Research Korner: Erickson Theory

Case Study for Bilingual Education

The Role of Language, Literacy and Culture in the Content Instruction of Junior High and high School Students with Diverse Cultural Backgrounds History of Bilingual Education               The process through which children learn their first language has fascinated people for centuries. These are several gruesome historical episodes in which unethical members of royalty from different cultures around the world exploited their power in vain attempts to discover the origins of language in children. Human beings possess a capacity to learn language that is specific to this species and no other. Language might be expected from the evolutionary process humans have undergone and that the basis for language might be transmitted genetically. The dominant American culture shapes nearly all public schools in the United States. School culture determines curriculum content, assumptions about background knowledge, learning philosophies, teaching approaches, classroom interaction and management, school routines, and parental participation. Differences in culture between the school and the students influences the teachers' perception of students and their families, the students' behavior and performance in school, and parents' interactions with school and their children. Decisions about what to teach are based on what society considers necessary and valuable to learn. World history courses that concentrate mostly on European history reflect the historical background that, implicitly, U.S. schools consider important. Students from other parts of the world are often deracinated because the curriculum lacks their own historical content. Their American classmates and even their teachers may be ignorant about the bilingual students' own historical background. The children’s ability to learn as facilitated by those involved in the immediate community where they live is presumed to be enhanced. This is the primary basis of most of the learning theories that has been identified through time. The children learn several lessons as they start to interact with the community. They learn how to become part of the community. As they growl old, they learn to play a role in the community. These of course, are in addition to the basic lessons that they have to learn in school. That is, learn how to sing, write, perform arithmetic, and solve math problems and others. There are certain arguments that involve in terms of the language development, It was been argued that language is a complex system consisting of a number of distinct, interacting, components, and that no single explanation for its development is likely to be adequate: but the evidence suggests, rather, that different factors predominate in the development of different parts of the system.  In meaning, the language development is a critical factor in the stage development of a child. Bilingual education is instruction in two languages and the use of each language as a medium of instruction for any part of, or the entire school curriculum. Bilingualism is common in the Ancient World, especially with the Ancient Greece. Latin prevails among the European communities due to the scope of the Ancient Roman empire. Starting in the sixth century B.C.E, ancient Greeks, for example, penetrated and dominated large areas of the Mediterranean. While they preserved and promulgated Greek language and culture through schooling, they had no interest in replacing local languages with their own.   Principles of Bilingual Education   Situational factors are closely related. Language use (linguistic factor) often depends on societal attitudes to the language (social factor). When youngsters become aware of negative attitudes toward their heritage language, they refuse to use it. Restrictions imposed on children due to gender (social) often have their roots in family values (cultural). Negative attitudes toward ethnic groups (social) arise from unfavorable political relations with their countries of origin (political). Financial status of families (economic) may depend on government policies toward particular immigrant groups (political). These factors affect students through the institutions with which and people with whom they frequently come into contact, called filters. Situational factors color the advice, attitudes, and pressure that family, peers, and school personnel bring to students. The neighborhood is the social context students experience daily, and the media are the most accessible way to bring the views of the larger society to children.  The manifestation of these factors is fluid, changing over time and varying from place to place.  (1990) maintained that historical background influences societal factors. Today's attitudes toward an ethnic group may be very different from those evident in the past. Present attitudes toward Japanese immigrants contrast sharply with those held at the time of World War II. Research on the academic achievement of students from different ethnic groups reveals differential performance of whole groups in different countries. For example, Finns tend to do poorly in Sweden but not in the United States, whereas Koreans excel in most countries except in Japan.             While the political and ideological debate over language choice for instruction rages, the number of bilingual students in the United States steadily increases. Bilingual programs only serve a small percentage of bilingual students. 1 Many more attend ESL classes, and a majority of bilinguals with low proficiency in English are enrolled in mainstream classes ( 1998). Some students experience success in school, but many do not ( 2001). Educators, linguists, and social scientists have over the years offered explanations and possible solutions. Blame has been attributed to the students themselves, their homes, schools, or even society. At first students who failed were labeled alingual or nonspeakers because they lacked fluency in English. Later studies attributed failure to the mismatch between the children's language at home and English as the predominant language of instruction (2001). By the late 1960s, introduction of the home language in school was considered the solution giving rise to bilingual programs ( 1990).             Presumptions about the students' culture were also offered to explain students' failures. From claims of "cultural deprivation," which branded differences as deficits, researchers moved on to explore discontinuities between students' home and school environments. The way students were enculturated. to learning at home markedly differed with schools' expectations (1998). The hope was that by incorporating students' culture in the curriculum and methods    teaching, educational performance would be enhanced ( 1990). A firstgrade Spanish-speaking teacher engaged the students in playing a language game as part of the language arts lesson. She allowed for student collaboration, talk, and even maintaining discipline. Although the game assumed competition, the students helped each other without regard for their own chances to win. Language use in this classroom and the nature of the interaction among participants (including the teacher) "seems to match the general language use of the community surrounding the school" ( 1998). In contrast, the same students working with a teacher unfamiliar with the students' language and culture became quickly bored playing a comparable game. The lesson was rigid and limited to the teacher giving directives and asking questions. Efforts from students to help each other and maintain discipline were misinterpreted, resulting in reprimands and lack of participation from a student who knew no English.                 (1995) observed students who succeeded academically in spite of the fact that schools ignored their language and culture. These students were recent immigrants from China, India, and Central America. These families moved to offer their children a better education and better socioeconomic opportunities. Motivated by their hope for the future and a sense of duty to their parents, who sacrificed so much, these students performed admirably in school. Language minority students who are not immigrants and who have seen the doors of success and upward mobility closed to their community generation after generation have no basis for hope in the future. For groups that have been traditionally neglected, the incorporation of their language and culture shows a sense of respect, which in turn breeds trust between school and community. Trust for the intentions of the schools to educate is an important variable ( 2004). Students can succeed in schools that do not consider their language and culture if parents and students trust that these schools are sincerely interested in providing a good education. Erickson gave Catholic and Muslim schools as examples. For (2004), neglect of home language and culture may be significant, but more significant are inadequate teaching methodology, unfair assessment, and lack of communication with the community, "result[ing] in the personal and/or academic disabling of minority students" (p. 60 ).  ( 1987) demonstrated in her research with bilingual high school students that structural and interpersonal barriers block students' integration into mainstream America. This isolation limits students' chances to develop English and progress academically.  (1999) extensive study of Native American communities in the Southwest concluded that linguistic, cultural, economic, political, social, and psychological factors need to be considered to understand educational situations and make decisions on educational policy. Configuration of the languages, strength of religion and culture, employment, government policy, national ideology, socioeconomic status, and attitudes toward languages all need to be taken into account when planning a bilingual program.             Collectively, the research on variables influencing the education of language minority students indicates that multiple situational and individual factors affect students' school performance. Situational factors ncluding linguistic, cultural, economic, political, and social--influence how students of a particular ethnic group are viewed by educators and peers, which in turn determines students' and their families' expectations of schools and how much schools provide for them.             Personal characteristics--especially language, culture, and educational background--influence how bilingual students function in school. Bilinguals' families play a pivotal role in language development, identity formation, and achievement motivation. Educators need to understand how situational factors, personal characteristics, and families affect individual students' education. The type of education schools provide ultimately determines the educational success of bilingual students, but knowledge of such external and internal factors can help school staff better support bilingual learners and their families and understand how these factors are influencing school policy and practice Principles of Bilingual Education The logical problem of language acquisition is that language learning would be impossible without universal language-specific knowledge ( 1999). The main reason apparently is the input data. Language input is the evidence, out of which the learner constructs knowledge of language. Such evidence can be either   positive or negative. The positive position of words in a few sentences the learner hears is sufficient to show him the rules of grammar (1995). Because of this reasoning, the UG has gained wider acceptance and popularity. Now, since the study of second language acquisition has tremendously been influenced by the study of first language acquisition, this theory is also used in the field of second language acquisition.  “The assumption that universal grammar is the guiding force of child language acquisition has long been maintained by many, but only recently has it been applied to second language acquisition” (2001). On the other hand, the term interlanguage was used by Lary Selinker who recognized that L2 learners create a linguistic method that comes from the first language, but is not equal to it or to the target language (1990).  This concept is characterized by a series of premises in the acquisition of second language. These premises include (i) the learner construct a system of abstract linguistic rules, which underlie comprehension and production of the L2. This system of rules is viewed as a mental grammar and is referred to as interlanguage; (ii) the learner’s grammar is permeable. That is, grammar is open to influence from the outside. It is also influenced from the inside; (iii) the learner’s grammar is transitional. Learners change their grammar from one time to another by adding rules, deleting rules, and restructuring the whole system. This results in interlanguage continuum; (iv) some researchers have claimed that the systems learners construct contain variable rules. That is, learners are likely to have competing rules at any one stage of development. However, there are researchers who argued that interlanguage systems are homogeneous; (v) learners employ various learning strategies to develop their interlanguage. The different kinds of errors learners produce reflect different learning strategies; and (vi) the learners’ grammar is likely to fossilize. That is learners may stop developing while still short of target language competence. The concept of interlanguage offers a general account of how L2 acquisition takes place. It incorporates elements from mentalist theories of linguistics and elements from cognitive psychology. The premises, other aspects related to them, the importance of input in L2 and the treatment of errors would be analyzed in details in this thesis.             The third chapter deals with the learning or acquisition of individuals in pre and post pubertal ages.  In this regard, research concerning brain-language relations will be examined.  A brief mention on the two traditional neurolinguistics school of thoughts is shown below. According to  (1998) the two schools of thought were described as localizationists and holists. The localizationists observed that of the two cerebral hemispheres, one appeared to be responsible for language, the left in most instances. Also localizationists understood that of all the left hemisphere, the central parts of the outer surface seemed more crucially linked to language, since damage to other parts of the left hemisphere seemed to have very few consequences for language abilities. As different cases of aphasia were observed, localizationists parceled out areas within the left-hemisphere cortical language area, with one area nearer the front of the head deemed responsible for producing language and another for comprehension. The holist school, on the other hand, has argued that localizationism is a false compartmentalizing of language abilities that in fact are supported by larger parts of the brain. Thus holists were called connectionists because they focused on how areas of the brain were interconnected. Holists focus on the way language is dependent on cognitive abilities such as memory, abstract thinking, attention and prefer not to limit themselves to exploring ever more delimited language phenomena and language areas ( 1990). The analysis of this study will mainly focus on the theory of the lateralization of the brain and its implication for second language acquisition.  In order to examine the process of lateralization of the brain and its relation to L2 acquisition, it is necessary to analyze the hypothesis that has caused so much controversy in relation to the L2 acquisition of adults and children, the “critical period hypothesis.” Bilingualism in School For the teachers and other people in the academe, the results of the reviewed articles should be a constant reminder to the subsequent steps and measures that will be applied and implemented in the schools in relation to the consequences brought by changes in the educational system. Instructors should be sensitive enough in dealing with every student due to differences in cultural orientation by conceptualizing better means on how to exhaust the learning abilities and capacity of the students incorporating teaching materials that students can relate and incorporate themselves to. They should also realize the significant role they play in the continuous development and improvement of the educational environment in the country by taking their stance on issues that are best dealt by educators rather than the involvement of politics. For the students in the school, it is always important to be open to new ideas and skills being provided by teachers. Taking part and contributing on the studies that can provide improvements in the education system of the country for the betterment of the future social community should be emphasized among students. Their role as successors of the future society should be realized and inculcated early on. Recognizing the importance of education not just a means of completing a stage in this existence but by realizing the advantages and added value that learning provides to each individual should be a motivation and driving force to become a person worthy of appreciation in the future. This paper should enlighten the individuals who are interested in pursuing a career in education and upholding quality and literate youth for them to be productive and ideal citizens of the country in the future. The issues that were presented in the paper should be fully considered as part of the challenge in their entrance to the education system. The inevitable problems that are confronted at present which are in need of immediate acknowledgement and solution should be considered as noble goal among future educators.

Case Study for Bilingual Education

The Role of Language, Literacy and Culture in the Content Instruction of Junior High and high School Students with Diverse Cultural Backgr...

Healthcare Management Adolescent

CHAPTER 1             Adolescent-focused research such as health care management of this age group has lead to significant improvements in the understanding of adolescent health, as well as the development of innovative healthcare interventions for this vulnerable population. This paper attempts to find out how health care management carry out the positive impact on adolescent health in the area of Hong Kong.             To start off, a discussion on what the adolescence stage is all about will be given to provide a background of these participants in the study. Adolescence, which extends from the time the individual becomes sexually mature until eighteen – the age of legal maturity, is characteristically an important period in the life span, a transitional period, a time for change, a problem age, a time when the individual searches for identity, a dreaded age, a time of unrealism, and the threshold of adulthood.             Adolescence is the period in human growth between the ending of childhood and the attainment of full physical development. During this period, anatomic development and glandular changes culminate in puberty, at about the age of puberty (Potter & Perry, 2004).       The age range for adolescence generally is defined as 10-21 years of age. Three age subgroupings are recognized: early adolescence (10-14); middle adolescence (15-17); and late adolescence (18-21) (Elliott & Feldman, 1990). Human growth patterns generally are predictable, but each adolescent follows his or her own unique timetable. Based solely on chronological age, adolescents vary widely in their size, metabolic rate, and physical development. For example, one could view a group of early-adolescent males age 14 years and note vast differences in height, weight, physical appearance, and pubertal changes.             As with physical development, psychosocial and cognitive development also can vary widely during adolescence. The gradual and variable development of social and emotional maturity, as well as an increasing sense of self and development of autonomy, characterize adolescence. Researchers must consider adolescents' decision-making and information-processing capacities and their relative stage of self-determination in managing their participation in studies.             Meanwhile, the important social changes in adolescence include increased peer group influence, more mature patterns of social behavior, new social groupings, and new values in the selection of friends and leaders and in social acceptance. Peer pressure influences some adolescents toward anti-social behavior, especially adolescents whose parents offer little supervision (Potter & Perry, 2004).             The major changes in morality during adolescence consist of replacing specific and moral concepts with generalized moral concepts of right and wrong; the building of a moral code based on individual moral principles, and the control of behavior through the development of conscience (Potter & Perry, 2004).             Relationships between the adolescents and members of their families tend to deteriorate in early adolescence, though these relationships often improve as adolescence draws to a close, especially among adolescent girls and their family members. Children in their early teens are in a stage of identity and role confusion, if based on Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development. According to Erickson, the chief task of adolescence is to resolve the conflict of identity versus role confusion. The desirable outcome is a sense of oneself as a unique human being with a meaningful role to play in the society. The active agent of identity formation is the ego, which puts together its knowledge of the person’s abilities, needs, and desires and of what must be done to adapt to the social environment.             The search for identity is a lifelong search, which comes into focus during the adolescence and may recur from time to time during adulthood. Erickson emphasizes that this effort to make sense of the self and the world is a healthy, vital process that contributes to the ego strength of the adult. The conflicts that are involved in the process serve to spur growth and development (Atkinson, 1996).             In both sexes the physical changes are associated with emotional and mental development. The rapid growth at this time is likely to make heavy demands on the adolescent, and adjustment to every change that is happening to his or her body is a process that is often difficult. Reactions to situations are apt to be keener and more immediate; feelings, whether of joy or depression, to be more intense at this stage than in the past (Atkinson, 1996).             During adolescence, the teenagers still hasn’t reached their peak development – physical or mental. At this stage, teenagers are still undergoing cognitive development. Cognitive skills and development include at least three sub-areas: sensorimotor skills, concept development, and preacademic skills. Sensorimotor skills are motor movements that individuals make in interacting with the environment. As described by Piaget, these motor movements progress through a series of stages that culminate in a primitive ability to think or symbolize (Blackhurst, et al, 1993). Concept development refers to the understanding of the notions of the world. Preacademic skills include those behaviors that are necessary for beginning instruction (Atkinson, 1996).             Parents, during this period, may be alarmed at what appears to be erratic growth and rapidly shifting moods in their children who would want love and attention one minute and then likes to be left alone the next. However, if the proper foundation of love and security has been laid during infancy and childhood, the adolescent years can be productive and rewarding for both parents and children. By gradually preparing the child for the physical changes that will take place, including giving him the necessary information in life, the shock and onset of awakening maturity can be minimized (Kozier & Erb, 2004).             Even with understanding and sympathy, the adolescent will often still be subject to tensions, rebellion, and conflicting emotions. The period of adolescence may demand a large measure of patience and tolerance from the parents. Faced with hostile parental attitudes, the growing child may develop feelings of insecurity that find understandable but often undesirable outlets (Atkinson, 1996).             While the adolescent may rebel against authority in the home, acceptance and approval by his group is of paramount importance to him. Few influences will shake him from conformity to teen-age standards and values. The changes from dependence upon parents and home to identification with his peer group is a natural process in the process of maturing for the adolescence (Atkinson, 1996).             The proper attitudes on the part of the parents can be of immeasurable help in assuring that the period of adolescence is a significant and meaningful step towards maturity. Children who develop secure attachment relationships with their parents are at an advantage cognitively, socially, and emotionally compared to peers who have not developed secure attachments. Within the family law arena, the relationship between a parent and child is a sign determining residential placement and reunification (Ellis, 2002).                  Relationships with parents are the foundation upon which children define themselves as adequate, and develop the capacity to have meaningful and intimate relationships throughout their lives. Children's relationships with their mother or father are determined by the quantity and quality of care offered by each parent and the repeated presence across time of the parent in the child's life (Atkinson, 1996).             A child's affectional "bond" is determined by five factors: 1) persistent; 2) enduring; 3) linked to a specific person (not interchangeable with anyone else); and 4) emotionally significant. The child must also 5) maintain proximity to or contact with the significant person because distress will likely be experienced at involuntary separation. The attachment bond that forms between a child with his or her parent includes these five criteria, plus an additional critical factor, which is the child's pursuit of security and comforting in the relationship. Seeking security is the defining feature in the parent-child "attachment bond" (Ellis, 2002).             In one study, interviews with nurses and other hospital staff who participated revealed the complexities of treating adolescents with medical conditions such as diabetes and identified a number of the issues that were considered central to forming positive relationships with young people. These issues were staff and young people being honest with each other, working in partnership both as a multidisciplinary team and with young people, involving parents, and meeting information needs, including discussing complications of diabetes (Datta, 2003).             Members of staff in this study also talked about balancing the sometimes conflicting roles of encouraging young people to improve their control while allowing them to take an increasingly central role in their own care. They tread a fine line between ensuring that young people are aware of the consequences of poor glycaemic control and not threatening them or, perhaps more dangerously, frightening them away from clinic appointments altogether (Datta, 2003).             Staff were clear that there was little point in imposing unrealistic goals on young people but rather attempted to work together with them to encourage health enhancing behaviours. A successful regimen is one that allows the young person to achieve good control and to live without unreasonable restrictions. This is likely to be more effective than a rigid one which the young person with diabetes finds too onerous and so does not stick to. Staff have to know enough about the young person's lifestyle and capabilities to help them fit treatment around what is feasible for each individual. However, young people themselves (with the support of their families) have to be prepared to take on the responsibility of managing diabetes on a daily basis (Datta, 2003). This study supports the need for autonomy in adolescents. Autonomy in decision making regarding health issues is a set of skills that develops as part of self-care agency. Adolescence is an important time to begin fostering this autonomy. Providing health-promoting care to adolescents must occur in the context of developmental considerations, legal concerns, and ethical principles. Implications for health care providers include developing trust with the adolescent, teaching the family how to enable the adolescent's self-care, considering the use of advance directives, protecting the rights of minors and parents, implementing confidentiality guidelines concerning the adolescent's care, and formalizing the processes of consent/assent and dissent for health care (Deatrick, 2000).             An ability to make good decisions about one's health care promotes healthy behaviors across the lifespan. Helping adolescents develop as individual agents of self-care is one step toward helping them learn to make good health care decisions (Orem, 1995). Although an adolescent's care is best provided within the context of family, health promotion information and services that require confidentiality on the part of the provider are an important dimension of adolescent care. When given adequate information relevant to health care decision making, most adolescents are able to make decisions about their own health care (Deatrick, 2000).             For any person, regardless of age, to be considered competent to make health care decisions, four primary tests of legal competency must be satisfied: (a) evidence of choice; (b) reasonable outcome of choice (such choice that a reasonably prudent person might make); (c) rational reasons (the preference was selected by a rational reasoning process); and (d) understanding (comprehension of the risks, benefits, and alternatives to treatments) (Grisso & Appelbaum, 1998).    CHAPTER 2   2.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The research proposal implies the use of service provision in meeting the needs of adolescents. Parents frequently emphasized the importance of having a range of flexible services in order to meet the needs of individual adolescents and their families. Within this, priorities for services in health care organizations included routines and consistency, the importance of planning placements and ongoing communication with families, high staffing levels and appropriate environments as this was very much the ideal; in reality the majority of families using services had little choice. Indeed, health care providers were very aware that they are currently providing only what they can afford rather than what is actually needed by adolescents. The most frequently requested types of services were sitting services, play schemes, family based short breaks and befriending schemes. The study clearly demonstrates not only a general need for more healthcare services but that provision is inequitable and largely focused upon those with the most obvious, practical needs and how this brings a positive impact to adolescents in Hong Kong. The proposal should recommend not only more and better-funded services but also a greater understanding of adolescents, with knowledgeable and well-trained healthcare staff to meet the whole spectrum of needs.   2.2 METHODOLGY This particular meta-analysis will have to employ the use of case study methodology of qualitative research. Rather than using large samples and following a rigid protocol to examine a limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information and reporting the results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses (Flyvbjerg 2006). Thus, case studies should not be confused with qualitative research and points out that they can be based on any mix of quantitative and qualitative evidence (Yin 2002). Aside, those studying the case are led to a specific point in time and circumstance where they become a ‘participant’ in the case. (Yin 2002) The case study offers a method of learning about a complex instance through extensive description and contextual analysis. The product articulates why the instance occurred as it did and what one might usefully explore in similar situations as these can generate a great deal of data that may defy straightforward analysis. (Yin 2002)   2.3 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRRE The survey questionnaire will point out to the comments and experiences of parents and adolescents with regards to the satisfaction of services being provided to their children. The case study will give a wider reflection as to what are the instances of the services they have received in support to their parents perspectives if the services for them denotes a sense of satisfaction that will imply a success factor for the service or is it a failure and amicably investigate why some services fail in meeting the needs of the people concerned. The basic methodology requires that the data from satisfaction reports through a survey for parents, adolescents, and support groups in terms of a likert scaling technique.   2.4 SAMPLE For the case study, the sample (N=100) comprised of 50 parents and 50 adolescents within the process of designated healthcare services provision provided to them separately. The mean age of the group will range from 10-21 years old for the adolescents and their parents. For the survey questionnaire, the sample should also then comprised of (N=100) parents/guardian of those adolescnts as the participants should be involved in a survey to identify critical issues of service provision and be conducted in group settings during their free hours. Thus, giving relevance to the services provision their affected parties have acquired in the healthcare setting in Hong Kong. Quantitative research uses methods adopted from the physical sciences that are designed to ensure objectivity and reliability. These techniques cover the ways research participants are selected randomly from the study population in an unbiased manner, the standardized questionnaire and the statistical methods used (Steckler, McLeroy , Goodman, Bird, McCormick, 1992). The strengths of the quantitative paradigm are that its methods produce quantifiable, reliable data that are usually generalizable to some larger population. Quantitative measures are often most appropriate for conducting needs assessments or for evaluations comparing outcomes with baseline data. (Steckler, McLeroy , Goodman, Bird, McCormick, 1992) This paradigm breaks down when the phenomenon under study is difficult to measure or quantify. The greatest weakness of the quantitative approach is that it decontextualizes human behavior in a way that removes the event from its real world setting and ignores the effects of variables that have not been included in the model (Steckler, McLeroy , Goodman, Bird, McCormick, 1992). Qualitative research methodologies are designed to provide the researcher with the perspective of target audience members through immersion in a culture or situation and direct interaction with the people under study (Steckler, McLeroy , Goodman, Bird, McCormick, 1992). Qualitative methods used in social marketing include observations, in-depth interviews and focus groups. These methods are designed to help researchers understand the meanings people assign to social phenomena and to elucidate the mental processes underlying behaviors (Steckler, McLeroy , Goodman, Bird, McCormick, 1992).   2.5 INSTRUMENTATION The case study instrumentation is to gather factual information from case studies to be presented with the goal of supporting valid research as to how healthcare management carried out the positive impact on adolescent health in Hong Kong. The case study is crucial since, it will give a sense of reflection awareness for those people carrying out the services used and in a way will impart society awakening to possibly change certain provision systems that centers on the specific services that will be a factor in sorting out acceptable solutions to the arising problems involving adolescents. For the survey questionnaire, the instrument appropriate would be the likert scaling which includes scales from one to five based in the response choices for the service satisfaction survey designed in the form of question statements which would assist in gaining wider insights as to why services may be failing in meeting the needs of adolescents. The statements are rated on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Like for example below, although the satisfaction level varies among the first three statements, the fourth statement tends to rate as "strongly disagree." In addition to rating the statements, parents are given an opportunity to provide comments about their experiences.   2. 6 The Questionnaire <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> As a parent/guardian or an adolescent, I am satisfied to the services provision for adolescents provided by the health care organization in Hong Kong.</li> Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree   <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> There is enough support given by the local heath care authorities in designing appropriate services for adolescents.</li> Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree   <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> If the provision of services for adolescents in Hong Kong is failing, the one reason why services are failing in meeting the needs of adolescents is the high cost of the services.</li> Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree   <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Do you believe that services given can truly address concerns in meeting the needs of adolescents?</li> Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree   <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> The successful updating of health care services provision for adolescents lies within the effectiveness of services and the capability of the staff. </li> Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree   2.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS For the ethical considerations, it is important to address certain issues within the ethical standards of services designed for adolescents and for careful review of the involved services as there is the need to improve accountability and integration of adolescent’s services. Settings and services may need to be reminded of their duties to take reasonable steps to ensure that the subjects of research are not placed into substantial disadvantage for the purpose of conducting the research to ensure that involved parties in research are able to participate. Thus, there is a need to address certain ethical issues geared towards the realization of the proposed study within its consent, confidentiality and access to the organizations in order to carry out the process of research. For the process of having consent, it is important that the researcher must provide a formal letter of consent being addressed directly to the respondents and the people responsible for reaching out to those subjects needed for the research completion. The consent letter must contain original signatures and cannot contain any restrictions, conditions, or stipulations. Any restrictions or conditions must be kept separately between the parties involved. The consent letter must simply state that consent is given to a person to use his profile and other relevant information for the purpose of realizing the research purpose it serves. Example of consent letter (the letter must be signed by the researcher and the involved party):   I, _________________, researcher of the proposed research would ask consent to ________________, respondent to give his/her own views and answers to the research questionnaire as enclosed for this particular research.   Dated: _________ _________________, the researcher   In terms of confidentiality, it is a must for the researcher to assure all the involved people, organizations and parties involved for research that confidentiality of information, research findings and results is deemed very important and be kept confidential from all elements not involved in conducting the research and must ensure the respondents right to change, cancel any information important for research as the researcher adheres to the fact that confidentiality of information is a top priority and that any involved parties should not be forced to give any information for the sake of research validity. The researcher ought to provide a formal confidential letter if needed in the process. For access to the organizations, it is crucial that the researcher will ask for a formal letter of approval deemed towards asking permission to allow the researcher in gathering and acquiring only the relevant information needed for research that the organization can directly or indirectly provide. The approval letter should state what the research is all about and for whom the research is done and all the important details there unto.   2.8 ANALYSIS/STATISTICAL CONSIDERATION For the purpose of statistical ways and its analysis, the likert scale method produces means and standard deviations for the responses given. It also prints the minimum and maximum value. Likert scale questions are appropriate to print means for since the number that is coded can give us a feel for which direction the average answer is. The standard deviation is important as it give us an indication of the average distance from the mean. A low standard deviation would mean that most observations cluster around the mean. A high standard deviation would mean that there was a lot of variation in the answers. A standard deviation of 0 is obtained when responses to a question are the same. Henceforth, prior to computing a scale that is the mean of a series of questions, first assign points to each question so that the reverse wording questions will be assigned the opposite number of points than the positively worded questions. The median is known as a measure of location it tells where the data are. As stated in, we do not need to know all the exact values to calculate the median; if we made the smallest value even smaller or the largest value even larger, it would not change the value of the median. Thus the median does not use all the information in the data and so it can be shown to be less efficient than the mean or average, which does use all values of the data. To calculate the mean add up the observed values and divide by the number of them. The total of the values obtained in divided by total number to give a mean.  The process is conveniently expressed by the following symbols: The range is an important measurement, for figures at the top and bottom of it denote the findings furthest removed from the generality. However, they do not give much indication of the spread of observations about the mean. The standard deviation is a summary measure of the differences of each observation from the mean. If the differences themselves were added up, the positive would exactly balance the negative and so their sum would be zero. Consequently the squares of the differences are added. The sum of the squares is then divided by the number of observations give the mean of the squares, and the square root is taken to bring the measurements back to the units we started with. The division by the number of observations of the number of observations itself to obtain the mean square is because degrees of freedom must be used.   2.9 TIME FRAME AND BUDGET   The plan in carrying out aspects of the research proposal strategic programs will be implemented:                     1 DECEMBER                   2 JANUARY                   3 FEBRUARY                   4 MARCH                   5 APRIL   A.     Meet with supervisor and finalize proposal B.     Meet with supervisor and finalize proposal C.    Academic literature review D.    Professional literature review E.     Case Analysis/Survey Interview design F.     Other fieldwork and data collection G.    Data analysis and writing reports H.     Complete temporary draft/Prepare final draft   2.10 GANTT chart The Gantt chart below will show possibilities as to when the task process for the research will be completed. It is a useful tool for planning and scheduling projects. It assesses how long a project should take, determine the resources needed and lay out the order in which the task need to be carried out. In the Gantt chart presented, it shows that the researcher will have to meet every specific task with the purpose of completing the research study in line with the proposal study involved. Gantt charts are useful when the project under way. It helps in monitoring its progress and immediately sees what should have been achieve at a point in time, and can therefore take remedial actions to bring the project back on course.      The results of this endeavor would show that several trends in healthcare management carry positive impacts on adolescent health in Hong Kong. The most important implications for the results can be twofold – more awareness for the public and more programs from health care organizations with respect to health care for adolescents. Health care organizations can focus on communicating messages designed to help people understand the vulnerability of this age group and initiate the basic precautions which can be taken to help adolescents throughout Hong Kong. Additionally this endeavor can also create more attention from the media. The media, by broadcasting the best health care management practices, or the lack thereof, can significantly contribute to the problem of healthcare management regarding the issue of adolescents.

Healthcare Management Adolescent

CHAPTER 1 Adolescent-focused research such as health care management of this age group has lead to significant improveme...

Erickson Theory

Erik Erikson’s Theory Introduction A good theory is useful as a basis for any fundamentals or innovation like in technology, system, or education. A good theory should not contradict itself and have a consistency no matter how complicated the situation, question, or intellectual measurement used to it. The theory should pass in a series of test and proved true or wrong in any manner of falsification. And the last is that the theory has a supported data, because in one way or another, criticisms and scrutiny will try to break the idea of the theory. Good theories allow the people to describe, predict, and explain the things that people do and their behavior. In the study of Erikson’s Theory, the learning in the classroom can have a better chance to be improved, most especially with the aid of the teachers. Erikson’s Eight Stages of Social/Emotional Development 1.      Learning Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust (Hope) This characteristic is usually worked on during the first and second year of a child’s life. Depending on how the child is nurtured and cared for and loved, a foundation of trust, security, and optimism is developed. There is also varying degrees of insecurity and mistrustfulness are developed when the child is not given the nurturing care that he or she needs.     2.      Learning Autonomy versus Shame (Will) The second “psychosocial crisis” that Erikson identified generally occurs between 18 months and 4 years of age. This stage focuses on the development of the child’s “will” and developing a sense of autonomy. The word “No” often becomes a regular staple of the child’s vocabulary. If the child is “well-parented” and satisfactorily works out or resolves this issue, she or he will emerge as a self-assured and proud child. However, if the child is not adequately parented she or he may emerge from this stage, to varying degrees, ashamed and unsure. 3.      Learning Initiative versus guilt (Purpose) The third stage generally occurs sometime during what Erikson calls the “play age,” between 3.5 and about 5 years of age, before the child enters her or his first year of formal school. During this stage children develop their capacity for imagination, fantasy, and active play while learning how to cooperate with others, lead others, and follow the lead of others. A child without a strong foundation and without adequately resolving the specific challenges of this stage may become immobilized by guilt - fearful, attracted to the fringes of groups, heavily dependent on adults. In this case the child’s development of her or his imagination and play skills is restricted. 4.      Learning Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence) The fourth stage is encountered primarily during the elementary school years and may include some junior high years. This stage focuses on the development of “formal skills” of life, skills that enable a child to succeed at activities that are governed by a relatively complex set of formal rules. Such skills are teamwork within a sport, organizing and completing homework, studying and mastering academic subject areas. 5.      Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity) The fifth stage generally occurs between the ages of 13 and 20. This stage calls on adolescents to identify a self-image that satisfactorily represents their own. This effort involves experimentation, and finding one’s place within the world that often leads to rebellion, minor delinquency, and self-doubt. However, the adolescent that satisfactorily resolves this question will transform self-doubt and self-consciousness into self-certainty, develop a constructive identity, and will expect to succeed. Adolescents who have not adequately mastered the previous stages will often falter. There is a tendency for middle and upper class adolescents to experiment for a longer period than their counterparts, as their development is afforded a longer gestation before they are expected to make life-long decisions. 6.      Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love) The sixth stage of Erikson’s theory of social-emotional development generally occurs during the individual’s life as a young adult. The focus of this stage is on the development of intimacy, developing a capacity for genuine and lasting friendship or marriage. 7.      Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care) The seventh stage of social-emotional development is focused on the development of one’s capacity for generosity and caring. The roles of marriage and parenthood demand this, as does working productively and creatively. 8.      Learning Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom) The last stage of Erikson’s development theory is focused on the development of integrity confidence and social-emotional balance that enables a person to be proud and happy with their defined role in life. However, if even one of the previous stages is not appropriately resolved, this capacity for satisfaction is compromised and can lead to despair. Discussion To Erikson, physical growth follows a biological timetable. Anything that grows has a ground plan and out of this ground plan parts arise. He believed that because we are social animals, the society has also evolved certain social orders, roles, and demands that are parallel with physical growth. For example, when a child achieves control of his muscle movement, we then expect him to explore his surroundings under parental guidance; or when a child has command of his language and is capable of taking care of rudimentary tasks; society expects him to attend school. Both physical and social epigenetic principles mature in different stages. The interaction between physical, cognitive, and social growth during maturation in each stage of life creates a sequence of developmental crises that become central to the child’s growth ( 1998). As a developmental theory, each stage represents a major psychological crisis that one faces in life. Depending on the manner in which the crisis is resolved, one's cognition is formed. Such a resolution, according to Erikson, provides the basis for the development of a conflict or dilemma for the next stage of development. In other words, each stage affects the next stage. Unsuccessful resolution of a stage may negatively effect the development of later stages in life (1998). Implications and Applications As a teacher, the theory of Erickson is helpful in understanding the process of learning of an individual starting from its childhood. Many teachers in today’s generation are keep on finding the right way to make the students be more focus on their study. And with the use of the theory, the teacher can understand better the needs of each student according to their age. Most students search for an identity, and therefore many learners begin to adopt idols, ideas, heroes, and cliques can be remarkably clannish and cruel in the exclusion of others. Every step can be learned just with a proper guidance and input of applicable or appropriate ideas. Just like how does a baby starting to crawl, students will first develop their sense of understanding and interest before demonstrating the things that they learned.

Erickson Theory

Erik Erikson’s Theory Introduction A good theory is useful as a basis for any fundamentals or innovation like in technology, system, ...

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

How can teachers help children successfully solve the challenges of the different stages of psychosocial development?                         Psychosocial development is characterized by an individual’s increasing awareness of self. It is a transition from the reflexive and reactive state to that of an organized and active state. This development is not independent but interacts with biological and cognitive development (1997). At any given time, the learner will have to cope with meeting the challenges that these development presents, making every phase of the learner’s development meaningful. Psychosocial development of a child needs the guidance of other people like the parents or the teachers. When a child goes to school to learn, his or her learning and how the teacher handles it can affect the overall psychosocial development of the child.             Three principal areas of concern in creating a quality early childhood educational environment are identified: 1) the environment's effect on the social development of children, 2) the provision of the physical setting, and 3) the provision of a psychological environment. Key components are: interaction between teacher and children, establishment of a caring atmosphere among peers, and teacher-to-teacher interaction. As important as the preschool environment is to children's social development, a family's socioeconomic status, ways of interacting, and methods of education also are significant influences (2002).             Teachers are crucial since in formal schooling they are the ones who provide instruction to their students. Instruction is a crucial factor in the teaching-learning process. For that matter, the teacher assumes the responsibility of bringing out the best in the individual transformation in the different phases of a student’s development. By development, this means the whole development of the child, including his physical, mental, psychosocial, and other aspects of a child’s development. The success of such efforts however, is determined not only by the teacher’s mastery of the subject matter and efficient use of instructional materials but also through understanding of the aspects of human growth and development. In Singapore, this is important as the country has placed great emphasis on education. Singapore has made the schooling of its children the No. 1 national priority, recognizing that it's critical to the country's success (2003).             The competence of a teacher is manifested in his or her ability to identify the needs of the child, recognize the child’s potentials, harness them, and adjust instruction in accordance with the child’s abilities. It is therefore imperative that the teacher recognizes the uniqueness of an individual even as he or she acquires knowledge of learning. This is very important if learning is to be successful and the aim of education is to be met.             The development of a child undergoes a complicated process; it is a pattern of growth that is unique for every individual. For this reason, a teacher should have a thorough understanding of the principles of development which is to be considered in order to promote a successful transformation of the learner not only within the four walls of the classroom but in the whole society as well.             Normally, in a child’s process of growth, he or she goes through sequences that include physical, mental, motor and even socio-emotional growth (1996). Along with all these, the teacher should try to focus attention to the patterns of behavior that make for individual differences which are evident even in the child’s early foundation.             For this reason, it is said that a successful future hinges on how well an individual is able to adjust to life and how powerful he or she is in getting rid of the constraints or hazards that go with development. These hazards may stem from his physical inadequacies, psychological problems and even environmental influences.             Knowledge of the principles of human growth and development is important in order for teachers to help children successfully solve the challenges of the different stages of psychosocial development. It will help the teachers know what to expect and when to expect it. Otherwise, there would be a tendency to expect too much or too little of the child at a given time, which is bad. It also gives the teacher information as to when to stimulate and not to stimulate the child. It gives a basis for planning the environmental encouragement that must be offered and the correct time for this encouragement.             Understanding and knowledge of the children who are the learners is an essential of effective teaching (1996). This simply means, of course, the understanding of the basic principles of human growth and development. If a teacher expects to guide learning effectively, he must know how much children are capable of understanding at various levels of maturity. The teacher must also know the interests and previous experiences of the learners which he or she can utilize in motivating them.             By understanding the basic principles of human growth and development, the teacher will be able to know the adjustments that children have to make at various stages of development and the physical, emotional, and social problems they face in growing up. A teacher must therefore develop the special skills needed in gathering information about children.             The teacher must know various psychological theories that apply to the child’s learning. Basic to the teacher’s success as a facilitator of learning is his or her understanding of certain psychological principles underlying the relationship between teaching approaches and the learner’s performance.             In the learning principle wherein the learner must be psychologically and physiologically ready, this is in line with Thorndike’s law of readiness and law of effect. Edward L. Thorndike is a well-known American psychologist and educator. The law of readiness states that when a person is prepared to respond or act, giving the response is satisfying and being prevented from doing so is annoying (1912). This law is related to the law of effect and accounts for a child’s motivational aspect of learning.             This law implies that it is important for a teacher to either wait for a child’s readiness or accept the present level of readiness of the learner and to be satisfied with a slower learning rate in presenting a new learning experience.             Let us take for example a 7-year old Singaporean child who is sent to have formal lessons at school. Normally, a child with a mental age of 7 will already have the maturity level to enable him to cope with formal lessons at school. Suppose this child does not have the requisite maturation, the experience of trying to learn at school will be frustrating and annoying for him. Herein, the teacher must not force the child beyond his level if the teacher wants the child to successfully overcome the challenges presented by his psychosocial development. The teacher must let the learner learn at his or her own pace.             The law of effect states that learning is strengthened when it results in satisfaction but is weakened if it leads to annoyance ( 1912). In relation to the given example above, the Singaporean child will feel annoyed if he is being forced to learn, and the tendency would be for the child to avoid the experience which only annoyed him or her.             The teacher must guide the learner all throughout the learning process, including guiding the learner in practicing or repeating what he or she has learned in order to remember them. This is in accordance with Thorndike’s law of exercise. The constant repetition of a response strengthens its connection with the stimulus and disuse of a response weakens it (1912). The teacher can utilize educational practices such as drill, review, and examination to exemplify this principle. However, there must be understanding on the part of the learner before they are made to memorize or repeat them.             The social development of children can be viewed from various theoretical perspectives; the perspective underlying this article is that of Erik Erickson. Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development states that there are several stages in psychosocial development wherein a crisis occurs that must be resolved with a satisfactory balancing of opposites if there is to be a healthy progress into the next stage. How successfully these crises are resolved at each stage determines how healthy the development will be (2003). Out of the eight stages, a school age child will be in at least two or three stages while he or she is attending school and under the guide of a teacher who could help him or her get through the crisis presented in every stage.             The first is the stage of initiative and guilt which is a conflict between children’s urge to form and carry out goals and their moral judgments of what they want to do. This is from age 3 to 6 years. The teacher in this stage has to guide the children to resolve the crisis. If it is resolved well, children acquire the virtue of purpose. If it is not resolved well, children may become guilt-ridden and repressed ( 2004). Teachers in the pre-school level, together with parents and other members of the immediate family, should allow the children to engage in considerable free experiment to encourage the development of autonomy but at the same time provide some guidance to reduce the possibility of the establishment of doubt. More specifically, teachers should subtly direct a child who is attempting something beyond his capabilities. Teachers in the kindergarten level should allow children considerable self-initiated activities and intervene only when the child steps on the rights of others. The second is the stage of industry and inferiority from 6 to 12 years of age. This is a time of relative emotional calm, when children can attend to their schooling and learn the skills that culture requires. The characteristic crisis of this period is that of industry versus inferiority, and the issue to be resolved is the child’s capacity for productive work. The virtue that develops with a successful resolution of the crisis is competence, a view of the self as able to master and complete tasks ( 2006). Children develop a general sense of personal mastery of a great number of activities and games, including that of learning. The teacher has the responsibility of encouraging the child in these activities that he or she is interested. If children are not encouraged to actively engage in these activities, their sense of mastery will give way to personal inferiority. During this time, the teacher must help the child master his or her surroundings or else the child will suffer inferiority. Teachers in the elementary level should make the classroom situation a meaningful to the pupils as possible so as to facilitate personal industry and mastery. The learners should be encouraged to compete with themselves instead of with others.             In the next stage, from age 12 to 18 years, the chief task of the adolescence is to resolve the conflict of identity versus role confusion. The desirable outcome is a sense of oneself as a unique human being with a meaningful role to play in the society ( 2006). The teacher has the role of helping the adolescent search for his or her identity. Educators also need to understand that adolescence is a time immensely complicated by problems. Teachers should help the students to anticipate the future and weigh possibilities in career choice.             The kind of teaching strategy that should be used by the teacher in order to help children successfully solve the challenges of the different stages of psychosocial development should be one that will require the active participation of the learners. The teacher should take care to invite children who are not active in participation.             Sometimes, in a lesson, it is important that the teacher will follow it with a drill. The drill lesson is the automatization of certain facts, habits, or skills. Drills aim to fix associations for permanency or to perfect a skill (1987). In line with Erickson’s stage of industry and inferiority, the drill can help the child with mastery of what he or she is learning.             Mere repetition will of course not bring mastery. And in this the teacher must be keen on. The teacher must see to it that the learners do it with attention, comprehension, and interest. Sometimes, it cannot be stopped that drill work can be perceived by the learners as boring and presents apathy and listlessness in the children. The teacher must therefore combine this with games or songs which would arouse the interest of children, even if done repeatedly.             Another teaching strategy that would help the children solve the challenges of the different stages of psychosocial development would be group work where the children can interact with one another. This could be done through the laboratory method wherein the learning process deals with firsthand experiences regarding materials or facts obtained from investigation or experimentation. This could be a reflection of John Dewey’s theory on learning by doing (2000). The children learn more by participating first hand in the learning experience. This also provides a direct preparation for life for the learners.             In their philosophies of education, both Vygotsky and Dewey stress that learning is a social process. Vygotsky's "zone of proximal development" emphasizes his belief that learning is socially mediated activity. It is the zone in which students can solve problems collaboratively and learn from one another. In other words, students may be able to complete some tasks independently; however, in order for them to increase their "level of potential development," students need to work with others (2000).             If a child uses these cognitive processes with the help of others such as teachers, parents, and other students, they will then become skills and abilities that can be independently practiced by the learner. As Vygotsky put it, “what the child is able to do in collaboration today he will be able to do independently tomorrow.”             According to a study, a multidisciplinary approach would seem to have the best chance of success. Groups of professionals with a vested interest and responsibility to optimize the psychosocial development of children need to join forces. Pediatricians, educators, social workers, psychologists, and others should work to collectively make the public aware of the importance of social/emotional learning programs. Pressure needs to then be exerted on the branches of government to find the funding, so these programs can be expanded and made more readily available (2006).             It is not enough, however, for a teacher to just know the characteristics of children. Equally important is that the teacher must like children. One can hardly be expected to stimulate children’s growth if the teacher does not find any satisfaction in working with them. Only a teacher who has genuine and sincere love and interest for teaching children and the children themselves can successfully help children solve the challenges of the different stages of psychosocial development and ultimately create in children the love for learning.

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

How can teachers help children successfully solve the challenges of the different stages of psychosocial development? ...