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Heritage and Cultural Values in Nature based Tourism

Heritage and Cultural Values in Nature based Tourism   Abstract (100 words)   Table of Contents   Introduction             Tourism is an industry that depends on the physical environment. The tourism industry has grown phenomenally in the past few decades. Greater numbers of people worldwide are traveling nationally and internationally and, concomitantly, global spending on travel and tourism has more than doubled (1999).                 In Australia, tourism is one of the largest industries. The industry accounts for .7 billion or 8.6% of Australia's Gross Domestic Product. The industry represents a greater contribution on the GDP than the other sector such as the agriculture and communication services.                 In the international economy, tourism is a major force as it generates 11.2% of Australia's total export earnings, more than traditional exports such as coal, iron and steel products. It is forecast that tourism's export growth rate will outperform all key sectors by 2004-2005. Tourism is an important economic driver. Revised forecasts from the Tourism Forecasting Council predict international visitor arrivals to Australia will reach 9.4 million by the year 2010. International visitors are forecast to grow at an average annual rate of 6.6% over the next 10 years. The Australian economy is fundamentally shifting from primary industry to a service and knowledge base. The total number of jobs increased by 17.3% between 1986 and 1996, but employment in agriculture (11%) and mining (6%) declined. Farming is losing its position as the primary industry of most rural economies. Decreasing farm profitability and labour efficiencies from agricultural technology and mechanisation have changed rural employment. Tourism can promote and facilitate economic activity that supports aspects of regional life. For example, farm stays, cellar doors and the purchase of local produce support agriculture, while the purchase of other products supports local retail and industry. Tourism spending also has a multiplier effect in the local economy as it is spent and re-spent by employers and employees. Tourism may generate income for local government in the form of rates and levies or as a result of patronage of local government owned attractions and services. This income contributes to the quality and quantity of local services and facilities provided for the benefit of both residents and visitors.   Coupled with the growth in tourism is a booming interest in history, heritage, and culture. Heritage tourism, a niche segment that first rose to prominence among researchers and the tourism industry in the 1990s, remains one of the most significant, and fastest growing forms of leisure travel Heritage tourism involves travel to sites that in some way represent or celebrate an area, community, or people's history; identity or inheritance. Heritage attractions are typically divided into three categories: natural, cultural and built. Figure 1. The Three Categories of Heritage Attraction   NATURAL            CULTURAL                  BUILT   Landforms,         Festivals,                Historic homes, rural scenery,     arts/crafts,              monuments, flora and fauna    traditional practices/    industrial sites                 products   Figure 2. Specific Types of Heritage Tourism   Type of Tourism/Attraction   Description and Example(s)   Literary tourism             Travel to "literary places," linked to                              writers (e.g., their homes or birthplaces)                              and/or the settings of their novels                              ( 2001) Legacy tourism               Travel related to genealogical endeavors,                              e.g., to search for information on, or to                              feel more connected to, ancestors                              and ancestral roots ( 2003) Historaunts/                 Restaurants as heritage attractions, eatertainment                providing not just food and beverages, but                              a complete tourist experience                              ( 2004) Dark tourism/                Travel to places associated with death, thanotourism                 disaster or other tragic or gruesome                              occurrences (2000;                              2002) Industrial heritage          Visits to unused industrial sites such as tourism                      former collieries and factories (                              1998; 2002)   Heritage tourism can take place at individual sites, as well as, increasingly, in "heritage areas" (e.g., the MotorCities--Automobile National Heritage Area in Michigan) and along "heritage routes," "corridors" and "trails" (e.g., the Coal Mining Heritage Route in southern West Virginia, South Carolina National Heritage Corridor, and Maine Maritime Heritage Trail). In some cases, cities may promote themselves, or districts within them, as heritage destinations, as discussed in (2000),  (2002) and  (in press).   What is Heritage, Tourism?  (1989) and others (1988; 1986) suggest that heritage tourism is "about the cultural traditions, places and values that ... groups throughout the world are proud to conserve." Cultural traditions such as family patterns, religious practices, folklore traditions, and social customs attract individuals interested in heritage ( 1983;  1992) as do monuments, museums, battlefields, historic structures, and landmarks ( 1982; 1991). According to(1990), heritage tourism also includes natural heritage sites -- gardens, wilderness areas of scenic beauty, and valued cultural landscapes. Regardless of the heritage attraction,  (1996) and (1993) argue that heritage tourism is about searching for something that links the past and the present. It is integrally tied to nostalgia. For example, a family makes a weekend vacation of traveling to and visiting their ancestral homestead. Unfortunately, due to the attractiveness of heritage as a commodity, an increasing number of areas are being promoted as "heritage" destinations (1995). Essentially, in tourism, the term heritage has come to mean landscapes, natural history, buildings, artifacts, and cultural traditions that are "either literally or metaphorically passed on from one generation to the other, but those among these things which can be portrayed for promotion as tourism products" {1993). Despite the loose definition of heritage tourism, its growth is beyond contention (1993). Between 1991 and 1995 interest in heritage tourism increased 16 percent. And this interest continues to grow. Recently, TIA reported that approximately 54 million adults had visited a museum or historical site in the past year (1999). There are no indications that this trend has topped out.   According to numerous analyses ( 2001; 2003;  2003), the typical heritage tourist is of middle age or older. and of above-average levels of education and income. The heritage tourist tends to seek more in the type of experience and benefits expected, than other types of tourists. Heritage tourists "usually seek an informed visitor experience rather than merely gazing" (1998). They also expect outcomes that include learning about their destination and gaining an insight into its past. While enjoyment is still crucial, the heritage tourist often expects a greater degree of involvement with, or immersion into, the site(s), with a heavy educational component. The heritage tourist may be described as a "thoughtful consumer," one who is of above-average cultural competence and wary of the "dumbing down" so prevalent in today's culture (2002).   Heritage and cultural sites are attracting a growing number of tourists. Interest in heritage tourism is generating corporate sponsorships to maintain and rehabilitate historic places and structures. Historic and cultural destinations aren't as popular with leisure travelers as cities, visits to family and friends, beaches, and lakes. Yet they are on the minds of a significant number of travelers.   The interrelationship between tourism and culture is complex. Tourism, while viewed by governments as the savior of struggling economies, has led to instances where cultural artifacts, ceremonies, traditions, landscapes, and ways-of-life have been commodified into a sellable resource for tourist consumption. This has given rise to many issues relating to tourism and culture, including the transformation of cultures, cultural politics, and questions about the (in)authenticity of touristic experiences, to name but a few.   Cultural tourism is examined from the perspectives of culture heritage and tourism management. These perspectives often view cultural tourism differently and there is a spectrum of possible relationships between tourism and cultural heritage management ranging from full partnership to open conflict. It suggests that the failure to appreciate the nexus between cultural heritage management and tourism results in the sub-optimal delivery of cultural tourism products and the continued unsustainable development of the sector.   Discussion Cultural/heritage tourism is based on the mosaic of places, traditions, art forms, celebrations and experiences that portray the diversity and character of a community, a region, or a nation. Travelers who engaged in cultural heritage tourism activities visit: <ul type="disc" style="margin-bottom: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> historic sites  </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> museums and art galleries  </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> theater and performing arts venues  </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> cultural events, festivals and fairs  </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> ethnic communities and neighborhoods  </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> architectural and archaeological sites  </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> national and state parks </li> </ul>   Heritage-based travel, like all segments of the tourism industry, offers the potential for numerous economic benefits in destination areas. The attraction of new visitors to a site or area increases spending and may lead to the creation of new jobs and businesses, thereby stimulating the local economy both directly and indirectly, through the multiplier or trickle-down effect. Taxes on spending can be used to benefit all members of a community, not just those directly involved in the tourism industry, through the improvement of physical infrastructure. In addition to the economic benefits that the attraction of tourists to a heritage site or area can generate, the recognition of such locations may also bring with it a number of other advantages. Identification of a site or area as of historic, cultural or natural importance should promote greater awareness of, and appreciation for, its value, thereby increasing the chances of its preservation in the future. Realization of the existence and significance of its unique resources by local residents is likely to enhance community pride and help strengthen sense of place and identity, as evidenced by  (2002) in their analysis of the perceptions of residents of the Los Caminos Antiguos Scenic and Historic Byway in southwestern Colorado. Heritage sites provide real-world classrooms where both children and adults--local and visitors--can learn about the history, nature and/or culture of an area. Beyond these opportunities for education regarding the site or wider vicinity, lies the additional potential for increased awareness and understanding of resource preservation.  (2003) describes the more profound impact that heritage sites can have on the formation and maintenance of national identity among domestic visitors. Heritage sites can offer nostalgic images of traditional lifestyles, as well as of the progress of a region or country. Heritage-based tourism can also be tied into the notion of sustainability. The creation of tourism attractions using existing assets--whether natural, cultural, or built--negates the need for the building of new facilities, allowing communities to "look to the past for a sustainable future" ( 2002).   Environment: defined             Environment is defined as the sum of all external factors, both biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving), to which an organism is exposed. Biotic factors include influences by members of the same and other species on the development and survival of the individual. Primary abiotic factors are light, temperature, water, atmospheric gases, and ionizing radiation, influencing the form and function of the individual.   Nature Based Tourism             Nature based tourism is a segment of rural tourism is referred to as nature-based tourism, ecotourism or sometimes recreation-based tourism. Nature-based tourism attracts people interested in visiting natural areas of the United States for the purpose of enjoying the scenery, including plant and animal wildlife. Examples of nature-based tourism include hunting, fishing, photography, bird watching, and visiting parks.       Conclusion   Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Heritage and Cultural Values in Nature based Tourism

Heritage and Cultural Values in Nature based Tourism Abstract (100 words) Table of Contents Introduction ...

The Real Purpose of Formal Classification Systems of Mental Disorders

The Real Purpose of Formal Classification Systems of Mental Disorders is to preserve the Status Quo Introduction             A classification system provides a common language with which mental health professionals can discuss similar patients, regardless of their own geographical location. Furthermore, it also allows the natural history of a given disorder in order to be studied. Classification can also be considered as crucial and vital for the process of administrative as well as legal documentation for the purpose of research and development             The current classification system is the result of the different observation regarding the mental depression during the past. Thus the evolution of the formal classification system is considered as a phenomenon during the 20th century. The main goal of the classification system is to ensure improved communication between the clinicians. In addition to that, it also helps to enhance the understanding regarding the different disorders in question as well as to promote more effective treatment ( 2005).             Classification is considered as a significant and controversial matter in the field of behavioral science. A thorough and systematic application of the taximetrics analysis to the hundreds of mental disorders are now being recognized in the formal classification system like the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders or DSM or the International Classification of Disease might suggest altering the said systems in considerable and unforeseen ways ( 2006).             Classification aims to catalogue the different kinds of entities that are presumed to exist in a given particular domain, that reflect the ways where in the said entities are understood in order to vary and interrelate (2006).             This paper will focus on two disorders in connection to two theories and different research evidence against each other. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is a reference work that is used and consulted by psychiatrists, psychologists, physicians in clinical practice, social workers, medical and nursing students, pastoral counselors and other professionals in the field of health care and social service fields. It offers different classifications of mental disorders, criteria sets in order to guide the process of differential diagnosis as well as numerical codes for each disorder in order to facilitate medical record keeping ( 2003). Schizophrenia and Depression             Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder or group of psychotic disorders that cause the patient to lose touch with reality. It is marked by severely impaired reasoning as well as instability and can cause violent behavior. People that are suffering in the said mental disorder are often unable to make sense of the signals they receive from the world around them. They imagine objects and events to be very different from what they really are. If untreated, most people who are suffering from its will progressively withdraw from the outside world (2001).             It is a serious mental disorder that affects millions of people around the world. There are about 1% of the total population of the world may be schizoprehenic. People who are diagnosed with the said mental disorder make up abut half of al the patients in the psychiatric hospitals and may occupy as many as one quarter of the hospital beds in the world ( 2001).             Schizophrenia can affect people despite of their age, race, sex, social class, level of education or even the ethnic background. Slightly, more men are being affected by the said mental disorder than women. Most of the patients are being diagnosed during their late teens or their early twenties; however, the disorder can appear at any time in a person’s life. Above all, the said mental disorder is seldom diagnosed in children, though it has been reported in children as young as five years of age (2001).             The characteristics features of schizophrenia are hallucinations and delusions, disorder of thought and speech, disorder of behavior, disturbance of emotions and effect, cognitive deficits and abolition. Hallucinations and delusions are frequently observed at some time during the course of schizophrenia. Visual hallucinations occur in 15%, auditory in 50% and tactile in 5% of subjects, and delusions in more than 90% ( &  2002).             Depression is an illness that involves the feelings of sadness that lasts for two weeks or longer, it is often accompanied by a loss of interests in life, hopelessness and decreased energy. The said distressing feelings can affect the ability of an individual in performing the usual tasks and activities of the daily living (   2005).             Depression occurs in as much as 15% of older adults, but it is often undiagnosed and untreated. It is often called as the common cold of mental illness that affects more or less 18.8 million Americans, or 9.5% f the total population. It is considered as even larger concern for older adults. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, depression is a widespread and serious public health concern. It is considered as the most common mental illness among persons over the age of 60 ( 2001). DSM-IV and Psychodynamic Approach to Schizophrenia             The fourth edition of DSM or DSM-IV lists the different characteristics and symptoms of schizophrenia such as: delusions; hallucinations; disorganized speech such as frequent derailment or incoherence; grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior; and negative symptoms such as affective flattening, logia or abolition. It requires generally that two of more of the said symptoms must be present for an essential portion of time during a month ( 2002). However, the DSM-IV-TR acknowledges that its present classification of subtypes is not fully satisfactory for either clinical or research purposes, thus alternative sub typing schemes are being actively investigated (2008). Furthermore, DSM-IV also defined five important subtype of schizophrenia, namely: Paranoid type, that shows the presence of auditory hallucinations or delusion; disorganized type that shows disorganized speech, disorganized behavior and flat or inappropriate effect; catatonic type, which focuses on the disturbances of movement that can vary from remaining motionless for a long period of time or even excessive or purposeless movement; undifferentiated type, that do not meet the full criteria for paranoid, disorganized or catatonic subtypes; and residual type that shows at least one psychotic episode, continue to have some of the negative symptoms, but do not have current psychotic symptoms (1999,). This is the answer regarding the earlier beliefs that schizophrenia is a group of diseases, rather than a single disease, and that the brain characteristics are associated with some of the subtype (cited in 1997). However, often treatment programs are designed with the assumption that all the people who are suffering from the said mental disorder experience the same illness. The current literature does not fully evaluate the differences among people with schizophrenia. It is very important to consider that research helps to identify different factors that determine differential responses and how they are related to the medication response, relapse proneness and course of illness (1997 ).             Furthermore, DSM-IV also explains that causes of schizophrenia are unknown and it cannot be cured, but it can be treated. Predictors for good treatment outcomes are normal adjustment before the onset of the disease and little or no family history of schizophrenia, confusion, paranoia, depression, or catatonic behavior. There are also different predictors of poor outcome like earlier age of onset, a family history of illness, withdrawal, apathy as well as prior history of a thought disorder. There are different theories that explain the development of the said mental disorder such as genetic factors, psychological as well as social factors (2003). With connection to that,  (1997), strongly believe that schizophrenia is not just an organic disorder with no relation to psychosocial environment factors. This is due to the fact that interactional relationships with other people are considered as part of the human biology and it plays an important role in the development of the psychosocial development of human as well as the underlying cerebral functions DSM-IV and Behavioral Approach to Depression             Depression is considered as common mental health problem in later life, there are at least one in ten people aged 65 or more have significant symptoms of depression like sadness, loss of energy and difficulties in sleeping ( 2005). However, it is important to take note that although the said mental disorder is common in older people, it is not consider as normal part of aging ( 2004). This is due to the fact that despite the perception that old age can bring unhappiness, research suggests that the majority of seniors feel satisfied with their lives. In the study of the  in San Diego, which asked 500 respondents ages 60 – 98 to rate on a scale of 1 to 10 to show how successfully they though they had aged, the result shows that the average rating was 8.4. The presumption during the past that depression is inevitable at the said stage of life is due to the losses and different social disruptions that are being faced by many older people such as death of loved once and physical disabilities (2007).  The DSM-IV gives 9 different criteria for depression such as:  depressed mood, sleep disturbance, lack of interest or pleasure in activities, guild and feelings of worthlessness, lack of energy, loss of concentration and difficulty making decision, anorexia or weight loss, psychomotor agitation or retardation, and suicidal ideation. The presence of at least five of the said criteria, that occurs every day during the same two-week period, or even a score of more than 10 on the Beck Depression Inventory or 10 more on the Geriatric Depression Scale supports the diagnosis of depression in elderly patients ( 2004). However, there are other studies that show that the development period for depression in older adults may be much longer, even years. The study of  (1998) shows that people over the age of 75 who demonstrate depressive symptoms such as appetite disturbance, psychomotor disturbances, and dysphoria at baseline, are more apt or prone to be diagnosed with depression after 3 years. In addition, these patients also showed more severe baseline symptoms than their non-depressed counterparts. The study shows that major depression has more persistent nature in very old age ( 2001). Schizophrenia and Depression             Schizophrenia and depression are somewhat and somehow connected with each other. Depression is frequently occurring symptom in Schizophrenia, and both are important category of mental disorder that must be considered in order to further study the remaining mystery regarding the human mentality, that can affect the overall productivity of each and every individual.             One of the main differences between the two disorders focuses on the causes. While different studies regarding schizophrenia focus on the biological implications, studies about depression focuses on the impact of the environment or the social factors. Causes             Schizophrenia can be associated with certain brain characteristics. Brain areas implicated in this illness are the frontal lobe, temporal lobes, limbic system, and the basal ganglia. However, there is probably not one single area of the brain that is connected with the illness. This is due to the fact that interconnections among brain parts play the greatest role in the development of symptoms. Different psychodynamic researches shows that in some of people that are suffering from the said mental disorder, the lateral and third ventricles are enlarged and the temporal lobes are reduced in size ( 1997). In addition to that, the study of Robin Sherrington of the University of London, England and his colleagues shows that schizophrenia in seven Icelandic and English families is associated with inheriting a specific region of chromosome 5, that indicates the presence of a gene that influence the occurrence of the disorder ( 1988).             On the other hand, depression is different from Schizophrenia due to the fact that depression is primarily connected with the different environmental and social aspect such as self-esteem, body image, peer relations, parental rearing behavior, socioeconomic status, conduct problems, attention regulation problems and pubertal status (2006).     Violence According to the  some people with schizophrenia who become violent may do so for reasons that are unrelated to their current illness. The study of Clinical Antipsychotic Trials for Intervention Effectiveness or CATIE in 2007 shows that most of the people with schizophrenia are not violent, but the likelihood of violence is higher among people with the said mental disorder but also with the history of other disorders such as childhood conduct problems. The study shows that the overall percentage of participants who committed acts of violence was 19%. Those respondents with the history of childhood conduct problems reported violence twice as frequently or 28%, as those without the said problems or 14%. In addition to that the result shows that violence is also affected by other environmental and social issues such as unemployment o underemployment, living with family or restrictive setting or have been recently arrested or involved with the police. In addition to that, violence was associated with alcohol and substance abuse in both group, but unlike the group without childhood conduct problems, violence in the group with the childhood conduct problems was associated even with the levels of alcohol and substance use ( 2007).              On the other hand, different studies regarding the relationship of violence and depression shows that those people who are exposed to violence, more specifically at home are more likely to be depressed or hopeless than those who are not. According to the research that is based on a questionnaire filled out almost 200 adolescents that was randomly selected by computer from patients at a primary health care clinic at the , 70% of those teenagers reported having watched a beating, 50% a stabbing and 44% a shooting, and almost 1 out of 5 or 18% had seen someone get killed. The study shows that adolescents who reported being threatened by violent crime in their neighborhoods had above average rates of depression and hopelessness, but the prevalence of depression and hopelessness was even higher among those who had witnessed violence in their own home ( 1994). Medication             The process of medication is also different for the two diseases, this is due to the fact that there are studies that shows that Schizophrenia is related to other mental and physical disorders that are commonly related with brain, primarily inherited, while depression is just acquired due to the different impact of the environment as well as different issues that are related to the social life.             On the other hand, both of the disorders are in great needs for medical as well as other emotional support in order to improve the mental conditions of the patients.             In terms of depression, there are different therapies that are being recommended to the patients. One of this is the psychological therapies that will cater to the vulnerability to adverse effects and high rates of medical problems as well as medication use. Stressful life events, family conflicts, and the reduction or absence of social support likely will not be affected by medication and other somatic treatment approaches, but patients with the said problems are responsive to psychological intervention. It includes different cognitive-behavior therapy, supportive psychotherapy, problem-solving therapy and other interpersonal therapy ( 2004). By doing the said treatment, the patient will be able to come up with the different aspects or factors that had made them feel or cause their depression.             On the other hand, the medication process of schizophrenia focuses on the different antipsychotic drugs. This is due to the fact that schizophrenic patients are showing symptoms like hallucinations and delusions. The AP drugs can help to reduce and even eliminate the two important symptoms in about 70%. The entire phase of the medication process of schizophrenia focuses on the different medications that could help to maintain the normal mental behavior and condition of the patient, rather than taking up different therapies that will help the patient to know his or her condition. This is due to the fact that the medication process of schizophrenia focuses on the brain structure of the patient that is greatly affecting the entire system of the patient.                   Conclusion             Schizophrenia and depression are two of the most important issues in the field of mental health, this is due to the fact that it is affecting different people from different part of the globe, and continuous studies are being held in order to know the roots and the reasons behind the mental disorders.             The two mental disorders are different in terms of causes and medication, this is due to the fact that the two mental disorders have different path of studies. Different studies regarding schizophrenia focuses on the impact of genes and other hereditary factors that are connected with the family and other related aspects, while depression focuses on the different environmental and social aspects that can affect the feelings and emotions of the people.             It is also important to consider that both of the mental disorders are hard to distinguish from other mental disorders due to the different symptoms and causes. And because of that, both of them are associated or connected with other emotional, physical and mental disorders. The two mental disorders are also being interconnected, due to the fact that there are different symptoms of depression that can be experienced by the patients who are suffering from s Schizophrenia.             On the other hand, different formal classification systems of mental disorder such as DSM-IV are important because it is the one that set the standard, in order to maintain the consistency of findings of different mental organizations and professionals. Its main role is to maintain the current state of the studies regarding the mental health, particularly in terms of Schizophrenia and depression. This is due to the fact that there are different studies that are pertaining on the different aspects of the mental disorder, and it can affect the relationship and communication of the global mental health. And it can only be changed when one knowledge or facts regarding the different mental disorders had been strongly defined or proven something that could help to improve the current knowledge and understanding regarding the field of mental health.                                     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The Real Purpose of Formal Classification Systems of Mental Disorders

The Real Purpose of Formal Classification Systems of Mental Disorders is to preserve the Status Quo Introduction A classi...

Changes in Organization Structure

Changes in Organization Structure   Background Along with the growth of Tam Construction Co. come different challenges and problems. The company has been facing stiff competition from foreign contractors such as those from China, France, Korea and Japan since mid 1980s. Mr. Tam realized that the organization structure that Tam Construction has was not efficient. In addition, the organization’s image was tarnished by in adequate and poor quality building. In response to these challenges and problems, the company’s executives decided to hire four professional expatriates to manage projects and work as claims consultants. This scheme proved to be ineffective. Communication and cultural difficulties soon surfaced between the expatriates and local domestic subcontractors. The quality of work did not improve. The profit margins of project were also dropping and the tight cash flows resulted in delayed payments to suppliers and subcontractors. And to make matters worse, the staff were complaining about their year-end bonus, promotion and annual salary. Theory The components of an organization structure include the division of work into units and departments, the differential assignment of responsibility and accountability to positions, a benefit and reward system, the establishment of policies and procedures, and the distribution of resources. As an organization grows in size and complexity, the structure typically becomes more layered and formal (2000). Content An organic structure is more appropriate to those organizations where there is a need to be innovative. The pressure of innovation suggests a structure that can respond to environmental variations rapidly so it is necessarily loosely defined and flexible. The organization tends not to be formalized nor are roles too closely structured (2001). Organic organizations are stratified primarily in terms of expertise, and leadership accrues to those who are the best informed and capable. There is much more commitment to the organization, with the result that formal and informal systems become indistinguishable. A framework of values and beliefs, much like those characterizing a profession, develops that becomes an effective substitute for formal hierarchy (2002). Mechanistic organizations are somewhat rigid in that they consist of very clearly delineated jobs, have a well-defined hierarchical structure, and rely heavily on the formal chain of command control. According to  (2001), a mechanistic structure is more relevant when the environment is stable (). It is straight line, rigid, hierarchical and very efficient in operating in a stable environment. According to  (1999), a mechanistic structure is composed of many hierarchical levels. Processes may be highly regulated through elaborate planning and control systems, specialization of tasks, and high degrees of standardization and formalization. Training and education and horizontal decentralization are very restricted, while the few cooperation devices are highly formalized. As a result, the levels of participation and delegation are low (). What Organization structure does Tam Construction have? From the background information given and the analysis of the characteristics of both mechanistic and organic structure, it is clear that the company has a mechanistic structure. Conclusion Changes in Organization are essential in order to succeed in an ever-changing environment and market. The process of reinvention must be done continuously in order to respond to demands and competitions. For an organization structure change to be successful, the company must have a clear vision for action, committed leadership, and exacting project management. The organization must also thoroughly manage its change program to ensure that key stakeholders are involved in and support the process, and it must monitor the emotional response of its employees. The change process must be addressed when the critical business issues are starting to be identified. The challenges and problems that Tam Construction Com. are facing call for an organization structure that is flexible to address the current as well as future issues and challenges.             Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Changes in Organization Structure

Changes in Organization Structure Background Along with the growth of Tam Construction Co. come different challenges and problems. T...

Linear Programming

Linear Programming Linear programming (LP) is a mathematical optimization technique. The method applies to many situations when one needs to maximize or minimize an objective while faced with constraints. An example is introduced to demonstrate the versatility of this method. It assume that a production process where one is interested in maximizing profits using the available quantity of inputs. This is an optimization function for which this mathematical technique provides the optimum or best solution possible given the constraints. Definition: LP is a mathematical technique to help decision makers in resource allocation. The process provides a plan that efficiently applies available resources to achieve a desired objective. LP Graphic Solution One way to solve the problems is using graphs. The problem with graphs is that the solution is not easy to determine unless one uses special graph paper. The first step in a graphical solution is to plot each constraint. After plotting the constraints, the corner solutions are identified. Numerical outcomes are then calculated at each corner solution to identify the one that satisfies the objective. Calculations are made using the substitution method. Example:             Linear programming problem in a specific firm; the manufacturer of two types of furniture 1.    tables 2.    chairs There are four characteristics that linear programming problems must have:                   1.)  There must have an objective in achieve the major objective here is to                            maximize dollar profits.  Profits are NOT linearly related to sale but                           concept of  Total Contribution is : Total               =   (Selling price   -   variable  cast  )    x   ( sale volume ) Contribution       (   per unit                  per unit      )         (   in units       )               Where:  profit is refer to contribution   2.)    There must be alternative course of action.  One of that alternative will achieve the objective. 3.)    Resources must be in limited supply 4.)    Must be able to expressed the firm’s objective and its limitation as mathematical equations or inequalities; and there must be linear equation or inequalities ; so furniture objective = Dollar profits as P1 can be expressed this equation.    P = $ 8  ( number of tables ) + $ 6 ( number of chair )   GRAPHIC  SOLUTION TO A MAXIMIZATION PROBLEM :           Ø  Manufacturing of one table requires: 4     Hours   in  Assembly 2    hours    in  Finishing   Ø  Manufacturing of Eacher chair  requires 2 hours  in Assembly 4 hours in Finishing   Ø  Assembly has 60 hours available Ø  Finishing handle up to 48 hours of work Ø  If Profit is per table and per chair Ø  The problem is to determine the best possible combination of TABLES and CHAIRS to produce and sell in order to realize the maximum profit. Ø  There are two limitations here which is also called the constraints in the problem: 1.)   The time available in Assembly (60 hrs) 2.)   The time available in Finishing (48 hrs) >        We use T to represent the number of tables and C to represent the number of Chairs        FIRST  STEP    a.) Let us restate the information in mathematical form by using a new term called OBJECTIVE FUNCTION, which refers to the expression which shows the relationship of output to profit as:                         T  =  total profit from sale of Tables                         C  =  total profit from sale of chairs                                     =  $ 8 T  +  $ 6 C  =  as objective function           HOURS REQUIRED FOR 1 UNIT OF PRODUCT     Assembly  (A)           4 hours / table           2 hours / chair          60 hrs. avail Finishing  (F)                       2 hours / table            4 hours / chair          48 hrs. avail Profit for Unit                        per table               per chair               How to Solve :             A  =  60 hours available    =  15  tables 4     hrs  per table A   =   60 hrs. available     =  30  chair             2 hrs. per chair                     F   =   48  hrs.  available  =   24  tables 4     per chair b.)  Department time constraints             =   Time used in making the two products must NOT exceed the total time available in the two department:                         FORMULA:             Assembly:  4T  +   2 C  Í  60             Finishing:   2T  +   4C   Í  48 T  Ê   0     A  =  0 x 4 + 0 x 2  =  0 C  Ê   0     F  =  0 x 2 + 0 x 4  =  0       SECOND  STEP  :                         GRAPHING THE CONSTRAINTS   Chair Axis                                                                        Table  Axis   =   the inequality of 4T + 2C  Í 60 can be  found in :  ( ASSEMBLY Example :             a.)  If we assume that all time available in assembly is used in making chair (then the production of table is O ), then 30 chairs could be made. Formula:                 T  =  O, then  C  Í  30  chairs   Solution  :     4 T    +  2  C    Í  60     4 (o)  +  2  C    Í  60                      C    Í  30  chairs             --  If we make the maximum number of chair, then C  =  30             =  the first print here in ( 0, 30 )             =  this point denotes the production of  0 tables and 30 hairs. (b.)   The SECOND POINT :             =  Lets assume that all the time available in Assembly is used in making table (then production of CHAIR is 0), and we produce 15 tables Formula  :   Solution :                         4 T  +  2 C  Í  60  hrs.                         4 T  +  2 (0)  Í 60                                     T  =  15  tables             =  Second  point is ( 15, 0 )             =  this denotes the production of table of 15 and O chairs             =  locating these two points ( 0, 30 ) chair and ( 15, 0 ) tables joining the result in the graph as :  (Figure ______ )             =  Any combination of tables and chairs on line BC will use up to 60 hours available (ex.  10 chairs and 10 tables) GRAPH            C                                     Number of Tables Graph of capacity constraints in the Assembly Department             C                                       Number of Tables             =  5  tables and 15 chair  =  this point is not on line BC but the combination can be produced without exceeding the 60 hours             =  available same with 10 tables and 10 chairs             =  the shade area ABC is the graphic Representation of the inequality of 4T + 2 C  Í    60 As long as T and C are both greater than or equal to O, or any point at any combination of tables and chairs falling within the shaded are ABC, will satisfy the time Restriction in the Assembly Department.               Graph for Constraints in Finishing Department                         =  same explanation applies for finishing that : FINISHING             2  T   +  4 C  Í  48  hours  available =  line EF represents all combination of tables and chairs which exactly use for 48 hours as ( 2 T  +  4  C  Í  48  ) =  The shaded area AEF contains all possible combination which do NOT exceed 48 hours ( 2 T  +  4 C  Í  48 ) =   As long as T and C are both greater them or equal to O; any point that any       combination of table and chairs falling within the shaded AEF will satisfy the       restriction in the finishing department =   The shaded AEF is the graphic representation of the inequality 2 T + 4 C Í 48 =   Best combination of tables and chairs must fall within the schedule area of both Assembly and Finishing. Formula:             A  =   4 T  +  2  C  Í  60  hrs.                 F   =   2 T  +  4  C  Í  48 hrs.                           T  Ê  O                           C  Ê  O   Graph in capacity constraints in Finishing Department   C                                             Number of Tables   Graphic Representation of Problem Constraints C                             Number of Tables   =  Combination of Tables and chairs that fall within AEDC are called Feasible Solution and AEDC is the Feasible Region   =  outside AEDC are called infeasible       THIRD  STEP :    Locate Point  D          a.)  to solve the equation of the two line which intersect to form D ( the point to both equation )   Formula:               A  =  2   (  4T  +  2 C  = 60  )               F   =   2  2T +  4C  =  48   b.)  multiply  the first equation by - 2   c.)  add the second equation   d.)  substitute 12 for T in the second equation                           F   2T  +  4C   =  48                            2 (12)  +  4C =  48                                24  +  4C  =  48                                          4C  =  28                                            C  =  6   e.)   point  D  is  ( 12, 6 )   FOURTH  STEP  :     =  test the four corners of the shaded area to see which yield the greatest dollar       Profit                                                   Profit  $ 8    +  $ 6     Point  A  ( 0,0 )  _____________________   $ 8 (0)  +  $ 6 (0)  =  $ 0 Point  E  ( 0,12) ______________________ $ 8 (0)  +  $ 6 (0)   =  $ 72 Point  C  (15,0)  ______________________ $ 8 (15) + $ 6 (0)   = $ 120 Point D  (12,6)  ______________________ $ 8 (12)  + $ 6 (6)  =  $ 132                                                             =  Point D yield the greatest profit point $ 132 points table and chairs ( 12,6 )     GRAPHIC SOLUTION TO A MINIMIZATION :               Many problem of interest to managers involve minimizing some objective function instead of maximizing one; in these situations we can fine an optimal solution by graphic methods.             Example :               Hanks Kennel wants to mix up 500 pounds of a special hotdog food supplement Hank retails.  There are two principal ingredients in the mixture, both sources of protein             a.)  ingredient P1             b.)  ingredient  P2             The first source of ingredients protein, cost $ 5 pounds             The second ingredient cost $ 8 pounds             Chemical constraints dictate that the mixture contain not more than 400 pounds of P1, and at least 200 pounds of P2 STEP ONE: Problem information .             Minimize total cost =  $ 5 P1 + $ 8 P2 Subject to the Constraints             P1   Í  400 pounds             P2   Ê  200 pounds P1  +   P2   =  500  pounds             P1   Ê  0             P2   Ê  0 STEP  2  :             We plot the problem constraints, looking first at the constraint P1 Í  400 pounds, we can see that vertical line erected from the 400 pound point on the horizontal axis will denote the maximum value P1 can table.  P1 can take on any value up to an including 400 pounds; thus constraints P1 Í 400 pounds is properly represented by the darker area to the left of the vertical line AB or in the darker area to the left of the vertical line will satisfy the constraints  P1 Í 400   P2                               Pounds                   P1     Second constraints P2  Ê 200 pounds.  If we were to constraints a horizontal line CD at the 200 pounds point on the P2 axis, we could say that any value of P2 lying on that line or in the space colored it would satisfy the constraint P2 Ê 200.  There will be a line and the darker space above it.  The darker area is a constraints only at bottom ( at the 200 pounds minimum level ), not at the top.   P2                             Pounds >   third constraints P1  +  P2  =  500 ?  this ensure that Hank get the quantity of the       mixture that he requires; no more no less the equation P1 + P2  =  500 has been         plotted on graph as line EF, Any combination of P1 and P2 falls on this line will       represent exactly 500 pounds of the supplemental foods satisfy Hanks third       constraints.                           Pounds STEP 5                         As many mixture that Hanks produce must satisfy all three constraints this shows that any combination of the two ingredients P1 and P2 which is on the line segments EG will satisfy all the three constraints.             Such combination will exactly 500 pounds the amount of P1 in such a combination will be less then 400 pounds the amount of P2 such as a combination will be more than 200 pounds. P                                            Pounds     But there are many combinations of P1 and P2 lying on the line segment EG.  Which one of these will generate the minimum cost of producing 500 pounds of the required mixture?  One way for Hank to answer this question is to observe that P2 is the more expensive of the two ingredients  ( per pound) and that it would be best to use the smallest possible amount of this ingredient.  The constraint P2 Ê 200 pounds sets the minimum amount of P2 which must appear in Hank’s mixture, 200 pounds; with P2 being more expensive than P1, it does not behoove us to include more than the minimum amount of P2 in the final mixture.  Thus a bit of simple logic would indicate that the final mixture should consist of 200 pounds of P2 and 300 pounds of P1, represented by point G.             Another method of determining the particular combination of P1 and P2 on line segment EG which minimize the total cost of the mixture is to use a variant of the isoprofit lines we employed in the maximization example discussed earlier.  Let us call these lines isocost lines.  You will remember that we begin by plotting one such line representing a total cost we know we could achieve; with only 500 pounds of the mixture to be produced, it would be possible to mix it entirely of P2 at per pound; if Hank did this, the total cost would be represented by this equation:             The line segment EG on which any acceptable mixture must lie; in addition, we have plotted three isocost lines, beginning with a total cost of ,000, then decreasing to a total cost of ,000, and finally plotting the lowest isocost line, which has at least one point (G) on the line segment EG.  The total cost of this third isocost line, which passes through point G, is found by solving simultaneously the equations of the two lines which pass through point G.  A simpler method would be to read the coordinates of point G regardless of the method chosen, the final solution to Hank’s minimizing problem is                                       P1  =   300 pounds                                                             P2  =   200 pounds As P1 is less than or equal to 400 pounds, it satisfies the original constraint; and because P2 in the final solution is greater than or equal to 200 pounds, it too satisfies Hank’s constraints.  Of course, this is a trivial problem, one that is easily solved in a moment simply by inspecting the ingredient costs and the constraints; however in almost all operational applications of linear programming, the complexities of the mixture constraints are such as to make solution by inspection impossible; in this sense, our simple mixture problem serves us as an introduction to the methodology of the more complex solution methods to follow and not as the quickest method to solve the simple problem we have used as an example.   Summary of graphic minimization procedure 1.  Restate the problem information (objective function and constraints) in mathematical form. 2.   Plot the problem constraints on the graph. 3.   Determine the feasible region. 4.  Plot an isocost line and move it parallel to itself so that total cost decreases until further shifting would move it out of the feasible region.     Important Terms   Constrained resources.  Organizational resources which are limited in quantity.   Constraint.   A limit on the availability of resources   Extreme point.   A corner of the feasible region   Feasible region.   That area containing all the possible solutions to the problem which are feasible, that is, those solutions which satisfy all the constraints in the problem.   Inequality. A mathematical expression indicating that minimum or maximum requirements must be met.   Infeasibility.    The condition when there is no solution which satisfies all the constraints   in a problem.   Isocost line.   A line representing all possible combinations of products variables which produce a given profit.   Isoprofit line.   A line representing all possible combinations of products which will produce a given profit.   Linear  -  used to describe a relationship between two or more variables, a relationship which is directly and precisely proportional   Linear programming.   A mathematical technique for finding the best uses of an organization’s resources.   Linear relationship.  A directly proportional relationship between variables.   Nonnegativity constraints.  Constraints that restrict all the variables to be zero or positive.   Objective.   A goal of the organization.   Objective function.   An expression which shows the relationship between the variables in the problem and the firm’s goal.   Programming  -  refers to the use of certain mathematical technique to get the best possible solution to get the best possible solution to a problem involving limited resources.   Redundancy.   A constraint which does not affect the feasible region.   Structural constraints.   All constraints in a linear program besides the nonnegativity constraints.   Total contribution.  (Selling price per unit – variable cost per unit)  x sales volume.   Unboundedness.   The condition when the objective of a linear programming problem can be made infinitely large without violating any of the constraints.     Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Linear Programming

Linear Programming Linear programming (LP) is a mathematical optimization technique. The method applies to many situations when one nee...