school and more importantly NOT a member of      any fraternity.   Entrance Exam Requirements 1.  Original and photocopy of birth certificate. 2.  Certified photocopy of the Rating Report Card (Form 138) containing the first grading      grades duly signed by the Principal/School Head. 3.  Health Certificate from a public Doctor and Certificate of Good Moral duly signed by      the Guidance Counselor (Original copy). 4.  Two pcs. 1”x1” identical recent photographs 5.  Correctly and completely accomplished CCSHS Forms 1,2,3,4 and 5.   Application Procedure 1.  Clearly and completely accomplish the Selection Test Application Form. Bring the          following:      •  Two (2) pcs. 1”x1” identical and recent photograph (one should be attached to the          Application Form)      •  Health Certificate (issued by a government or public doctor)      •  Photocopy of Birth Certificate (please bring the original copy of Birth Certificate for          verification purposes)      •  Certified true copy of Form 138 (Grade VI Report Card for the 1st Quarter) duly          signed by the School Principal/Adviser. 2.      Pay the Selection Test Free (PhP 100) 3.      Claim your Test Permit. Before leaving, make sure that the Test Permit is completely filled out with the following information;  Application No., Applicant’s Name; Name of School, Date and Time of Examination, and Room Assignment. Picture must have CCSHS dry seal.  The test permit must be duly signed by the Guidance Counselor of CCSHS.

ST. JAMES ACADEMY

ST. JAMES ACADEMY Rizal Ave. Ext., Brgy. San Agustin, Malabon City HISTORICAL PROFILE OF ST. JAMES ACADEMY St. Ja...

Infant Visual Perception

Introduction Infant growth moves from the general to the specific. This is an important facet of human development It rests upon the principle of generalized movement by the infant directed toward more specific actions and precision as time passes. This can be seen readily in the infant whose movements are random at first when attempting an act, then becoming more exact and deliberate, from flailing arms to more specific hand control and finally finger coordination as the infant tries to "pick up" from a flat surface; this represents neuro-muscular maturation, reaching first with an entire limb in an awkward manner and then concluding with natural, self devised restrictions imposed on the arms facilitating more finite hand/finger aptitude. Time and genes allow for this kind of growth; external interferences can do little under this organic sequence. This paper will explain the different aspects of the perceptual growth of infants. What do Babies know about the Physical World? Perception is composed of both experiencing and interpreting the world that an infant live in this is according to some philosophers, psychologists, physiologists and physicists. The infant’s daily experiences increase his or her fascinating perceptual questions. Infants are responsive to binocular and kinetic information by 3 to 5 months of age except they may not be sensitive to static information until about 7 months of age. It is significant to point out, though, that infants younger than 3 months of age probably perceive depth. A child’s everyday experiences raise the following questions: How do our perceptions come to achieve stability amidst constant fluctuations in the environment? How do perceptions come to be invested with meaning? How are the individual features of things we perceive synthesized into organized wholes? How does the perceptual quality of “bitter” differ from that of “red”? How do we see a three-dimensional world when visual processing begins with a two-dimensional image in the eye? Perceptual development has served as a kind of battleground between nativists and empiricists, and to illustrate this some studies examine one exemplary skirmish in detail. It concerns the ways infants might come to perceive depth in space. They selected this example for several reasons. First, depth perception is crucial to determining the spatial layout of the environment, recognizing objects, and guiding motor action. Second, the study of depth perception addresses an interesting psychophysical question, namely how infants perceive the three dimensionality of the environment when the retina of the eye first codes information along only two dimensions. Third, debate on this question exemplifies the typical historical course: It began with hotly contested philosophical disputes that spanned the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries before prompting experimentation in the twentieth century. Throughout this time, philosophers and scientists consistently looked to infancy to help decide how depth perception develops. Experimental studies began to displace philosophical speculation; in fact, experimental psychology, which started only in the twentieth century, was at first specifically organized to address just such issues. Three lines of research exemplify how questions about the origins of depth perception have been addressed experimentally. All three are valuable because no one alone provides definitive information, but the three together converge to sketch how depth perception develops. The starting point for the first line of research was the following observation: Infants at the creeping and toddling stage are notoriously prone to falls from more or less high places . They must be kept from going over the brink by side panels on their cribs, gates on their stairways, and vigilance of adults. As their muscular coordination matures, they begin to avoid such accidents on their own. Common sense might suggest that the child learns to recognize falling-off places by experience—that is, by falling and hurting himself. But is experience really the teacher? Or is the ability to perceive and avoid a brink part of the child's original endowment? From these results, they concluded that depth perception must be present in infants as young as 6 months of age. By 6 months, however, children may already have had plenty of experience perceiving depth, the pre-crawling babies by monitoring heart rate when the babies were exposed to shallow and deep sides of the visual cliff. They found that babies as young as 2 months of age showed a decrease in heart rate when exposed to the deep side, indicating increased attention or interest. Thus, babies may perceive depth long before they locomote but show little fear of the drop at that age. The wariness of drops shown by older infants may result from the anxiety parents’ show when infants approach a drop, rather than from actual experience with falls. Infants “socially reference” their parents and use their parents' emotional cues to interpret ambiguous events .Visual cliff experiments represent one way investigators have sought to explore the infant’s  capacity to perceive depth. In actuality, three types of stimulus information specify depth, and thus organize this discussion of early depth perception around binocular, static, and kinetic cues. As Descartes and Kant argued, there are at least two bases for perceiving depth because infants are binocular (have two eyes). Because their two eyes receive slightly different images of the visual world, the convergence angle of the two and the disparity between the two images they yield provide some information about depth perception. Binocular convergence provides information only about close-up distances, but it may provide functional information about depth as early as 2 months of age. Depth perception experiments have demonstrated that infants are sensitive to binocular and kinetic information by 3 to 5 months of age but may not be sensitive to static information until about 7 months of age. It is important to point out, however, that infants younger than 3 months of age probably perceive depth. There may never be a final triumph for nativism or for empiricism. It can be argued that, no matter how early in life depth perception can be demonstrated, the ability still rests on some experience, and that no matter how late depth perception emerges, it can never be proved that only experience has mattered. Nevertheless, the nativism-empiricism debate remains pervasive in the developmental study of depth perception, as well as color, speech, and many other content topics in infant perceptual development. Physical objects or events arouse the infant’s sense-organs. As a causal result of this, they obtain instantaneous knowledge of their existence and their properties. By immediate knowledge is meant knowledge which is not inferred from, or suggested by, any further knowledge, or any ground or basis for knowledge. This knowledge is not necessarily verbalized knowledge, but it is always knowledge which it is logically possible to put verbally. It is propositional in form. And although such knowledge is immediate, in the sense just defined, it is not incorrigible knowledge. Conclusion As a result of  the stimulation of  the eye, infants  acquire immediate knowledge of  the size, shape, color and spatial relations of  the objects  around them; as a result of  the stimulation of  the skin, they obtain immediate knowledge of  the shape, size, temperature, spatial relations, and other properties of  the objects in our environment; as a result of the stimulation of  the nose, they acquire immediate knowledge of  the presence of smells; and so on. After they gain some knowledge of the physical world, this knowledge is accompanied by knowledge of the means by which this immediate knowledge was got (by the eyes, skin, nose, etc.). It is also regularly accompanied by characteristic sensations in the organs being used to acquire the immediate knowledge. The acquiring of immediate knowledge in this fashion is perception. It may be distinguished from more sophisticated forms of perception by being called immediate perception. But it must be emphasized that immediate perception is not immediate knowledge. It is the acquiring of immediate knowledge, and is therefore an event in the sense that an acquiring is an event. It is part of the concept of immediate perception that the knowledge acquired is knowledge of the state of affairs in the physical world contemporary with the acquiring of the knowledge. This logical necessity is built on the empirical fact that we never acquire any immediate knowledge of past states of affairs by means of the senses. The objects and properties of objects that are immediately perceived have an existence logically independent of their being perceived. They may be perceived or not perceived. There are objects and properties of objects that are never perceived, although it would always be logically possible for such unperceived things to be perceived. It is therefore REALISTIC. Studies prove that the quality of child care have a great impact to the growth and perceptual development of the child. Infants have diverse personalities and temperaments, they develop at different rates. Their self-esteem is an important aspect of their development, that is why parents and caregivers should give them constant praise and encouragement. The following points should be considered in order to help boost the development of a child: <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Communicate to your offspring what needs to be done at that moment. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Redirect his or her attention or activity by using neutral or positive language. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Say no while maintaining love. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Explain the reason for your rule. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Give limited tasks and be specific in your request. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Acknowledge children's feelings, but set limits. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Help them understand how their actions affect others. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Help kids use words to communicate their frustrations. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Acknowledge positive behavior. </li></ul>

Infant Visual Perception

Introduction Infant growth moves from the general to the specific. This is an important facet of human development It re...

Clinical Teaching

This paper will describe a clinical teaching session that was given prior to commencing this course on Senior First Aid level two. This paper will also discuss the planning, preparation and evaluation of the training session. Furthermore how the writer can improve this teaching – learning situation in the future.   In order to begin teaching, an accredited Senior First Aid (level two) and other first aid courses to my casual agency staff within the sub-cute and aged care sector. The writer had to have completed a workplace training and assessment course. This was completed over several months, via a correspondence course. The writer had evidence of past one on one training experience with good evidences so exemptions were granted. Once completed the recommended criteria it took another few months to find out what was needed to teach first aid, with a lot of phone calls and given the run around so to speak, the writer was about to give up (Scotts Correspondence, 2003).   The writer had left the enquire for a week or more, then the writer phoned Australian First Aid to discuss her needs. Australian First Aid could accommodate her request and allowed the writer to become a co-provider with their organsiation. Firstly the writer had to attend a three-day workshop. A fee was payable to register, this allowed the writer to obtain the relevant information, this included the complete training packages of all related first aid courses that could be delivered plus on going support from the training organization. Furthermore the equipment such as 4 brad manikins / wall charts / first aid kits / resuscitation masks that is to be used in all practical session (Australian First Aid, 2003).   It was also identified that the writer had to add training component to her current business structure and alter her business plan this was completed without to much disruption (Australasian Legal Information Institute, 2006)). The writer also had created and maintained an electronic enrolment data base, this had to be kept for 30 years after one training session, regular backups had to be stored in a fire proof safe (Department of Education, Science and Training, 2005). It was also a requirement that the training organisation complete annually competences assessments on all their co-providers, to ensure that they remain competent in what was being delivered (Australian First Aid 2002).   Organising the first teaching session for the senior first aid level two, required my organisation to advertise internally and informing all agency staff that the course was available at a reduced price. The first course was scheduled 4 weeks in advance this is to ensure adequate numbers of participants were booked into the course. Once the amount of six participants enrolled then the writer could move on to the next stage (Scotts Correspondence, 2003).   As this was both theory and practical based course, all participants was given a choose, if they wont to complete theory online or the workbook system, prior to commencing the practical in the comfort of their own home, as all participants choose the workbook system. Senior First Aid workbooks consisting of 126 questions, requiring a mixture of short answers, multiple chose and true & false.   All theory papers and first aid books were sent to all participants, informing that theory component had to be completed and returned, one week prior to practical. This is to ensure, that all papers were marked and correct, all participant had to achieve 100%, if marks were not achieved, participants had another chance during practical session to complete and resubmit it at the end of the first practical session (Australian First Aid 2002).   Once all participants completed the theory component the practical component then was scheduled for 2 sessions of 3hrs each, this was conducted on a Tuesday for 2 weeks, in a general room within the writer’s offices. Tables and seating was arranges as a boardroom layout, so that all participants can see the demonstrations plus have interaction with other participants as these sessions required a lot of interaction and constant demonstrations. A use of overheads was very effective in presenting relevant material The University of Melbourne  (2004).     As a co-provider the writer had to mention the training organisation as they were providing all participants with their senior first aid certificate, which was valid for 3 years.  The first thirty minutes of the session was a revision of the theory based. This was to confirm what participants had learnt, or if there was any gaps that needed to be revised.  As this was a three-hour session, the writer had to take into account all carers and nurses learn style, plus attention span taking two 10-minute breaks at the end of each hour (Scotts Correspondence, 2003).   The writer had to take in account the ratio of participants to trainer this would be 1 to 14, if participants reached over 14 then, it was a requirement to call in an other trainer Australian First Aid (2002).  All practical competencies had to be demonstrated and marked off all seven competency sheets over the two practical sessions, this was to include: control of major bleeding, examination of unconscious casualty, management of choking - (full obstruction), immobilisation of fractures, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (for adults), expiry air resuscitation, and management of spinal injury, This would give all participants a record that they had completed senior first aid competencies.  Constant education and demonstrations was given throughout the sessions to ensure that they would be competent, to preform such tasks in an emergency situation when faced (Australian First Aid 2002).   It was a criteria, of Australian First Aid, that all participants had to compete a course evaluation questionnaire. According to the participant’s comments in the evaluation questionnaire, it seems that all attended found the sessions to be a positive experience.  The evaluation questionnaire also showed that the participants believed that goals and objectives of the training sessions had been met within the time available.    As the training sessions was a small group of six people with a diverse background of education and experience, the training material had been packaged by Australian First Aid so, it could be easily understood by all learners. The evidence provided by the comments and discussion, along with the evaluation questionnaire, showed that all participants preferred a small group as this gave them more time to met the required competencies within a much friendly environment. The course elevation questionnaire would provide the writer and the training organization ways to improve their teaching style.    Due to the advance knowledge base required by the trainer to teach first aid courses, the writer felt very overwhelmed, anxious, and had small panic attacks when teaching these training sessions, as she believed that she was not suitable to teach in small groups her nerves got the better of her, as she could not overcome her experiences.  The writer would have to disagree with the course elevation questionnaires. As the writer felt due to lack of experience, teaching first aid the participant did not receive a high standard of knowledge.   Ways to improving this teaching – learning situation, the writer should have called in the training organisation, to assist her on the first few training sessions. So that the writer could build up her confidence level, communication, and the way she presents the training packages to her participants. If this was implemented the writer would still be teaching first aid courses today. Time management was excellent as the training package had a time - table, this helped to ensure that the writer stayed on schedule with the training package.   References   Australian First Aid (2003) Co-Provider Manual   Australasian Legal Information Institute (2006) Commonwealth Consolidated Acts, TRADE MARKS ACT 1995, viewed 6th May 2006, <http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/tma1995121/ >   Cleasby, P(1997) School of Nursing and Health Administration Meeting the Learning Needs of Clinical Nurse Teachers: A Pilot Program", viewed 4th May 2005, <http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/nhcp/aejne/archive/vol2-1/lmck21> Department of Education, Science and Training (2005) New National Training System, Viewed 5th May 2006, <http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/training_skills/policy_issues_reviews/key_issues/nts/ >   Education World, Inc. (2206) Do Seating Arrangements and Assignments = Classroom Management? http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr330.shtml [online] 5th May 2006   Henderson, S. (1995). Clinical teaching involves more than evaluating students. In Summers, L. (Ed), A Focus on Learning, p121-125. Proceedings of the 4th Annual Teaching Learning Forum, Edith Cowan University, February 1995. Perth: Edith Cowan University, Viewed 4th May 2006, <http://lsn.curtin.edu.au/tlf/tlf1995/henderson.html>    Honolulu Community College (2002) Teaching Tips, viewed 5th May 2006, <http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/teachtip.htm >   Pearson Education Australian PTY Limited (2000) Participants Guide from certificate IV in assessment and workplace training.   Riding, RJ, Glass, A, & Douglas, G 1993, ‘Individual differences in thinking: cognitive and neurophysiological perspectives’, Educational Psychology, vol. 13, no. 3/4, pp. 267-278.   Scotts Correspondence (2003) Workplace Training And Assessment. Reading Notes.   The Clerkship  (2005) Clinical Teaching Handbook, viewed 3rd May 2006 <http://clerkship.fammed.washington.edu/teaching/index.html >   The University of Melbourne  (2004) Seating Arrangements for Teaching & Learning Spaces, viewed 5th May 2006 <http://www.ists.unimelb.edu.au/ts/seating.htm >   Western Australia Department of Training, Rumsey D and Associations, (2002), Shaping the VET practitioner of the future, viewed 5th May 2006 < http://www.training.wa.gov.au/resources/docs/VET%20discussion%20paper.pdf>

Clinical Teaching

This paper will describe a clinical teaching session that was given prior to commencing this course on Senior First Aid level two. This pa...

Intelligence

Academic Intelligence Characteristics <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Problems are formulated by other people</li> </ul> In academic intelligence, there are preset problems created by other people in testing or proving such intelligence.  This has been done to evaluate the level of academic intelligence that a person has with relation to the answers.  <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Arguments and point of views are clearly defined</li> </ul> Specific ideas and thoughts are based on facts and what has being known.  Academic intelligence thus set a standard on a specific problem or discussion. <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Move toward all information needed for the solution</li> </ul> As a factual matter, it always has a corresponding solution to the problem.  Academic intelligence has also predetermined information for such solution. <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> There has only one right and approved answer</li> </ul> There could be no other considerations on answers other than the perceived solution.  This is very true to literature and what has already been known.  There would only be one exact answer acceptable.  <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> It does not depend on ordinary experience</li> </ul> Academic intelligence feeds itself on recognized and acknowledged matters.  It rejects and excludes matters from experiences.    Everyday Intelligence Characteristics <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Requires problem recognition and formulation</li> </ul> Problems should initially be documented and created basing on what is being encountered.  It will be the basis for reoccurrence of a particular experience. <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Problems to be solved are inadequately defined</li> </ul> Since experiences acquired in everyday intelligence vary, problems to be solved seem to be insufficiently definite. <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Necessitate the need for gathering information</li> </ul> It calls for the practical output and realistic endeavor in obtaining information.  <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> There would be a lot of acceptable answers to a problem</li> </ul> It would be like a case to case basis.  A specified issue could have many acceptable answers and solutions.  <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> It is dependent on the past and everyday experiences</li> </ul> Everyday intelligence will develop along with its reliance to what has been experienced and what has being experience as of the moment.  <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> It needs personal effort of participation and contribution</li> </ul> As practical as it is, everyday intelligence requires personal involvement and participation in achieving answers and solution to a defined subject.    Discussion: The two types of intelligence characterized and classified in the above statements are apparently in the contrary.  Most of the characteristics are to some extent opposite to the other.  While it has been perceived that analytical intelligence is synonymous to academic intelligence, however, argues the there is a big difference between them.  There are other contrasting ideas on this matter. People often say that success in life and career is based on good IQ, and that they can only achieve their goals in life with a high test score or high IQ.  Conversely,  in her own experience, IQ and high test scores do not determine how well an individual will succeed in life.    In relation to Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence             Robert J. Sternberg developed the Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence that includes three sub-theories: Analytical, Creative, and Practical.  The first one, Analytical facet is considered by Sternberg to be the reflection of how an individual relates to the internal world.  This Analytical Intelligence (Academic skills), Sternberg believes, is based on the joint operations of metacomponents and performance components and knowledge acquisition components of intelligence.  This statement from Sternberg agrees from the above characteristics of Academic Intelligence that in the knowledge acquisition component, learning is based on memorizing things in our learning capacity.              With Sternberg’s third sub-theory, Practical Intelligence, it is the contextual aspect of intelligence that reflects how the individual relates to the external world.  This sub-theory is apparently what is called Everyday Intelligence that involves the person’s ability to grasp, understand and deal with everyday tasks.  As characterized above, Everyday intelligence is gained through adaptation to, shaping of, and selection of real-world environments relevant to one’s life.

Intelligence

Academic Intelligence Characteristics Problems are formulated by other people In academic intelligence, ther...