Research Korner

Psychological and Literary Journey of Virginia Woolf

MA Thesis Proposal   1.    Tentative Title The working title of this qualitative empirical research is initially drafted as: The Scientific, Psychological and Literary Journey of Virginia Woolf – What Mrs. Dalloway, To the Lighthouse and The Waves Reveal.     <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Background of the Study</li> Born Adeline Virginia Stephen in 1882 January 25th in London, she as a novelist and essayist was regarded as one of the foremost central figures of the modernist literary movement in the 20th century. Educated by her parents namely Sir Leslie Stephen and Julia Prinsep Jackson, Virginia grew up in a literate and well connected household. Being a daughter to Sir Leslie who was a respective editor, critic and biographer himself, Virginia grew up in an environment where influences of Victorian literary society were ‘brimful’.  Such influences were complemented by an enormous library in their Kensington home where Virginia was taught the classics and English literature. Virginia, unlike her brothers who were formally educated, she was educated at home as the Victorian society dictated.   Virginia was 13 then when her mother died in 1895, and exacerbated by the death of her half-sister Stella two years later, the incidents led to the writer’s several nervous breakdown. According to modern scholars, Virginia’s breakdown and the eventual chronic depression were made worse by sexual abuse she experienced through one of her half-brothers . Posthumously, it was claimed that Virginia suffered bipolar disorder that deeply impacted her social functioning leading to drastic mood swings. Though such disorder was argued to be disturbing Virginia’s work, relationships and life, most feminists claimed that her literary abilities remained intact and that the experience added enthusiasm into her writing.   The death of her father in 1904 and the second serious nervous breakdown called for the three siblings Virginia, Vanessa and Adrian to sell 22 Hyde Park Gate and buy the house at 46 Gordon Square in Bloomsbury. Pursuing her studies in King’s College London, Virginia met with Lytton Strachey, Clive Bell, Saxon Sydney-Turner, Duncan Grant and Leonard Woolf. Together they formed the nucleus of the intellectual circle called the Bloomsbury Group. Starting as a social clique, the group influenced literature, aesthetics, criticism and economics as well as modern attitudes toward feminism, pacifism and sexuality in a profound manner. As controversial a group that is, Bloomsbury Group reached fame in 1910 when the group pulled the Dreadnought trick.   The Bloomsbury Group participated in a hoax contrived by Horace de Vere Cole in 1910. Dressed in Abyssinian royalty garb, Cole and five of his friends including Virginia disguised themselves with skin darkeners and turbans. On February 10th, Cole, through an accomplice, send a telegram to HMS Dreadnought moored in Weymouth, Morset stating that a group of princes from Abyssinia will pay a visit. The telegram was purportedly signed by Sir Charles Hardinge, Foreign Office Under-Secretary. Cole’s group went to Paddington station where Cole pretended to be Herbert Cholmondeley of UK Foreign Office. Through a special train and a VIP coach arranged by the stationmaster, they journeyed to Weymouth where they were welcomed with an honour guard. The ruse was just revealed after Cole and his associates send a letter and a group photo to the Daily Mirror, a British tabloid daily newspaper.       In 1912, Virginia married Leonard Woolf, a Jewish-born, British political theorist, author, publisher and civil servant. Elected to the Cambridge Apostles, Leonard formed one of the legs of Bloomsbury Group. As a couple, Virginia and Leonard shared a passion in writing and subsequently resulting to founding the Hogarth Press which published most of Virginia’s work in 1917. Since Bloomsbury discouraged sexual exclusivity, in 1922 she had an affair with Vita Sackville-West; a relationship that lasted throughout the 1920s. Virginia felt victim to manic depression after completing the manuscript of her last novel Between the Acts making possible the self-contemplated suicide. Virginia drowned herself through weighing her pockets with stones into the River Ouse near her home on March 28, 1941 and her body was not found until 14th of April.   When Virginia was unable to work due to bipolar disorder, Woolf had gone on to publish novels and essays through Hogarth Press that elevated the public intellect. Virginia’s novels and essays are both critically and popularly accepted.  Recognized as one of the greatest novelists, Virginia was considered to be one of the greatest innovators in the English language experimenting with stream-of-consciousness (so James Joyce) which attempted at portraying individual points of view through giving the written equivalent of the character’s thought processes. Virginia as well powerfully depicted the underlying psychological and emotional motives of the characters. Throughout the course of Virginia’s writing there are three novels that reveal the poetic visioning of the author that honors ordinary, banal settings in the light of warfare despite the mental illness that include Mrs Dalloway (1925), To the Lighthouse (1927) and The Waves (1931) which will be the basis of this research. Novels that we considered to be the most appropriate to do so. Published in May 14, 1925, Mrs. Dalloway details the daily experiences of Clarissa Dalloway as represented in post-World War 1 England. Embedded on Clarissa’s preparation for a party as a hostess, the novel was taken with an interior perspective. As the story travels forward and backwards in time, the author presented the character’s mind explicitly making possible the structure of the life imagery of Clarissa and of the inter-war social framework. How the main character interprets the thought and actions of others and relates her experiences on two separate occasions is said to be a popular example of stream-of-consciousness storytelling wherein scenarios are deeply integrated on the momentary thoughts of a particular character.   There are four themes evident in Mrs Dalloway: feminism, homosexuality, mental illness and existential issues. There are two characters that are Clarissa and Sally Seton that hailed the women and femininity. The two women embody strong attraction to each other with Clarissa considering the kiss that they shared to be the happiest moment of her life. In addition, there are also gay characters in the novel in the persona of Septimus Smith and Doris Kilman. Septimus, further, possesses hallucinations while also criticizing insanity and depression treatment. Death as an act of embracing life is said to be a clear parody illustrated in the novel.   Preceded by Mrs Dalloway is the To the Lighthouse Novel which was published in May 5, 1927. Centering on the Ramsay family, this novel is a free-flowing, multiple discursive tale that details the family’s visit to the Isle of Skye in Scotland between the periods of 1910 and 1920. In essence though the novel includes minimal dialogue and almost no action as it is written as thoughts and observations. To the Lighthouse is an illustration of the power of childhood emotions while stressing the impermanence of adult relationships. Ubiquity of transience and complexity of experiences are just two of the major themes of the novel. As such, majority of the contents of the novel do not direct objects of vision but rather meaning of perceptions.  This means that the writer focused more on how the characters interprets what they feel and what they think instead of digging deeper on plainly what they feel and think.      The Waves was published on October 8, 1981 and was considered as the most experimental novel of Virginia Woolf. Strategically approached through soliloquy, the novel consists of six friends, namely Bernard, Susan, Rhoda, Neville, Jinny and Louis with Percival as the seventh character. Through the alternating speaking of the characters, the concepts of individuality, self and community were explored by Virginia, employing a multiple consciousnesses of the characters and then weave them together as a silent central consciousness of the characters in the entire novel  The characters, a group of six friends, have recitative monologues of their personal reflections alternately speaking implicitly creating the centricity of thought.    3.    Theoretical Framework  An American literary critic and feminist, Elaine Showalter has written extensively on the descriptive life of Virginia Woolf in her books which will in essence guide this research. Showalter’s first book entitled A Literature of their Own: British Women Novelists from Bronte to Lessing is a study of British women novelists. Showalter described the female literary tradition in the English novel and the social backgrounds of the women who composed it. Chapter 10 of the novel under the title of ‘Virginia Woolf and the Flight into Androgyny’ is devoted to the literary genius of Virginia notwithstanding the manic depression.   The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 will be second novel to guide the researcher in comprehending how the writer incorporates science and psychology in her works.  Discussing ‘hysteria’ or which is commonly known as female malady, this incisive work of Showalter explores how cultural ideas regarding proper feminine behavior have shaped the definition and treatment of madness in women as it traces trends in the psychiatric face of Victorian era to the present. In her third provocative and illuminating book, Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modern Media, Showalter maps the persistence of a cultural phenomenon whereby the most triumphant of the therapeutic societies have not been able to prevent the appearance of hysterical disorders, imaginary illnesses, rumor panics, and pseudomemories that mark the end of the millennium. The author also highlights the order of contemporary syndromes and draws connections to earlier times and settings, showing that hysterias mutate and are renamed; and that under the right circumstances, everyone is susceptible. As she demonstrates, hysterias are always with us, a kind of collective coping mechanism for changing times; all that differs are names and labels, and at times of crisis, individual hysterias can become contagious.   Realizing the fact that Virginia Woolf wrote most of her stories in a psychological-oriented manner, there are specific theories as to delineate that of Virginia’s experiences. The research considers three theories: 1) theories of the unconscious mind and the defense mechanism of repression; 2) theory of emotion consequences for the philosophy of aesthetics and 3) theory of natural selection that explains the diversification in nature. The first theory is developed by Sigmund Freud in between 1856 and 1939. Freud claimed that there are influences from other parts of the mind including unconsciousness as a personal habit, being unaware and intuition. Defense mechanism in Freudian psychoanalytic theory refers to the psychological strategies that were brought into play via different entities that purports on coping with reality and maintaining self-image. Such strategies act in such a way to exclude desires and impulses from a person’s consciousness; for this reason it was called psychological repression.   William James, a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher, came out with the theory of emotion together with Carl Lange. Such theory states that human beings responded to experiences in the world with automatic nervous system that creates physiological events. Examples of these events are muscular tension, heart pulse, perspiration and mouth dryness. James and Lange continue that emotions spring as results of these physiological changes rather than causes. James developed the Mind-Word Connection (stream of consciousness) which was a significant impact on avant-garde and modernist literature and art.   Lastly, the theory developed by Charles Darwin that explains the analogy to artificial selection. His work is on the idea that human processes favor heritable traits which became more common in successive generations and unfavorable heritable traits become less common. Mainly demonstrating ‘the struggle for existence’, Darwin justifies consistently, heroism and social utility as accomplished by human. Such theory extends its application on how human behave especially in terms of adherence to cultural norms and social structures such as incest avoidance and gender roles.    4.    Research Objective   The objective of this research is to conduct an in-depth biographical research of Woolf’s work experimentation and explore how science and psychology were exposed in her works through the technique of stream of consciousness, the madness of the person, her character and the language itself as seen through her three novels (i.e. Mrs Dalloway (1925), To the Lighthouse (1927) and The Waves (1931). In particular, the research purports on being able to comprehend the train of thoughts of Virginia when it comes to integrating science and psychology in her works and on being able to understand the writer’s life experiences based on situations portrayed in the novels. How these works are connected with modernism, postmodernism and feminism will be analyzed. To explain how Woolf explored science and psychology,  the study will integrate the works of three theorists namely Sigmund Freud, William James and Charles Robert Darwin. As such, this research basically aimed at disclosing the Woolf unknown to many founded on the connection among science, psychology and literature.     5.    Research Questions   There are three sets of key questions that the research will attempt to answer. These are: 1)     How does the stream of consciousness as a literary technique reveal the thought patterns of Virginia? How her thoughts and experiences influence the contents of the three novels considering the time it was written?   2)     How do the three novels connect with the concepts of modernism, postmodernism and feminism in literature? How they could likely to dictate how Virginia incorporated her psyche with her writing?   3)     How the three theorists Freud, James and Darwin explain the literary consciousness of Virginia? What do these theorists reveal about Virginia’s expressiveness?     6.    Research Methodology   There are two basic concepts that the research will be based upon. First is the biographical research whereby we will reflect on a rapid expansion of interest in the study of Virginia Woolf’s life within the context of her three novels mentioned earlier for the purpose of exploring how Virginia as a writer interpret experiences and social relationships. According to Gabriele Rosenthal, biographical researchers are motivated by realization of the necessity of “getting inside of the actor’s perspective” as an advantage for recording subjective perspectives of members of various milieu. Such research will construct Virginia’s scientific, psychological and literary proclivity; therefore, interpretative biographical research in nature.   Second is the qualitative empirical research which “typically starts with some a priori theory and which the researcher develops to try to explain and/or predict what happens in the real world.” Though the main purpose of the research is to test theory and possibly refine it, this research will build on insights from three specific theories in order to demonstrate the literary and psychosomatic journey of Virginia Woolf. Qualitative because the researcher primarily purports on exploring Woolf’s experiences as demonstrated in her writings. As qualitative also, “the researcher could arrived at a more subjective analysis though it relies heavily on the researcher’s knowledge and experience to identify patterns, extract themes and make generalizations.”

Psychological and Literary Journey of Virginia Woolf

MA Thesis Proposal 1. Tentative Title The working title of this qualitative empirical research is initially drafted as: The ...

Influence of an Individual’s Perceptions and Interpretation In Decision-Making and Judgments

Every single day, people are faced with decisions whether be it as simple as what to do or what to wear for the day. Every single minute is characterized by choices, choices that people make, rationally or irrationally.  decision making is as essential process in the human nature. Much has been learned about the psychology of human decision making as well as decision making within organizations. This paper will examine and assess the extent by which people’s judgments and decisions are influenced by one’s perception and interpretation of the world.             There are many factors affecting our choices in life. The field of judgment and decision making is concerned on how people combine desires and beliefs to choose a course of action. There are three components in the conceptual design for a decision. It includes courses of action or choice options and alternatives; beliefs about objective states, processes and events in the world including outcome states and means to achieve them; and desires, values or utilities that describe the consequences associated with the outcomes of each action-event combination. Decision making is central to every human activity; thus, everybody is a decision-maker. It must be noted though that good decision making begins with a consecutive, purposeful, strategic-thinking process. In addition, good decisions are those that efficiently choose or select means that are available in a given circumstance or situation to attain the goals of the decision maker.             Defines a decision as “the act or process of deciding; a conclusion or resolution reached especially as to future action, after consideration; the settlement of a question; a formal judgment; tendency to decide firmly; resoluteness”. Many theories of decision making exist in disciplines for both scientific and social science paradigms. In statistics, decisional theory is a strategy of measuring the decision-making process, or making it into mathematical form to make the most efficient and effective choice. In early economic theories, there is also a decision-making model of economic utility wherein people choose the best option that provides the maximum positive utility. The aforementioned early theories are also referred to as classical decision-making which basically shows how decisions are made in ideal situations. In psychology, the highlight of the process of decision-making has been a primary area of focus and study. In Janis and Mann’s Conflict Model of Decision-making, the process of decision=making is viewed as a stressful process which involves an assessment of risk and an assessment of success and time availability to make a decision. This model hypothesize that people make a decision through a decision balance sheet wherein individuals evaluate the gains and losses of a decision on the basis of tangible gains or losses for oneself and for significant others and approval or disapproval from the self and from significant others as well.             Usually though, our decisions and judgments are primarily affected and influenced by how we perceive and interpret the world. In psychology, perception is a “neurological process of observation and interpretation; any neurological process of acquiring and mentally interpreting information from the senses”. It is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to what happens in their environment perceptions are essential because individuals act upon their interpretation of events and at other times fail to act because of perceptions. People are sometimes faces with the same events; however, there are different perceptions and views on such same events. Comments that perception is like beauty. It is in the eye of the beholder.             It must be noted that an individual’s behavior is based upon their perception of what reality, not on reality itself actually. The world as it is perceived or viewed is the world that is behaviorally important. Each one of use the five senses to experience our surroundings. They are the senses of sight, touch, smell, hearing and taste. Organizing all these information that we receive from these senses is called perception states that perception is a cognitive process. Perception actually helps individuals select, organize, store and interpret stimuli into a meaningful and rational picture of the world. As each person gives one meaning to stimuli, different individuals “see” the same things in different ways.  Obstacles in Making Accurate Perceptions             Sims has outlined some obstacles that hinder individuals from making accurate perceptions. They are stereotyping, first impression error, halo effect, contrast effect, selective perception and implicit personality theories. Each of these obstacles will be examined and discussed in the proceeding part of this paper. Stereotyping. Stereotypes are considered to be a group concept, actually held by one social group about another. They are often used in a negative or prejudicial sense and are usually used to justify certain discriminatory behavior . The basis for commonly held stereotypes may be associated to one’s sex, race, ethnic group and age. An example of stereotyping may be: the belief or perception that older workers are not capable of being trained for new tasks or younger workers cannot handle responsibility. Even though stereotyping may seem inaccurate and worthless, in some cases, there be “kernel of truth” in the basis of stereotyping; Stereotypes are sometimes based on actual group characteristics. It must be noted though that as stereotypes are some typical beliefs based on the element of truth wherein the beliefs are derived from observations that hold true for the entire group but do not hold much truth and accuracy for given individuals in the group. First Impression Error. As the saying goes, “first impressions last”. First impression errors mean that a person may observe a very brief bit about another person’s behavior in their first encounter and conclude that this behavior mirrors what the person is really like. Such impressions may be dangerous in interviews for work as these first impressions become the lasting impressions in the basis for their long-term employment relationships.    The Halo Effect. The halo effect is described as when a person good at something is assumed to be good at something else. This positive assumption creates a halo.  Gives two instances for this type of obstacle in making accurate perceptions. Example one: Let us say that you are a supervisor in a machine shop. An employee, let us call him John, has been one of the best drill operators in your section for the last ten years. A lathe operator is in need in another section. So, you recommend John, assuming that he will do superb at the lathe as he does in drill pressing. However, John fails; he may be very good in the other task but it doesn’t mean that he will definitely be great with the other task as well. He lacked the necessary skill and the training for the other task. Figuratively speaking, you have somehow placed a halo over John’s head. Another example may be when two people have a violent fistfight on the job. One is rather a personal friend of yours with whom you socialize off the job. There may be a tendency for you to place a halo over your friend’s head by assuming that the other person must have been the cause of the fight and conflict . Projection. Projection happens when an individual credit our own feelings and attributes to others. People engaging in projection have the tendency to perceive others according to what they themselves are like instead of according to what the person observed is really like. It must be noted that the observations may be accurate as they make observations of people who are actually like them; however, accuracy don’t always happen as they might have observations on people who are not like them. So, when engaging in projection, one must respond to individual differences. Contrast Effects.  Contrast effect can distort perceptions. A very common example is when illustrated in an old saying among entertainers that states never to follow an act which has kids or animals in it. There is a common belief that majority of the audience just love and adore kids and animals that the entertainer will look bad in comparison. This specific example portrays how contrast effects can affect and distort perceptions. States that people don’t assess a person in isolation. A person’s reaction to one person is influenced by other people we have just encountered. Selective Perception. Selective perception happens when perceptions arise from influences by one’s own interests. When individuals can longer take in all stimuli received, one has the tendency to select out certain elements. For instance, as one purchase a car, for some unknown reason you just begin to notice the same type of car every now and then on the streets compared to before purchasing the car . Implicit Personality Theories. As people have individual mini-theories on how people look and behave, this will result to inaccurate perceptions. These theories, helps each one of us to organize our perceptions and take shortcuts rather than incorporating new information all the time. Adds that people are cognitive misers. As the world becomes more complex and confusing and as people have only a limited mental capacity, people try to make sense of the world by grouping traits and appearances into clusters that may seem to go together. The discussion on what hinders making accurate perceptions have enlightened us on the issue of how much one’s perceptions and interpretation of the world can affect and influence decision-making as well as making judgments. We have seen how perceptions are distorted by stereotyping, first impression error, halo effect, contrast effect, selective perception and implicit personality theories. Researches on judgment and decision making have recognized important limitations in cognitive and emotional processing. It must be noted that errors in decisions occurring due to biases have widespread effects. Many scientists, economists and psychologists are driven to make behavioral assumptions in the market place as a result of real-world violations of the rational choice theory. In psychology, many examinations are made in the concept of rationality. Psychologists are further examining different and alternative frameworks and theories to explain ways of how people make decisions and what influences them upon making their decisions. The future of judgment and decision-making research within psychology lies in its capability and capacity to develop other theories and frameworks that make associations with research on emotions and cognition, in addition to social and institutional factors. Such associations will definitely influence and affect our views in decision making and adjustability and provide good foundations for research in many years ahead.

Influence of an Individual’s Perceptions and Interpretation In Decision-Making and Judgments

Every single day, people are faced with decisions whether be it as simple as what to do or what to wear for the day. Ev...

Forensic Accounting

Background of the Study A seek for an accurate result is much entertained by the individuals who are involved in a crimes investigating team, or the persons who are accused in committing crimes. In the new generation like today, the use of branded technologies are much appreciated. So why can’t the crime investigation make the solving techniques quickly than the traditional way. In the millennium where even the crime is also technological-based conspiracy, then the investigating should also be equipped with ideas against the bad men. Forensic Accounting The forensic accounting is a thorough study with regards to the independent professional judgment. The findings that brought by a forensic accountant can be in a form of accounts, inventories, or any representation of evidence that have enough quality that suits the on-going legal proceeding or judicial reviews. The concrete findings are based on a series of scientific detection and interpretation of different evidences that are related to the phenomenal case.1 Obviously there is no such impact on the business accounting system because the forensic accounting is the analysis of the cause and effect upon the discovery of any deceptions or misleading patterns. The method used of a forensic accountant expert is broadly exposed about the objective verification. This is the start of the adventure of an expert anticipate in finding or analysis and seeking the evidentiary detail for scrutinizing such a review. The realistic approach appreciates the evolutionary changes in the court or any administrative bodies. The evidentiary value of accounting data should be validated first and enhance for the knowledge needed.  The broad duty of the forensic accountants is to utilize and fully understand the standard procedures, gathering of data or evidences with applicable investigative techniques. There is also an increasing risk in the engagements they are into, such as the threats in doing investigative analysis.

Forensic Accounting

Background of the Study A seek for an accurate result is much entertained by the individuals who are involved in a crimes investigating tea...

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 2     LITERATURE REVIEW   The use of knowledge management in the financial sector and banks is increasing becoming a vital aspect and banks are becoming more aware of the significant role it can serve to increase their benefits (2006). Knowledge management, if implemented properly, can improve the ability of their employees to make good decisions, the ability of the bank as a whole to meet customer’s need more effectively and with great accuracy. As a result, it will allow them to provide better quality of service than their competitors. This is simply because capturing, assessing and sharing knowledge provides a step ahead to lead in competitive market. Most of the initial work on Knowledge Management implementation has been covered by United States organisations such as 3M, Hewlett-Packard and Xerox ( 2001). In addition, most publications are either based on specific technologies or written by professionals working with top management in organizations. Therefore most of the available material in knowledge management has little direct association to what is going on in the context of knowledge management in other parts of the world ( 2001). Therefore, this chapter examines existing literature in the form of previous studies, which have contributed to the chosen field of knowledge management. It also examines the concept of knowledge management and its development. In the following section, the chapter will analyse the practical aspects of knowledge management, benefits of knowledge management, and barriers to knowledge management in financial services. It also provides readers the knowledge and familiarity into the chosen area of research and also provides a foundation for the research.   2.1              Knowledge-Based Society     During the 1990s, knowledge was recognised as a powerful engine of production, an essential source for maintaining a competitive position, and many organizations made serious efforts to manage their knowledge. The concept of knowledge management was suggested by a number of researchers in 1990s.For example, Peter Drucker pointed out: “The typical business will be knowledge based, an organization composed largely of specialist who direct and discipline their own performance through organized feedback from colleagues, customers, and headquarters. For this reason, it will be what I can an information based organization” ( 1988). Also Senge, who suggested that the concept of a lean organisation would be a core competence of innovation, pointed out: “As the world becomes more interconnected and business becomes more complex and dynamic, the world must become more “learningful”. It is no longer sufficient to have one person learning for the organization, a Ford or a Sloan or a Watson. It is just not possible any longer to “figure it out” from the top, and have everyone else following the orders of the “grand strategist”. The organization that will truly excel in the future will be the organization that discovers how to tap people’s commitment and capacity to learn at all levels in an organisation” (19904). A number of scholars expect that knowledge management will become a core capability that cannot be improved without organisational learning. In 1995, Mr. Ikujiro Nonaka, one of the pioneers of knowledge management, focused on tacit knowledge while analysing the success of several Japanese companies: “What is unique about the way Japanese companies bring out continuous innovation is the linkage between the outside and the inside. Knowledge that is accumulated from the outside is shared widely in the organization, stored as part of the company’s knowledge base, and utilised by those engaged in developing new technologies and products. A conversion of some sort takes place; it is this conversion process-from outside to inside and back out side again in the form of new products, services, or system-that is the key to understanding why Japanese companies have become more successful. It is precisely this dual internal and external activity that fuels continuous innovation with Japanese companies”. ( 1995) Furthermore,  (2002) states three main reasons for the growing attention in knowledge management:  <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> Firms have recently become interested in managing their knowledge resources, as data are readily available. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> The rapid growth in information and communication technologies.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> The fact that knowledge resource cannot be managed as if it was a substantial resource.</li> </ul>  (1999) argues that many managers do not realize the importance of knowledge management and the reasons why knowledge management has become more and more vital and crucial such as challenging field.  Regardless of the lack of consensus in agreeing upon a defined characterisation of knowledge management, organisations are attracted to managing knowledge for several reasons such as to achieve marked improvements in financial results and to effectively facilitate management of resources. It will also improve customer fulfillments leading to higher productivity, quality, to improve sales, operations and strategic planning. As a result they will be able to attain superior operational effectiveness to improve the learning process within the organisation and increase the speed of improvement and decrease the market response time as well as examine and redesign processes ( 2003). In brief, knowledge management is vital to safeguard and to expand an organization’s core competences. All organizations deal with knowledge, either explicitly or implicitly, and, they can use knowledge management as a tool for providing better customer service and making decisions as tactically as possible in order to achieve competitive advantages ( 2001). Authors, such as  (1997) describe knowledge as identified, classified and valid information. Distinction however is necessary as many firms believe that they already manage their knowledge when they are simply managing information ( 2001). In order for effective knowledge management to take place the understanding of the difference between managing information and managing knowledge has to be acknowledged. Knowledge derives from information that has been through filtered.   2.2              Theoretical Foundations Of Knowledge Management   Knowledge is different from data and information (2001). Knowledge is richer and more complex than data and information (2004). Even though, there are a number of books and articles that define knowledge, I believe the following definition of knowledge is appropriate: “Knowledge is a mixture of framed experiences, values contextual information and expert’s insight that provides a frame work for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and applied in the minds of the knower. In organisations, it often becomes embedded not only in documents or repositories but also in organizational routines, processes, practices and norms”. ( 199) The relation between knowledge, information, and data is shown in figure 2.1 below. Data is less valuable than information. For example, although we collect a large amount of data, these data are not useful without modification. After modifying data, its significance becomes information. There are modification processes, such as gathering data, calculating data, or removing errors in data. According to definition of knowledge, after people or organisations use information, and experience and learn something from it, information then changes to knowledge (2004). Figure 2.1       Knowledge, Data, and Information Source:  (2003),  (2001) In some cases, knowledge is intangible for firms or employers. It is not easy for them to understand and manage knowledge, but it is essential to make the best use of knowledge in a knowledge-based society. According to (1995), using knowledge is not enough to maintain competitive advantage and develop an innovation. They suggest that firms have to create knowledge constantly. Furthermore, (1995) state that the understanding of knowledge management in Japanese firms, especially manufacturing industry, is about how they are using tacit knowledge effectively. According to them: “The explanation of how Japanese organisations create new knowledge boils down to the conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge. Having an insight or a hunch that is highly personal is of little value to the organisation unless the individual can convert it into explicit knowledge, thus allowing it to be shared with others in the company. Japanese organisations are especially good at realizing this exchange between tact and explicit knowledge during the product development”. ( 1995) Knowledge has two characteristics: Explicit and tacit, and there are four different processes for converting knowledge: socialization, externalization, combination, and internalisation. By these processes, organizations can create knowledge constantly. This process is illustrated below in the table 2.1. Socialization is a process in which tacit knowledge belonging to a worker is spread to an organization. Tacit knowledge converts into explicit knowledge through a concept. This process is called externalization. The combination process combines some explicit knowledge through communications, such as conferences, documents, or emails. Internalization is a process of embodying explicit knowledge. Between these development processes of knowledge formation, the transfer of knowledge is one of most essential and most complex processes. The transfer usually takes place through communication between knowledge workers, for instance e-mails, or from a database. Hence, some organisations actually set up a physical space where their employees can talk with each other. In some Japanese organizations, employees do not like to share their knowledge through e-mail or a database. They prefer to expand their knowledge through an after work dinner and through informal chats (1998). Table 2.1        Four Processes of knowledge Conversion   Process From To Explanations Socialisation Tacit Tacit A process of sharing experiences and creating tacit knowledge inside an organisation. In this phase, a tacit knowledge belongs to an individual and spreads to an organisation. Externalization Tacit Explicit A tacit knowledge, intangible knowledge, converts into an explicit knowledge through a concept. Combination Explicit Explicit A process of combining explicit knowledge through communications, like e-mails and documents. Internalization Explicit Tacit A process of embodying explicit knowledge. Source 2007   2.3              Knowledge Management   Despite the numerous publications, research projects and conferences related to knowledge management, no consensus has been reached with regards to what is knowledge management. Even though there are a growing number of established themes, still there are many interpretations of the limitations and content of this new area ( 2001). The definition of the two elements of the term knowledge management, namely "knowledge" and "management”, varies. According to some authors, knowledge cannot be managed because it is invisible and intangible ( 2001). Knowledge management is the systematic and explicit management of knowledge related activities, practices and policies within organisations (2000). The objective of knowledge management is to effectively and efficiently use the existing knowledge of an organisation to create new knowledge to achieve and maintain competitive advantage ( 2000). Knowledge management is a complex area of management, and it covers learning & development, information technology, and human resources. The relationship between knowledge management and technology is strong ( 2000). Certainly, a range of technologies is available to support knowledge management practices, but the effective use of such systems depend on the motivation of knowledge workers. According to the existing research, there are two broad approaches to knowledge management. One focuses on the ‘hard’ aspects and technological issues, the other focuses on the ‘soft’ aspect or human and organizational issues  2000). The relation between knowledge management and technology can be strongly synergistic. There is certainly a range of technologies that support knowledge management practice, but it is important to keep in mind that recent advances have led to faster data transfer, so technology remains a useful enabler rather than a central ideology at the heart of knowledge management. The effective use of such systems is reliant on the motivation of team members to share knowledge and on effective people management. The introduction and implementation of a knowledge tool does not result in a "knowledge environment" if other knowledge management enablers are not supported.  (2000) adds an international/regional level emphasizing cultural differences: knowledge sharing and culture. Attitudes to sharing are complex and are affected by organisational norms as well as by personal idiosyncrasy. There is no hesitation that culture also affected them. People need to be pleased to share information, rather than simply holding on to it. In a practical context hard and soft issues of knowledge management are inseparable as they inform and affect each other. Even if management is aware of the benefits of knowledge management, there is still no clear consensus about just what knowledge is and how knowledge resources should be managed (2001)  To explain the concept of knowledge management, it is important to have a model that describes the scope of activity that the knowledge management efforts cover and this can be a powerful monitor to communicate what an organisation’s approach encompasses (2001).  In 2001, Collison and Parcell presented a generic model of knowledge management. According to the model: ·         People are the roots of knowledge and also they can create new knowledge. There will be no knowledge without people. ·         A reliable technological infrastructure can support the appropriate tools on an organisation-wide scale. ·         The capture, distillation, validation, transfer, and dissemination of knowledge in the firms can not be completed without applying certain processes and procedures. All three above elements are not only important, they also depend upon each other, since knowledge management is such an area, where all three elements overlap as exhibited in Figure 2.2 below. Figure 2.2       Three Fundamental Elements of Knowledge Management   Source:  Collison & Parcell, 2001, p. 18   2.4              Perception of knowledge management in financial sector   Surprisingly, financial sector and banks play an important role in the economy, there has been a very little research done on the role of knowledge management in the banking and financial sector. The published articles and journals refer to case studies that are often written by technology or solutions firms showing the use of their solutions in the banking environment.  (2003) considers knowledge management is about bringing more refined and job specific information to people on an individual basis via a web site. Some banks also take a human resource focused approach and look to e-learning to improve job performance ( 2001). A number of researchers have conducted knowledge management studies in major banks, and have found the same general findings as the non banking studies. According to a survey, of banking and financial institutions conducted by Xerox Europe, a majority of European banks are unsuccessful developing their intellectual capital by not having an appropriate knowledge management strategy in place ( 2001). Furthermore, a study conducted in the Australian financial sector shows their intention to manage knowledge and an understanding of internal knowledge sources (tacit knowledge) and recognises that Australian banks focus more on knowledge to support useful process rather than the creation of new knowledge (  2002). Both studies found that financial organisations believe that the effective use of knowledge can give strategic benefit. In addition, the Royal Bank of Scotland stated that today traditional knowledge management, with its focus on areas like collecting knowledge and connecting people is not enough and are developing a human capital model to create an environment in which staff can seek out the right knowledge to help them contribute to the bank’s success (2004). Therefore, to understand and implement knowledge management effectively and efficiently, it is essential for financial organisations to develop and nurture relationships, awareness and a common ground amongst organisational members on the whole. 2.5              Benefits of knowledge management in financial service sector   A number of scholars emphasise the importance of knowledge management as an essential asset in organisations in the knowledge world. As (2001) states the importance of knowledge management: “Knowledge management has thus far been addressed at either a philosophical or a technological level with little pragmatic discussion of how knowledge can be managed and used more effectively on a daily basis”. At the practical level, knowledge management focuses on a set of processes and practices that fall under five headings: creating, sharing, sourcing, mapping and measuring ( 1999). In addition,  (2004), conducted a study in three South African bank, stated that knowledge management is a source to generate visions that drives people’s reasoning and the capability that leads to intelligent behavior. Furthermore, they found that it can lead to “improve learning and the ability to stay ahead of competition and changes in the world”, “better problem solving and decision making”, “more innovation and greater creativity”, “higher quality knowledge work”, “improved individual and group competencies”, “more effective networking and collaboration”, “improved customer services by streamlining response time, “higher revenues by getting products and service to markets faster, and “streamlined operations and reduced costs by removing unnecessary processes” ( 2004). (2001) considered the importance of knowledge management practices in organizations. They state that “the management of knowledge will continue to grow in its importance to business success. Although the knowledge management movement has aspects of faddishness (many conferences, many books, many articles in the business press), and it may lose some of its current level of visibility, it must become part of the basic fabric of successful businesses. There are too many knowledge workers dealing with too much knowledge for knowledge management to disappear”. Knowledge management has emerged to leverage intellectual capital in organisations and people management (2001). In a research conducted by  (2006), in Libyan banks, stated that knowledge management is an essential strategic tool, because it can be used for decision-making, mostly for the formation of strategies. In addition, it can also improve the organization’s ability to appreciate and manage problems and challenges. Furthermore, the success of most management decisions depends also on competitive effort, which adds “knowledge of customers’ attitudes” and “analysis of the competition” (2006). In addition, the reason for an organisation to work with its knowledge management system can be many. For example, knowledge management system can be use to improve performance, productivity and competitiveness, a way to improve effective acquisition, sharing and usage of information within organisations, a tool for improved decision-making, a way to capture best practice, a way to reduce research costs and delays, and a way to become a more innovative organisation (2006). Without any doubt, effective knowledge management can enable an organization to provide better customer service, as  (2001) stated managing knowledge is a strategic asset and it must be implemented effectively. Any organization should have the ability to develop its knowledge and learning capabilities. In this context, the business society has discussed the following core knowledge management ideas, described by KPMG Consulting (2000) as: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> supporting innovation, the creation of new ideas and the development of the organization’s thinking power; </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> capturing insight and experience to make them available and usable when required</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> making it easy to find and reuse sources of know-how and expertise, either they are recorded in a physical form or  in someone’s mind </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> knowledge sharing, continual learning and improvement</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> improving the quality of decision-making </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> understanding the value and contribution of intellectual assets and increasing their worth, effectiveness and development</li> </ul> Furthermore, Arora (2002) suggested that organizations should control their existing knowledge-based activities to prevent re-inventing the wheel and they should constantly increase their competence and skill levels to improve productivity, innovation. The Japanese Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi has set an example by undertaking a knowledge management project to improve and speed up response to customer needs through timely and proper decision-making by frontline staff (2002). The key areas they have focused on are reforming the knowledge sharing infrastructure and improving the knowledge sharing process. Their goals were to organise and consolidate information that had been scattered around branches and departments, exchange information between the head office and frontline branches and sales offices, create a forum for intellectual collaboration to create new products and services, improve frontline operations productivity and problem-resolution and decision-making capabilities as well as uncover and share knowledge and wisdom possessed by each employee. As a result they have benefited from improved frontline efficiency, more efficient and active information flow, more interaction among main branches, branch offices and departments and more efficient information transmittal via visible information distribution utilising data tracking functions. Implementation of knowledge management provides a platform where employees can constructively communicate with each other in a systematic manner to improve efficiency ( 2002). They’ll be able to share feedback that they need to do their jobs well and contribute to each other’s career progress. Individuals will feel valued for their unique input and contribution to the growth of the organisation. This platform also builds a greater relationship between employees and their managers where negative practices can be ended and flexibility in managing knowledge can be adopted. The key and most important asset every organisation has is its employees and the knowledge they bring to the organisation can only be fully explored when there is a structured but flexible method. In return employees will benefit from better job satisfaction, extensive knowledge exchange, personal networking, personal growth and development. Furthermore they will benefit from building better team relations and the environment they work in will be more harmonious (2002). 2.5       Barriers to knowledge management in financial service sector Although knowledge management, which supports an organization’s process and decision making capabilities, it can often suffer from not having a knowledge sharing environment ( 2004). Experts at the American Productivity and Quality Center (APQC) (2004) who have examined knowledge management in practice state that "many knowledge management projects seem intended to start with a bang but often end with a whimper" for four reasons: lack of business purpose, poor planning and inadequate resources, lack of accountability, and lack of customization. Furthermore, in 1999, Bonfield identified that a knowledge sharing environment can be created by identifying ‘organizational barriers’ and ‘persuading people’ (1999:). He also identifies four potential barriers when organizations are implementing a knowledge management system, such as cultural issues, technological issues, economic issues and market place issues (1999:). In addition, there is agreement within the literature (1995) the most important barriers to knowledge management are: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> culture, climate, structure and resistance to change </li> </ul> <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> knowledge management requires an adequate infrastructure (1998) in terms of planning and resources </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> knowledge management users being involved in the attempt to expand knowledge management will be worthwhile to them through a continuous flow of communication across the whole organisation</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> effective knowledge management implementation requires an open, co-operative and trusting environment</li> </ul> A study conducted by  (2004) in three major South African financial organisations argue that financial service organisations are failing to tackle knowledge management’s real challenges because they do not understand the full implications of knowledge management implementations. According to their study most common barriers to knowledge management are lack of user uptake owing to insufficient communication, failure to integrate knowledge management into everyday working practices, lack of time to learn how to use the system or system is complicated, lack of training and a little personal user’s benefit. In short, we can say that knowledge management brings its own challenges, which organisations are not able to address. It is up to management to create a knowledge sharing environment that encourages employees to collaborate and share knowledge (2002).    Furthermore, a study conducted by  (2004), in major Canadian financial services organisations, the major problem to employees in managing knowledge are information overload, no centralized responsibility for knowing who needs to know what,  knowledge can not be utilized if it is not provided in a proper context and the role of human resources. Excess of Information is a problem seen in the banks.  Often, new products and services, new regulations, new training, new customer information is coming into banking sector and it should be communicated to employees of banks ( 2004).  Banks try to collect new information and send this new information to their branches on a regular basis.  This new information is also available on the banks’ intranets, so on a certain point if employees want to use this information, they can go on the bank’s intranet and use the most recent information. The intranet provides one source of the information and the owners of the information find it easier to keep it current ( 2004).  Employees see the intranet, as a valuable source for information in banks, can provide information in visual form which can be used for presentations of new products to bank’s customers.  However, “individual information owners decide who needs to know what information and often information is sent to everyone rather than targeting it on a need-to-know basis” ( 2004). So, there should be one central person ‘knowledge officer’ in the banks who can decide we have this important information and these people should observe changes in this information. Furthermore, frontline customer service is one of the key functions in retail banking sector and deals with sales and service.  Frontline customer services staff work directly with the customers to understand their needs, gather the customer’s information and their feedback.  As retail banking is expanding and focusing on their customer, the frontline customer services staff has to have more skills, more product knowledge, more knowledge on policies and procedures within banking sector ( 2004).   In the last, frontline customer services staff is involved in the whole business process of the transaction such as loans or mortgage application and they should understand the processes, the business rules and regulations, and how decision are made to accept or refuse applications.  They also need to understand why some of the applications are rejected and how they can work with the customer to help them find creative solutions to go through the process.  The business process has become segmented because of new information technology.  Several processes are controlled by computer systems, and the results generated by them are delivered to the frontline staff. Often they do not have the appropriate knowledge about these results, where they came from and it is difficult for them to work with the customer to advise them alternative strategy. So a system ought to be in place where frontline staff should be encouraged to discuss and come up with creative ideas to solve customer problems (2004).  Therefore, to implement knowledge management into an organisation the above mentioned issues ought to be resolved. This can be done by “the creation of a learning organization where people can share information and ideas to create new ideas” ( 2004). Knowledge management requires an individual with specific knowledge and skills to champion the concept of knowledge management and spearhead the enormous challenges to overcome inherent obstacles to the free flow of knowledge within an organisation ( 2003). A knowledge management strategy must be liked to the business strategy ( 2004) and an infrastructure consisting of various knowledge management techniques (such as talk rooms, knowledge fairs, mentoring, storytelling, and communities of practices) and technologies (for instance, intranet, videoconferencing, e-mails, group ware, knowledge maps) for the transfer of knowledge ( 2004). It has been acknowledged above, how knowledge management still misses a more holistic approach. Human resource professionals should have a major role in tackling the knowledge management matter. For instance, developing a strong organizational culture, team working or the sharing of knowledge across existing departmental limitations have  major roles in promoting a culture of openness, which is crucial to the distribution of knowledge. Knowledge management literature has focused more on the technical features of knowledge management. Though, this narrow view presents some restrictions - in many cases, acknowledged through expensive experience (2000).  1999 and2000 identified the following limits: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> Technology does not change attitudes.  (1998) noted the availability of electronic knowledge exchange does not automatically induce in a willingness to share data and build new intellectual capital". Human resource can facilitate and give confidence to communication, handle inspiration and commitment, taking on the right people for knowledge sharing, reward knowledge - sharing attitudes, etc. Without it, technology will be in place, but it will be of little use. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> Technology cannot replace face-to-face (2000). People are unlikely to share what they know if they do not build trust through face - to - face exchanges. Technology has to be wedded with face - to - face interaction to create the most effective systems; one does not replace the other, although clearly one can greatly enhance the other ( 2000).</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-autospace: none"> Technology should be viewed more as a means of communication and less as a means of storing knowledge. Managers who want to make the knowledge in their organization more available often have a 'mental image of a large warehouse’ ( 2000) containing all kinds of information where people go and take what they need. Then, they build a central electronic database, but after all the investment; they realize that very little happens. The problem is they are focusing on collecting and storing knowledge instead of reusing it.</li> </ul> All this leads to the management of people, specially the management of knowledge workers. It is currently expanding, not only as relating to key workers - typically well educated and highly skilled - but also as a more inclusive notion of any employee working with knowledge (2002). The new economic situation, with growing demands to be broadly skilled, flexible, and accountable and more empowered, requires a different management of people. Culture and leadership Knowledge management literature repeats the importance of supportive cultural values to successfully implement any knowledge management initiative. These cultural values can be founded not only in rigid and bureaucratic structures, but also within companies with flat and flexible organization, due to the existence of sub-cultures. Leadership and the development of rewards play a critical role to changing culture. Managers need to actively support any knowledge management initiative. Thus, senior management's commitment is crucial along the process (1999). The management of people and Information Technology Instant implication of knowledge management for human resource practitioners is the availability of a range of knowledge management tools which can be applied to human resource management objectives. As knowledge workers themselves, Information Technology can significantly help human resource practitioners to be more effective. The capacities of Local Area Networks, e-mail, Internet, on-line libraries and e learning, information are tools able to increase enormously the capability to communicate across the organization (1998).   2.6       Summary It is clear from above that there is a strong awareness of the importance of knowledge management in financial service organisations. The majority of the literature review represents knowledge management as a major strategic aspect that supports organisations in a competitive business environment. The literature discussed that financial service organisations have either already implemented knowledge management projects, are in the process of assessing knowledge management, or are planning to implement a knowledge management system. Although a range of barriers have been identified in implementing a knowledge management system and these barriers must be resolved to deliver an improved service and to minimise costs. Organisations also realise that knowledge management increases the organisation’s ability to expose tacit knowledge and the creation of new ideas. According to recent surveys identified in the literature, the value of leadership is one of the main issues in financial organisations. The literature review has stated that the position of knowledge officer is important. Furthermore, according to literature an environment should be created for constant learning. The sharing of knowledge will be high, if it is supported by a well balanced infrastructure consisting of human-social techniques and the most important technological developments ( 2004). The themes discussed above will be used in the formation of the interview questionnaire and self completion questionnaire and will also be used for the analysis of knowledge management practice in Islamic Bank of Britain.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW The use of knowledge management in the financial sector and banks is increasing becoming a vital ...

The distinction between politics and administration

The distinction between politics and administration Politics is the process by which groups of people make collective decisions.  The term is usually applied to the art or science of running governmental or state affairs and to the behavior within civil governments.  Whereas, administration is the management of a business or institution or those responsible for administering a business, institution, etc. It can also refer to the government in power, the term of office of a government or political leader, a government agency,  or the management of another person's estate (in the subject of law). “Politics is the art and science of managing and governing the social and economic affairs interactively along with the rest of the community, especially the collective governing of a political entity, such as a nation, the administration and control of its internal and external relationships.  Politics is the activity and interaction engaged in by any given society’s citizens, to build and maintain a community and establishes communal social services for all people.  It is the maneuvering methods and tactics involved in managing any given society, or state government.  A politician is an ethical individual, holding an intriguing and rewarding career of public service that honorably discharges hers, or his duties in an ethical and caring manner. One must not confuse the dishonest, common and criminal political hustlers engaged in illegal activities with true divided and good politicians. (Maskanian, Bahram.  Definition of Politics.  http://www.venusproject.com/definition-of-politics.html, retrieved 21 April, 2011.)” In order to have a better understanding of Politics (and everything that is involved with Politics), one must be better acquainted with the existing political systems.  A political system is a system of politics AND government.  “Commonalities between political systems are 1.  Interdependent Parts  (Citizens culture, Government) and 2.  Boundaries (Citizenship, Territory, Property).  The following lists the basic forms of political systems and their explanation: ·         Anarchism- rule by all or no one ·         Democracy- Rule by majority ·         Monarchy- Rule by monarchy.  This is the oldest political system known which developed from tribal structure with one person as the absolute ruler. ·         Communism- Rule by all citizens.  This is classless with common ownership and decision making. ·         Meritocracy- Rule by the best. ·         Technocracy- Rule by scientists or intellectuals. ·         Republic- rule by the law.  The first recorded republic was in India in the 6th century BC. ·         Sultanates- Rule by Allah.  This is an Islamic political structure combining Monarchy and Theocracy. ·         Islamic Democracy- Rule by majority in Islamic context.  This is an Islamic and democratic political structure which combines aspects of Theocracy as the framework and Democracy as the decision making method under Islam’s ethical system.  An example of this would be Iran’s constitution. ·         Theocracy- Ruled by an alleged representative of God. ·         Westminster System- Rule by republic and representative democracy through parliament. ·         Feudalism- Rule by a Lord or King.  (Political System.  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_system, retrieved 21 April, 2011.)” Government administration differs according to jurisdiction.  Jurisdiction is the power, right or authority to interpret and apply the law.  It can also mean the limits or territory within which authority may be exercised.  The term administration is different for every country in the world. In Europe for instance, administration refers to the managerial functions in general, which “may include local governments, or the hierarchy of national and local government, that applies to a town or district.  More specifically, it may refer to public administration, the business of administering public policy as determined by government.  (Administration (government).  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(government), retrieved 21 April, 2011.)” In the United States of America, administration refers to the executive branch under a specific president (or sometimes a governor, a mayor, or some other local executive).  For instance, the “Obama Administration”.  “It can also mean an executive branch agency headed by an administrator: these agencies tend to have a regulatory function as well as an administrate function.  The term is also sometimes used to refer to the time a given person was president, i.e. “…since the Reagan administration.”  (Administration (government).  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(government), retrieved 21 April, 2011.)”

The distinction between politics and administration

T he distinction between politics and administration Politics is the process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The ...