Research Korner

Discussion Paper on Article "Virtuoso Teams"

Project management Project management as it is practiced today came into being in the post–World War II era. It was the product of a number of forces at work at the time. The development of operations research brought with it the realization that decision tools could be fashioned to allow humans to conduct their affairs in optimal ways. The growth of systems analysis led to an appreciation of the interconnectedness of events and the inherent complexity of modern systems. Its focus on flowcharts also presaged PERT/CPM scheduling techniques (Frame 2002). The Cold War led to the support of mammoth projects of unprecedented size and complexity, projects that needed new management tools if they were to be carried out effectively. The burgeoning global economy, with its emphasis on large infrastructure projects, led to a similar search for new management tools. Together these forces shaped project management for the next four decades. The principal instigators of developments in project management during that time were people in the construction and defense industries. They tended to work on large, complex, capital-intensive projects (Frame 2002).    They held an engineering perspective and gave project management the look and feel of an engineering discipline. Project management knowledge focused on core skills in the areas of budgeting, scheduling, and resource allocation. To a large extent, project management became inextricably linked to its key tools, such as Gantt charts, scheduling networks, and resource-loading charts. Project managers traditionally measure success and failure in the context of the triple constraints. Failure occurs when a project encounters schedule slippages or cost overruns or produces deliverables that do not meet the specs. This traditional outlook is undergoing rapid adjustment. Increasingly, professionals involved with project management recognize that the worst kind of failure you can have is carrying out projects that do not satisfy the customers. Traditional project management emphasizes acquiring basic skills in scheduling, budgeting, and allocating human and material resources. These are the primary tools of project managers who are mere implementers. They are essentially the tools of technicians (Frame 2002). Project management involves not only proper planning but taking reasonable risks.  Project managers must have the knowledge on the different risk they have to take while doing the project. Project managers need to know the consequences of the risk they take and they must have back up plans to ensure that the effects of the risk will not cause more problems for the company.   Reasons that contribute to project success The first of factors for success is a group of External ones like government, community, general economic conditions, ecology, and so on. The second set of factors affecting the viability of project definition is that the project offers a sense of cost-benefit relationship and that the terms of the Financing of the project make sense (Earl 1998). The last factor affecting the project definition is the project's Timing. Curiously, this aspect is often totally ignored in the project management literature which tends instead to dwell on scheduling methodologies(Earl 1998).The project itself must then be implemented using a range of concepts, tools, and techniques which have traditionally been thought of as the province of project management. These include matters of organizational structure responsibility and contract strategy, terms and conditions; issues of personal leadership and management style, resourcing, systems, and procedural conflict management and industrial relations, team-working, and matters of control and communication (Earl 1998).  Project success can be due to external factors like assistance from the government, community, and others.  It can be due to proper financing, having a sense of balance or use of appropriate timing. Project success can also be due to proper planning and wise use of strategies. Without the use of good information systems and the guidance of a good manager the factors in project success will not be enough.    Difference Between project teams and Virtuoso teams Project teams allocate functional segments to various functional units. Each functional unit has the responsibility to manage their own segment. They have to make sure that coordination is maintained. Moreover project teams have to follow their project manager; this manager has the most input or the most to gain.  Project teams have different culture and each culture contributes to the outcome of the project. The culture of project teams gives them a separate identity from other teams. It helps in clarifying why such member of the group acts in a different way. Project teams are given specific task that depends on their specific capabilities. One member of the project team is assigned as their leader. He/she makes sure that all the members contribute for the success of the project. Virtuoso teams comprise a group of people that has expertise in a specific field. They are formed to work on an ambitious project. Virtuoso teams are known for their work style which has furious rhythm.  Their structure is more on making sure that the whole group does the project together.  There is no distinct separation of work; the members of the group have excelled in almost all possible categories related to the project.   The culture of the virtuoso teams is focused on gaining excellence.  Virtuoso teams would like to achieve their goal no matter hard it is with appropriate excellence. Virtuoso teams are not easily manageable that is why most companies would rather use project teams than virtuoso teams.   Don’t hesitate to assemble the very best and let their egos soar If company wants to stamp out mediocrity, it should remember the lessons from Sid Caesar's writers' group, the West Side Story team, and Norsk Hydro's A-team: Don't hesitate to assemble the very best and let their egos soar. If a firm wants excellence in its project and if it wants to make sure that it will have advantage in its chosen field, it should not hesitate to use the virtuoso teams even if such team has a very high ego. The ego of the members should not matter, companies should let the talented but egoistic people to work together to bring the firm to its own goals.  The clashing of personalities by the egotistical members of the group will not last for a long time but their contribution as a group will create a mark to the company for many years to come.   References Earl, MJ 1998, Information management: the organizational dimension, Oxford University Press, Oxford.   Frame, JD 2003, Managing risk in organizations: a guide for managers, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.   Frame, JD 2002, The new project management: Tools for an age of rapid change, complexity, and other business realities, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.   Reiss, G 1995, Project management demystified: Today's tools and techniques, E & FN Spon, London.

Discussion Paper on Article "Virtuoso Teams"

Project management Project management as it is practiced today came into being in the post–World War II era. It was the product of a num...

Kurt Lewin Classical Model

Another Model that can be considered in this paper is the Kurt Lewin classical model.  This model was developed by Lewin which considers three phases. The first phase is called the unfreezing which considers setting aside the existing approach and prepare for change. In the next stage, which is known as movement, the change occurs and the last stage is refresszing which includes the solidification of the new approach.In this regard, the hospital organisations or institutions mentioned above can use this to solve the issue of the ageing population by setting a new behaviour or work policy that adheres to the needs of the ageing populations within the industy. In this regard, the first phase which is unfreezing will be considered through the consideration of internal research to know the current mindset and understand the new mindset that will suit the needs of the ageing population (Cummings and Worley, 2001).  After analysing the present human resource managemnt policy for the ageing population, the next stage is movement, which means that the hospital organisations or institutions should prepare new mindset or new human resource policy for ageing population, by considering strategic planning and meeting with all the board members and management staffs.  This can also be done by creating a committee to handle the said change management approach, for assuring efficient change process (Levasseur, 2001). And lastly, the consideration fo the “Refreezing” step to be able to is to stabilize the hospital organisations or institutions at the new implemented policy (Cumming and Worley, 2001). This can be done by considering motivational approach like providing rewards to the employees and management to accept the said change.

Kurt Lewin Classical Model

Another Model that can be considered in this paper is the Kurt Lewin classical model. This model was developed by Lewin which considers thr...

Ethics in Abortion

Ethics in Abortion   Introduction               This essay brings into light the classical human concern referred to as abortion.  Prior to the discussion of the matter, it would be significant to showcase a factual statement on the matter at hand.   conceives of abortion as “the premature termination of pregnancy – that is, termination prior to birth.  A spontaneous abortion is the same thing as miscarriage, whereas an induced abortion is caused by the woman herself or by another, usually a medical doctor” ().  This essay is going to dwell on the latter or “induced abortion”.  Two objectives are aimed at.  The first one is to provide a dual perspective through Immanuel Kant’s Moral Duty and John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarian perspective on what is the greatest good.  Lastly, it is going to explicate why abortion is a moral problem.    Kant’s Moral Duty               An action contains a moral value only when it is acted out from duty.  In the words of , engaging in actions from duty means “doing what is right just because it is right” ().  Every society has its moral beliefs.  Its members know which actions are right and wrong.  Thus, their duty is to obey these codes of moral conduct.  Kant further believes that “no motive of inclination could confer moral value on any action done from it” ().  In other words, moral codes are exact.  Duty or moral law no more than anything else functions as an authentically moral cause.  Furthermore, Kant advocates that moral law, being the root of all moral obligations and standards, is grounded on reason, cleaving by itself to any empirical standard of action or motivation ().  In essence, Kant is saying that rational individuals have a duty or a moral duty to follow.  This moral duty refers to the laws or moral guidelines in society in which everyone is ought to obey.  There is no need to question these moral laws as these are rationally instituted.  These are the standards, and everyone is obliged to act them out.    J. S. Mill’s Utilitarian View on the Greatest Good               Jeremy Bentham is the pioneer of the principle of utilitarianism.  This paradigm sees every single individual as the final adjudicator of her or his own happiness.  Other individuals cannot impose upon her or him on what is deemed the righteous thing.  Utilitarianism stresses on rationality, being the key toward social progress.  The perceived gains from a certain course of deed should be resolved through a “precise calculation” ().  John Stuart Mill has advanced Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism, by focusing not only on the individual but including the majority of individuals.  His notion of utilitarianism is such that “the greatest happiness of the greatest number by means of all individuals pursuing their own personal happiness” ().                According to Mill, “The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness” ( ).  That he attaches utility with morality is clear in this statement.  Not to forget that within the utilitarian principle, as mentioned above, is a matter of rationality.  Being rational is taking steps that are not detrimental to one’s condition.  Furthermore, Mill asserts, “By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure” ().  Thus, he has put forward  utilitarianism in which a “precise calculation” is a matter of a calculation between pain and pleasure.    Kant and Mill on Abortion               This section now discusses abortion in the perspective of Kant and Mill.  Their moral philosophies have been presented in the above paragraphs.  Interestingly, in viewing the issue on hand, one is caught in the middle of two oppositional paradigms.  The coin has two sides.                If one is going to ask Kant on his stand on abortion.  Definitely, he is going to say a strong “no”!  Consider religion in this case.  To illustrate, the Catholic doctrine says that abortion is an immoral act, especially if it is an “induced” one.  Among Catholic authorities, they consider that the nucleus of the cell of the developing fetus is in itself a human being already.  How so?  Because that portion of the cell is the soon to develop rationality (brain) of the soon to become child or human being.  In addition, it is inscribed in the Ten Commandments that no one has the right to kill.  Therefore, the woman has no right to intentionally terminate the fetus in her womb.  Not only the woman, but all the other individuals involved too, such as the father of the child or the medical doctor who is going to perform the act, have nor right to kill the fetus.                Even without the religious doctrine as exemplified above, there is still the moral code of society that prohibits a human being from killing another, especially if it is intentionally done.  The legal term for this is “murder”.  Abortion is similarly an act of murder.  Both actions can be construed as an act of killing or terminating the life of another.                It is therefore clear that abortion according to the moral laws is an immoral act for one to engage in.  Simply put, abortion is a wrong act.  The moral duty is for one to preserve life.  The individual therefore is bound to obey such moral duty.  The moral duty is to preserve life.  If one acts in such a way that he or she preserves life, such as not aborting the baby, then he or she is said to be performing an act that has a moral value.                Now it is Mill’s turn.  Mill would approach the issue through these succeeding questions.  Would the persons involved be happy in aborting the baby?  In the long run, assuming that no abortion took place, would the baby bring pleasure or pain to them?  What if the mother or father still does not have the capacity to raise the baby?  Would the baby be eventually happy?                Individuals are rational enough to realize whether an event will be favorable or unfavorable to their positions.  The pleasure or the pain behind abortion justifies its act.  Consider the case being the parents are in a state in which having a baby puts them in a disadvantage position in the course of time.  Thus, there is no greatest good if they will not abort the baby.  In the end, the event will just bring them pain, and not pleasure.  Therefore, abortion, being a vehicle to attain the desired pleasure, is considered a moral act.                If carrying and raising the baby eventually will only bring pain in a sense that one is just going to be frustrated by not being able to nurture the baby well, might as well then abort the baby.  Non-compliance to the function of being a good parent is a painful thing to do.  Abortion then justifies the case.  It is a moral act.  Bear in mind that Mill prescribes a calculation between pain and pleasure.  Individuals are left to calculate for their own pleasures and pain.                A dual perspective has been showcased in this portion of the essay.  On the one hand, Kant invalidates the morality of the act.  On the other extreme, Mill justifies it.  Above all these things, there is more than just presenting which argument best justifies the morality or immorality of abortion.  The next section is going to unfold the reasons on why it is a moral problem.    A Moral Problem               Abortion is more than just a controversial issue.  It is a moral problem per se.  It has always been difficult to come up with a sound ethical judgment on it.  Through time and across societies, its two sides have been witnessed.  Yet, abortion still haunts humanity.                Abortion is a moral problem because it is a moral dilemma in itself.  It has always been difficult to make the people agree or disagree ().  It has always generated a clash.  In the light of politics, which is all about the allocation of public goods, it has always put policymakers in a dilemma.  They have always found difficulty in institutionalizing a law about abortion.  They have always had trouble in coming up with what moral duty, borrowing from Kant, their constituents are going to obey.                The role of the lawmaker or the policymaker is to create an orderly society by providing laws that will define how its members will righteously act.  These laws have to be exact in such a way that no one is excluded.  However, the society is not homogenously constituted.  Every sector holds different values that are deemed true.                Especially today in which the world is living in a growing intricacy, morality likewise is in a growing complexity.  Various institutions perceive abortion differently.  It may be moral to a certain extent.  But if one is going to weave it in a larger system, abortion may be dysfunctional in certain aspects of life.  Human beings play different roles in life.  Abortion may be necessary in the fulfillment of one’s various roles, e.g in career or profession.  However, terminating another’s life, especially if an intentional one, is a different case.    Conclusion               What is controversial regarding abortion is when the individuals concerned would intentionally terminate the developing human being.  A Kantian perspective would consider the act as immoral, based from the fact that abortion is immoral according to the governing moral laws.  In the light of Mill, abortion is moral considering the scale of pleasure and pain on the part of the individuals involved.  Above all, abortion is and has always been a moral problem, because it has always put one in a dilemma.  There has always been a difficulty in creating a moral code about it for a heterogeneous group of individuals.        R

Ethics in Abortion

Ethics in Abortion Introduction This essay brings into light the classical human concern referred to as abortion. Pri...

Definition of Globalization

Introduction Globalization is something that moves one technology grounded stature to the other and it brings in activities of nations as one ideological boom which places politics and culture to move freely and effectively as business have control over commodities and certain economic assumptions. Globalization implies to a process that allow business to execute further research and development paradigms, recognizing innovative centered advances of those key players and authorities working well with nation and state tenets. Globalization involve cycle wherein great minds meet in such planned tactics and value oriented interactions of individuals and groups, global relations of states have pros and cons mostly affecting government and business affairs for example, globalization and its relations are advantageous to information technology transfers such as applying data systems in network channels to save time, effort and money on raw materials and related costs. However, globalization has enhanced choices for some people but diminished prospects for others and reinforced inequalities within and across nations. Featuring also on various perceptions of globalization depend a great deal on the ability of people to take advantage of the opportunities offered, for people with ample education and access to financial resources. In some cases, community services were privatized or there has been the augmented alternative to consumer fees as economic and executive limitation made it not easy to put in position countervailing community policy features of global industries. In terms of facilitated economic milieu (Schofer, 1999; Barrett and Frank, 1999) though UK and some countries achieve reasonable growth rates, the capital flows increased considerably thereunto.Discussions   Definition of globalization            Globalization is product of stateless world as filled with ‘social actors’ who are legitimated in rationalistic and universalistic terms. Features can be high and constructed form beyond capacities of real social units, working to create stabilizing rules at collective level, providing legitimacy to their structures and activities. Therefore, the supply of global models expands with socially constructed actor hood as there transform agency for others beyond states, globalization expand international associations resting on universal pretenses, social movements on global scale and by actors who present forms as universal models, as individuals and organizations press nation-states to assume global responsibilities. There recognize global units, high structure of state units and deal of internal decoupling within empowered production of subjectivity and uniqueness within construed global culture as being consistent with models of globalization rounded means to keep nation-states on a stable ground. Thus, globalization increases economic interdependence from within national and local rooted economies mostly those that assume fast moving reality of commodity as well as consumer related goods and services. There are effects toward global public and a private company as states and firms places as one original actor of globalization process and means. Another, globalization mean an expanded sequence of individuals and groups within the society effects are on socio-economic migration as well as tourism and travel as well as the government related expulsion as nation-states and individuals place as other main actors of the process. Furthermore, globalization in United Kingdom have allowed an expanded interdependence of expressive culture by means of intensified global communication for example, effects are grounded base on several themes from music to ethnic revival spread such as certain fads through UK based society, and that nation building structure can possibly arise to spread global based assumptions and that each type of actors coming from individuals and company organizations to national states are to be involved.

Definition of Globalization

Introduction Globalization is something that moves one technology grounded stature to the other and it brings in activities of nations as ...

PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN NURSING - CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS

PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN NURSING - CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS   INTRODUCTION             Fifty-eight million Americans are not listed in any insurance coverage. Only 25% of the total American Population is reported to have insurance coverage in healthcare. Given with no other option, majority of the Americans rely on the services given by primary care. While the US Congress continues on debating about a universal type of health insurance, more and more people are seeking the assistance of primary care services.  With only 25% of the graduates of medical degrees select the primary care specialty, such as family care, pediatrics, general internal medicine, and obstetrics and gynecology, nurse practitioners become a need to employ to fill the growing demand for primary care workers. (Defining, 2007) Because of the high demand for health workers, approximately 60% of general practices now hire a minimum of one practice nurse. Some reviews show that practice nursing are able to attain good health outcomes however, very little of the studies show that it does. Australian government supports the widening employment of practice nursing but it is not based on effectiveness of practice nurses. Australian practice nursing has a deficiency in foundation and academic framework to practice the nurse’s skill and knowledge. Australia is spending a substantial amount of money to sustain the practice nurses in order to address the problem of healthcare shortage. (Practice, 2007) However, the effectiveness of the practice nursing is still an ambiguous concept. The question on to what extent were they able to provide effective results to patients remains a concern for the patients and the healthcare in general.             This study will analyze the effectiveness of practice nurses to general practice and to patients as well. This will define the roles and activities a practice nurse play in the healthcare system and how it is viewed by the patients. This study will also check the rates of practice nurses in relation to the licensed nurses, to be able to find out how they were able to fill the high demands of nurses in Australia.             This study will be beneficial to countries who are in demand of healthcare workers and are looking for alternative to fill in the need of nurses.   DISCUSSION “The term ‘practice nurse’ is generally applied to qualified nurses who are employed by medical general practices.” (Research, 2007) The typical day to day task of a practice nurse is to provide advice during consultations and information on wide health conditions and simple illness. They can also refer to other practice team if situation demands. Practice nurses also perform investigatory experiments, simple surgeries, conduct registration of checks, managing and maintaining the clinics surroundings for illnesses like asthma, diabetes, skin disorders and for healthy men and women.  Practice nurses also prescribe contraceptives and give advices on suitable contraceptive devices. They can also do cervical smear and pregnancy tests. They can take blood samples, other specimens and swabs. They maintain the routine tasks such as ear syringing, washing of the eyes, application and removal of dressings, wound treatments and alike. They are the ones who offer specialists and specialists’ information, advices in blood pressures, control of weight gain, cessation from smoking and heart conditions. Practice nurses are also in charge of infant vaccinations and injections. If needed, they are the ones who travel to facilitate immunizations and offer health care advices. Moreover, they offer first aid offering first aid and emergency treatment. They provide advices to patients with regards to their continuous medical treatments needed. taking accurate and legible notes of all consultations and treatments and recording these in patients' notes; They update the database with regards to the details of the patients. Practice nurses are also responsible to communicate with other general practices and office staff. (Job, 2007) Practice nurses target population are children and adolescents with regards to their development to adulthood. They observe the child’s normal or abnormal development, cognitive, psychological, and social behavior. The anatomical development of the child is also included. They are also responsible the same for women and infants and the elderly. (Job, 2007) Practice nursing in Australia has filled the role of nurses whenever they are unable to accommodate their shifts. Through them, nurses are more able to accommodate family appointments and more serious illnesses. (Research, 2007) However, there has been a very little appreciation to practice nurses when it comes to their skills or knowledge. It is for the main reason that practice nurses have no formal education to support nurses in an Australian setting. There was a also a period when scholars speculated that practice nurses will diminish the quality of health care or is detrimental to the nurses’ profession since they lack skills and knowledge. (Research, 2007) One of the factors that might have caused the little recognition to Practice Nurses is the lack of information regarding them in Australia. Australia has well established and ample sources of information for healthcare practitioners. Even though the importance of practice nurses has long been recognized, the information regarding practice nurses are still lacking for effective evaluation. (Practice, 2007) Data about the activity of practice nurses are also inadequate. The collections done by the health institutions dwell so much on the GPs and provides only a small percentage for the roles and functions of practice nurses. (Practice, 2007) According to a review article, those speculations seriously underestimate the role of nurses in the health system. Most of the practice nurses activities such as “Health Assessments, Practice Incentive Payments [PIPs] and GP Management Plans; services not claimed on Medicare; and other functions of practice nurses, such as clinical organization, practice administration, and integration.” (Practice, 2007) However, this speculation of practice nurses in general altered because of the pressing concern of shortage of health workers.  In United Kingdom, practice nurses are now deemed essential to their healthcare. (Research, 2007) General practice nursing has been considered as a nursing specialty since 1970 in New Zealand and 1966 in United Kingdom. (Research, 2007) British research in 1970 stated that practice nurses can take over 25 to 70 percent of their workloads, specially in the areas of health promotion and routine management of chronic diseases such as diabetes, asthma and heart diseases. (Research, 2007) There were 25000 practice nurses employed in United Kingdom by the year 2003. The purpose of each practice nurse is to assume that the rejected responsibilities of the general practitioners. (Research, 2007) A study made by Royal Austrian College of General Practitioners (RACGP) and the Royal College of Nursing Australia made in 2004, found out that General Practice nurses in Australia are mostly registered nurses who are employed as part-timers in a bigger general practices. Most of them have experiences working in general practices, thus, they already have specific education in general practice. (Research, 2007) In 2002, a University of South Australia made a research regarding practice nurses. They concluded that practice nurses are generally unaware of the role of the nurses. However, the patient’s understanding of the nurses care is parallel to “sickness care” ,  similar to a system that they can access whenever they need are in pain or is suffering from a disease. In this view, patients see nurses as competent assistants of doctors and not just practice nurses. Patients trust to practice nurses is never affected since they are generally not informed about the levels of nursing qualifications, registrations and specialty. However, patients are firm that nurses should not add costs to the doctor’s services to them. (Practice, 2007) The Australian Government is one of the primary movers in the employment of nurses in general practice. The government committed in providing funds to practice nurses of 104.3 million dollars in 2001-2005 and another 129.7 million dollars in 2005-2009. Majority of the funding is allocated to Practice Incentives Program (PIP) for funds of practices in rural areas which are in need of practical nurses. (Australian, 2006) The practices of Australian Practice Nurses have come to a critical point. Despite the importance of the Practice Nurses in most of the Healthcare Systems in United Kingdom and New Zealand, the vitality of the practice nurses in Australia is less defined. Practice nurses will be in limelight soon for clinicians, politicians and researchers because of the growing need of healthcare worker and increasing need for multidisciplinary care. (Evolution, 2006) Australian practice nurses need to strengthen their roles and their importance in the Australian context. In order to improve the Australian practice, nurses need to take the lead in strategic planning for this type of specialty. Nurses should take the leadership in making research both academic and policy perspective. Clinical leaders should encourage and drive the practice nurses to deliver a primary care, which is can not be underestimated. (Evolution, 2006) A study made by general practice concluded that patients were likewise satisfied with both doctors and nurses. However, they are significantly more satisfied with their consultations with nurses. The study shows a 78.6 score of satisfaction for nurses while satisfaction for doctors only shows a 76.4 satisfaction. This is because the average time computed for the nurses’s consultation with their patients shows 10 minutes compared to the average time spent for consultation with doctors that shows only 8 minutes. The study concluded that generally, patients are satisfies with the service given by practice nurses. They best serve effectively to patients with mild diseases who requested a same day appointment with them, without any consultation with the doctors. (Job, 2007) CONCLUSION             There is a need of workforce in the healthcare system in Australia. Because of the shortages, together with the ageing population and growing number of chronic illnesses, the need to think of other alternatives to fill the demand of nurses or to alleviate the efficiency of nurses in general is a growing concern.             International studies have concluded that proper use of nurses can bring great benefits to the health system as a whole. Those are : reduce number of chronic diseases, and “assistance in primary acute care integration.”             Review of research shows that the substitution of nurses to the doctor’s role is also possible. A nurse can take over up to 70% of the total workload of a doctor. The substitution can also improve the health care system in general because it will enhance nurses in their levels of specialty.             Effective research and implementation regarding the projects should be facilitated by general practices. Nurses in general can contribute to the greater output of the health system once trained and given enough examinations.             The achievement of the nurses is linked to the government as well, in terms of funding and incentives. The government plays an important role in encouraging the practice nurses and general practices, to ensure that all the best practices are followed. (Research, 2007)             In order to achieve the acceptance of practice nursing as a specialty in its own right, a documented activity and performance of the role of practice nurses should be made. Documents will encourage people and at the same time prove to the scholars, policy makers and patients, that nurses are capable of the tasks that is provided to them. In this way, more citizens will be encouraged to be employed as nurses and they will be given more recognition.             In summary, the role of practice nurses continues to change in response to the changing needs of society and healthcare. Healthcare’s needs, as customers are now increasing and more demanding, which practice nurses should see as an opportunity to play a vital role in the health system.             Practice nurses have a combined role of being a provider, a teacher , a mentor, an educator, a researcher and an administrator. Consequently, practice nurse should continue to do more research, discover new disciplines and practices not just for healthcare but for universities and other faculties. Members of this profession have a responsibility to advance the performance and the role of practice nurses in healthcare and society in general.             Documented outcomes on this research and outputs will develop confidence to the general public with regards to the employment of practice nurses. Satisfactory results of practice nurses’ activities will lead to new healthcare policies from policy makers, locally and internationally which will be both beneficiary to patients and to the whole health system as well.             Patients on the other hand are satisfied with the service of practice nurses. As it evolves, it will continue to play a vital role in the shaping the primary care system and society. (Job, 2007)     ACADEMIC WRITING Practice nurses in Australia. (2007) General Practice and Policy Review. [Online Source] Available at : http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/187_02_160707/kel10501_fm.html Australian Divisions of General Practice. (2006) National Practice Nurse Workforce Survey Report [Online Source] Available at :  http://www.adgp.com.au/client_images/44225.pdf   Practice nursing in Australia. (2007) Parliament of Australia. [Online Source] Available at : http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/187_02_160707/kel10501_fm.html Evolution of Practice Nursing in Australia. (2006) Ingentaconnect. [Online Source] Available at : http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/jan/2006/00000055/00000003/art00015 Job description and activities. (2007) Practice Nurse. [Online Source] Available at : http://www.ispub.com/ostia/index.php?xmlFilePath=journals/ijanp/vol1n2/scope.xml   Defining Nurse Practice. (2007) The Internet Journal of Nursing Practice. [Online Source ] Available at : http://www.ispub.com/ostia/index.php?xmlFilePath=journals/ijanp/vol1n2/scope.xml

PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN NURSING - CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS

PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN NURSING - CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS INTRODUCTION Fifty-eight million Americans are not listed in a...

Corporate Finance Assignment

Corporate Finance Assignment You are required to: Produce a valuation of Cadbury Schweppes plc, and a report discussing how you have arrived at that valuation and the finance theory underpinning it. The report should be no more than 3000 words The calculation itself together with anything else you consider relevant can be put in the appendices. Suggestions: Issues to consider in the report: 1. The cost of Capital ~The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAMP) ~The theory ~The evidence ~Practical issues when using the CAMP 2. The future cash flow ~Strategy of the firm and forecasted performance ~Estimated return on invested capital ~Interaction of growth, ROIL and reinvestment 3. A comparison of your valuation and market value ~The sensitivity of your valuation to changes in any of the figure you have estimated ASSIGNMENT CRITERIA 1. Demonstrate a clear understanding of the valuation model and the ability to apply it to a real company. 2. Demonstrate a critical awareness of the model and the difficulty in estimating the inputs required. Particular emphasis should be placed on the Capital Asset Pricing Model. In order to achieve 1above; - The valuation calculation itself - The ability to identify which inputs have a key influence on the valuation - Sensitivity analysis demonstrating how changes in estimates affect the valuation - Comparison of your valuation with the Market Capitalization In order to achieve 2 above; - Discuss the figures you have used in the valuation - The Capital Asset Pricing Model. Discuss and comment on tests of the model - The inputs required to use the model and the difficulty in estimating the inputs. - please follow thaw assignment criteria and the suggestions above to complete the assignment GENERAL LAYOUT You can decide how to layout the report However it may be useful to put any major calculations in the appendix to the report and refer to these as you review your valuation in the main body of the report

Corporate Finance Assignment

Corporate Finance Assignment You are required to: Produce a valuation of Cadbury Schweppes plc, and a report discussing how you have ar...

Pollution Control and Monitoring

Pollution Control and Monitoring Section A During the last years of the 20th century, environmental authorities from the most developed countries initiated a process to improve environmental protection. Several special environmental policies were consequently implemented with two main objectives which are to improve global pollution control, avoiding pollutants transfer between media (air, water, and land) and to enhance the importance of prevention as the best way to protect the environment. Pollution control is becoming increasingly important to society in general and to the business community in particular. The traditional approach to pollution control is to clean up at the end of the process. Many corporations use the traditional pollution control approach of recycling or cleaning up at the end of the manufacturing process. However, the high costs of recycling and cleanup operations and the high amounts of pollutants produced are driving companies to look for alternative pollution control methods. In the past, pollution management was limited to recycling or cleaning up wastes that resulted from the manufacturing process. Enlightened companies installed pollution control devices to eliminate or reduce further contamination of the environment. They introduced integrated systems that incorporated waste as a primary ingredient in another product or process. Some firms even diversified into reclamation activities that provided services to other companies similar to those used in-house (1980). These techniques are useful, but they all treat the waste after it has been made.             There are different types of pollutions. These include air pollution, water pollution, land contamination and noise pollution. As with the UK version of Integrated Pollution Control (IPC), the permits under this directive are to contain conditions. Member states are required to make sure that the permit 'shall include all necessary measures to achieve a high level of protection for the environment as a whole.' These are to include the following: emission limit values for specific potentially polluting substances and preparations which may be emitted from the installation (based on the best available techniques); appropriate monitoring requirements (specifying measurement methodology, frequency and evaluation procedure) and an obligation to supply the competent authority with the data it requires to check compliance with the permit; conditions providing that when the installation has ceased operation all measures will be taken to ensure that no harm to the environment can occur; and any specific conditions that the member state or the competent authority thinks fit, for the purpose of the directive. The phrase 'best available techniques' (BAT) upon which emission limit values are to be based, is obviously a crucial one. According to the definition in the draft directive, BAT 'signifies the latest stage of development of activities, processes and their methods of operation which indicate the practical suitability of particular techniques to form the basis of emission limit values for preventing, or where that is not practicable, minimizing emissions to the environment as a whole without pre-determining any specific technology or other techniques.' 'Techniques' is defined to include 'both the technology used and the way in which the installation is designed, built, maintained, operated, and decommissioned. The techniques must be industrially feasible in the relevant sector, from a technical and economic point of view' (emphasis added). 'Available' is defined as meaning developed at a scale which allows its implementation in the relevant industrial context, whether or not the techniques are used or produced inside the member state in question as long as they are reasonably accessible to the operator. 'Best' is defined as meaning effective in achieving a high level of protection for the environment as a whole, taking into account the potential benefits and costs which may result from action or lack of action. The definition does not imply that there is only one set of 'best' techniques. In selecting BAT, special consideration must be given to the items listed in Appendix IV of the draft directive, namely: the use of low waste technology; the furthering of recovery and recycling of substances generated and used in the process, where appropriate; comparable processes, facilities or methods of operation which have recently been successfully tried out; technological advances and changes in scientific knowledge and understanding; time limits for the installation of the techniques; raw material consumption (including water) and energy used in the process and their nature; and the need to prevent or minimize the overall impact of the emissions on the environment. In the definition of BAT, cost considerations must be taken fully into account. This could lead to cost savings and increased efficiency. In considering the environment as a whole, for example, the environmental costs of using a procedure which needs more energy than the basic process must be taken into account. BAT is not defined in terms of emissions alone: the whole concept of sustainable development is applied and the permitting authority is directed to look at the efficiency and rational use of resources. As the Commission says in its draft explanatory memorandum, 'techniques which use less, or less harmful raw materials (for example, those which use recycled materials efficiently) may be considered to be better for the environment as a whole, even though emissions from installations may be a little higher.' Account must therefore be taken of the best environmental option (BEO). There have been integrated pollution control techniques that have been used by the industries. In addition the government has also imposed legal penalties to those industries that do not limit their wastes to the limit that has been imposed. However, these techniques treat the pollution after it has been made and usually damage has also been done. Prevention is the key to pollution control. Just like what a quotation says, “Prevention is better than cure”. Just as firms have begun to recognize the importance of designing products and processes to ensure quality, they could have also design products and processes to reduce or eliminate their negative impact on the environment.   Product Quality Control In the product quality control, companies prompted to investigate ways to prevent disposing, or suffering form defective products. The classic approach to quality control is to monitor the production process to ensure that quality is maintained. This process, which typically uses acceptance sampling or statistical process control procedures, is known as "on-line" quality control. Another approach in maintaining the good quality involves the improvement of product quality throughout the design process which is referred to as "off-line" quality control.(7) By designing a product that is less sensitive to variations in the manufacturing process, firms can produce a higher quality product at a lower cost. Product design can dictate the selection of machines and procedures in the production process. It may be possible to abandon quality control production processes that are expensive or difficult to control in favor of others that produce higher quality at lower cost. In addition, designers can develop products that are robust to the environmental conditions to which they will be exposed. For example, redesigning a product to reduce its sensitivity to temperature changes, rough handling by the user, or wear from use ensures a higher quality product. Environmental Pollution Control Similar opportunities exist for environmental pollution control. Industries should consider reducing pollution by improving the efficiency of production process controls and after-the-fact pollution devices. Generally, legislation has encouraged the use of technologies that treat the symptoms of manufacturing pollution rather than address its underlying causes. Million-dollar scrubbers that treat power companies' toxic emissions and catalytic converters are required to clean automobile exhaust systems.(9) Batelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories has assisted companies to recycle wood into synthetic gases to provide energy(10) and to transform cow manure to cattle feed.(11) The U.S. Bureau of Mines has developed a method to recover cobalt from copper ore wastes,(12) and Westinghouse has reclaimed gold. The intent of these control measures is to use, reuse, or minimize the effects of existing manufacturing processes and designs. Costs for material that will eventually evolve into waste have been committed at the onset of the process. Those costs include raw materials, labor, energy, equipment depreciation, and capital. Added to that are the costs of cleanup after the manufacturing process is completed such as equipment, labor hours, capital investment, and technical training. The value of any recycled material can be deducted from the cost as a benefit to the company, but that value is rarely sufficient to offset the actual expenditure. Instead of these currently more popular, legislatively-supported waste and emission treatments, companies could adopt an approach similar to "off-line" quality control for pollution abatement. Products and processes should be designed to prevent pollution, rather than clean it up after production.   Pollution Prevention Similarly, pollution control can be controlled using the technique used by product quality improvement which is the off-line quality control for pollution abatement. An improved product design, better process selection, and easy disposal of products when their useful life ends can result in measurable cost savings and improved marketability. There are three basic strategies are available to accomplish pollution prevention. One strategy is to design the product to eliminate production processes or reduce the use of raw materials that are environmentally undesirable. A second strategy is to eliminate environmentally undesirable materials from both the product and the production process. Eliminating these materials from the product makes it easier to either recycle or dispose of the product when its useful life is over. In the production process, it may be possible to use environmentally preferable products. The third strategy is to make it easy to recycle or dispose of the product when its useful life ends. One procedure, known as "design for disassembly," makes it easier to separate the different types of materials in a product so that they can be effectively recycled or otherwise thrown out. Guidelines for Pollution Prevention The following guidelines can be used to implement prevention strategies. Their use should reduce the amount of pollutants produced. Industries should ask the following questions to themselves: 1.    Can manufacturing processes that are difficult to control because of anti-pollution devices be eliminated through product design? In some cases, it may be possible to redesign the product to utilize different manufacturing processes, thereby achieving pollution abatement by eliminating undesirable processes in favor of environmentally suitable processes. In addition, this practice can reduce manufacturing costs by eliminating pollution control equipment and its associated expense. For example, Carrier Corporation has used this approach by redesigning its air conditioner parts and changed its metal-cutting process at a cost of $500,000. The firm eliminated toxic solvents, saved $1.2 million in production costs, and improved the overall quality of the product (1990) 2.    If these processes cannot be eliminated, can their use be reduced through a better design? The best approach is to eliminate environmentally unsound processes, which is not always possible. Even if total elimination is impossible, compromises can sometimes be made to reduce the use of these undesirable processes and lessen the amount of pollution that results. For example, Whyco Chromium developed an organic compound for coating nuts and bolts that cut the number of coats required in half. Not only was the amount of waste reduced, manufacturing costs were cut by 25 percent (1990). 3.    Can environmentally undesirable materials be eliminated from the product design? It may be possible to use different materials in a design with existing processes. If the new materials are more environmentally acceptable, the outcome is an improved manufacturing process because of anti-pollution gains. In many cases, these materials already exist. An example of this approach is demonstrated by Reynolds Metals. The company replaced a solvent-based ink with a comparable water-based ink in packaging plants and cut emissions by 65 percent, which saved $30 million in pollution equipment (1990) 4.    Can environmentally undesirable materials be eliminated from the production process? Firms should examine the materials they use in the processes. It may be possible to change the type of coolant used in a milling process. One example is the 3M Corporation estimates that it has saved $482 million through reduced wastes in eliminating the use of solvents within their coating process and in reducing all emissions 90 percent (1990). Another example is AT&T which redesigned a circuit board cleaning process which has resulted in the elimination of ozone-depleting chemicals and a $3 million annual saving in cleaning costs (1990). Moreover, the Bayer organization which has reformulated a dye intermediate referred to as H acid, changed the catalyst system and redesigned the process, has reduced starting material by 20 percent, eliminated by-product iron oxide slurry and sodium chloride, and cut wastewater by 70 percent (1991). 5.    Can the product be designed to increase the interest in recycling it after its useful life is over? Growing restrictions on the types of materials that can be deposited in landfills will increase the need to consider the disposability or recyclability of products after their useful life is over. A variety of factors should be considered here. One method of increasing disposability is to eliminate hazardous waste from the product which makes it more acceptable to landfills and recycling centers. Another consideration is the ability to separate the various materials in a product so they may be more easily and effectively disposed of or recycled. One approach to separation of materials is to design for disassembly. The basic concept is to make products that can easily be separated or disassembled by their components, thereby reducing the expense of recycling because little effort is spent separating materials. The process also converts the nonrecyclable hazardous waste to a form that requires less space in the landfill. Therefore, disposal costs are reduced. One example is the Polaroid Company which has eliminated toxic materials from their products. Polaroid eliminated mercury from its battery products and has created recyclable batteries (1990).                                                     Section 2 Environmental Risk Assessment             The business community has implemented pollution prevention initiatives through what has been termed "environmental management systems" (2000) and "environmental risk management systems" (1998). Environmental management and risk systems are a series of standards that are used to develop a business model for an integrated management system to identify, control, and monitor environmental risks (1998).  Both initiatives focus efforts on what has essentially been identified as life-cycle analysis. Life-cycle analysis involves the evaluation of raw materials, byproducts, wastes, and the final product into a decision matrix to reduce costs and environmental liabilities (1998). The purpose of conducting a life-cycle analysis on environmental matters is to reduce risk and liabilities predominantly through awareness (1996). The objectives of this study were to provide direction and assistance for improving environmental risk management by: 1. More fully understanding the site-specific risks related to the interactions of certain contaminants and local geology, and 2. Translating this knowledge into the development of effective pollution prevention initiatives in a more focused and efficient manner. This sequence of objectives incorporates a key principle of risk analysis: informed decision-making. (1999). To achieve the study objectives, a modified life-cycle analysis of a UK- based manufacturing company was performed. Instead of evaluating potential environmental impacts based on the sequential stages of production, this study analyzed company-specific data from historical contamination events with the objective of instituting management and engineering controls to eliminate or reduce future impacts and liabilities. This approach to historical environmental impact assessment is described by  (1996) and it is based on the analysis of the frequency and financial severity of a particular risk. In this application, the specific risk analyzed was the release of hazardous substances to the ground surface at 48 industrial facilities in UK. The most common sources of contamination included: 1. Leaks and spills associated with operations of underground storage tanks (USTs) and waste storage areas, 2. Surface disposal, 3. Accidental spills, and 4. Atmospheric deposition The most common type of contaminant release was from waste storage areas and surface disposal, followed by USTs and atmospheric deposition. In many instances, the sources of contamination had gone undetected for long periods of time and were only discovered when the facility underwent a comprehensive site investigation upon facility closure. The sites evaluated in this study consisted of heavy manufacturing facilities. The sites ranged in size from 1.8 to 80 acres and had manufacturing operations from 30 to 100 yr. Each of the facilities used a host of hazardous chemicals for purposes that were associated with raw materials, degreasing, lubricating, painting, plating, machining, metal melting, energy and packaging. To evaluate the frequency and financial risk posed by the release of hazardous substances, records on subsurface investigations and remediation were compiled. Cost data were obtained from internal sources, outside consultants, and, in some cases, from publicly available sources. The use of multiple sources for cost data was designed to provide verification of their accuracy and to minimize the potential for underestimating true costs. Specific chemical categories include: volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PNAs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and metals (including arsenic, barium, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, total chromium, copper, lead, manganese, mercury, and zinc). VOCs were further separated into two groups that included dense nonaqueous-phase liquids (DNAPL) and light-nonaqueous phase liquids (LNAPL). DNAPL compounds are VOCs that have chlorine in their atomic structure, have a specific gravity slightly greater than that of water, and are commonly used as solvents and degreasers. LNAPL compounds are VOCs without chlorine in their atomic structure, have a specific gravity that is slightly less than water, and are commonly used as solvents and in fuels, such as gasoline and diesel fuels. After completing a subsurface investigation at a facility to determine which media were affected, the extent of contamination was directly measured using either a measuring tape or was determined using survey equipment in cases where the extent of contamination was extensive or extended beneath roadways or permanent structures. The subsurface investigations involved drilling soil borings and collecting and analyzing soil samples in a laboratory for the presence of contamination. At sites where groundwater was encountered and was impacted, the extent of groundwater contamination was evaluated by installing groundwater monitoring wells, and the groundwater samples were subsequently collected and analyzed in a laboratory for the presence of contamination. Contamination extents for organic compounds were evaluated to the corresponding analyte method detection limit listed as required by EPA (1983) In some instances, it was required to define groundwater impacts to concentrations below the maximum contaminant level (MCL). The groundwater investigation was required to continue until a concentration 10 times lower than the MCL was achieved. Evaluating the extent of contamination for metals required a different methodology than the organic compounds, because metals naturally occur in the environment. Therefore, establishing background concentrations was required before evaluating the extent of actual metal contamination. An accurate measurement of the recovered or remediated contaminant mass was required by the regulatory agencies at most sites. The amount of contaminant mass remediated was calculated at each facility by first collecting periodic and representative samples of the recovered contaminant waste stream. Concentrations of contaminants were then determined in the samples collected through laboratory analysis. Once the concentration in each sample had been determined and calibrated through time using multiple sample collection and analysis episodes, the recovered or remediated contaminant mass was calculated by multiplying the contaminant concentrations measured by the laboratory in the samples by the total volume of air or water removed by the remediation system or the volume of soil excavated. In some cases where in situ remedial measures were conducted, contaminant mass was determined by conducting a more detailed subsurface investigation that involved analyzing numerous samples in the area to be remediated using an in situ method.             Costs would be listed on tables which include future cost projections to obtain closure from the regulating authority, internal costs, lost property values, taxes, property carrying costs, legal fees, potential litigation settlements, court costs, regulatory oversight fees, costs associated with investigation and remediation. In addition, data and costs related to arsenic, barium, cadmium, copper, manganese, and zinc are listed in the tables.

Pollution Control and Monitoring

Pollution Control and Monitoring Section A During the last years of the 20th century, environmental authorities from the most develop...

RFID - Radio Frequency Identification

The Octopus Card – An RFID Revolution Introduction             Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology is familiar with by most Hong Kong People. We found that Octopus card system is a proverbial example, which is now the world's leading and most extensive rechargeable contactless stored value smart card system used to transfer electronic payments in online or offline systems in Hong Kong. RFID technology is commonly used by people from every walk of life.             The Octopus card is in different variety layer with the highest penetration, the highest transaction volume and the widest scope of usage in future. In this project, we are going to discuss the process and development of RFID technology within the Octopus Card system. The Octopus             The Octopus card is a stored value smart card that can be reloaded and cannot be contacted. It is mainly used for transfer of electronic payments in online or offline systems in Hong Kong. The card was originally launched in September of 1997. Its original purpose was to collect fares for the city’s mass transit system. Since then, the Octopus card system has grown into a widely used payment system for virtually all public transport in Hong Kong. Also, it is used to pay purchases from supermarkets, convenience stores, fast-food restaurants, car parks, on-street parking meters, and many other point-of-sale applications such as vending machines and service stations. Moreover, it is also used to access control to schools, apartments and offices. Some charities even accept Octopus cards for donations.             Octopus is one of the world’s most successful electronic cash systems. Today, the card has over 14 million in circulation, which is twice the population of Hong Kong. Octopus Cards Limited is the operator of the Octopus system. It is a joint venture between MTR Corporation and other transport providers in Hong Kong.             MTR’s own experts designed the Octopus system through an open tender, AES ProData (Hong Kong) Limited, now known as ERG Transit Systems. ERG built a number of the components, including the back-end systems. Octopus undertakes its own maintenance, operations and development. In 2005 however, Octopus replaced the central transaction clearing house with its own system.             Hong Kong is the world’s first major public transport system that uses the Sony 13.56 MHz FaliCa radio frequency identification (RFID) chip (and other related technology) which is used by the Octopus card. Physical contact is not really required as the system is “touch” and “go”. Users need only hold the card in close proximity of the reader. Data is transmitted at up to 212 kbit/s (the maximum speed for Sony FeliCa chips), compared with 9.6 kbit/s for Mondex and Visa Cash.             During the development of Octopus back in 1997, there were still no standards in the nasecent industry. Because of this, Octopuses still uses a nonstandard system for RFID instead of the ISO 14443 standards.             The Octopus card uses uses two-way authentication based on public key infrastructure (PKI). Data communications to and from the card are only established when mutually authenticated security handshaking is verified followed by transfer of encrypted data. Concerns and Controversy             A primary security concern surrounding RFID technology is the illicit tracking of RFID tags. Tags which are world-readable pose a risk to both personal location privacy and corporate/military security. Such concerns have been raised with respect to the United States Department of Defense's recent adoption of RFID tags for supply chain management. More generally, privacy organizations have expressed concerns in the context of ongoing efforts to embed electronic product code (EPC) RFID tags in consumer products.            Moreover, some cryptographic protocols are trying to aim for privacy against unauthorized readers. A major challenge in securing RFID tags is a shortage of computational resources within the tag. Standard cryptographic techniques require more resources than are available in most low cost RFID devices. RSA Security has even patented a prototype device that locally jams RFID signals by interrupting a standard collision avoidance protocol, allowing the user to prevent identification if desired.. Various policy measures have also been proposed, such as marking RFID tagged objects with an industry standard label.             Amongst the other controversies that RFID faces are: consumer privacy, religious reactions reagarding eschtology and dispensationalism, virus threat, and RFID shielding.   Conclusion, Predictions and Enhancements               Radio frequency identification of unique products in distribution and supply chains appears to be a burgeoning revolution for some of the world's largest companies. Companies both large and small produce and distribute billions of products annually to wholesalers and retailers. Tracking shipments, monitoring and controlling inventories, and maintaining inventories represent a significant business effort.             The coming year will see RFID continue to spread implemented for a variety of new applications and could mark the start of broad adoption of RFID in the supply chain.

RFID - Radio Frequency Identification

The Octopus Card – An RFID Revolution Introduction Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology is familiar with by mo...