Research Korner

CNM Assignment

COMPUTER NETWORKING AND MANAGEMENT Task 3 – HTTP             Upon connecting to the Internet, there are various different protocols and services used to transmit information to the client.             According to (2002), the Web is a collection of sites, or documents, which share a specialized protocol, HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), enabling different operating systems to share the same data. Web documents are formatted in HTML, or HyperText Markup Language, to standardise the presentation of text, graphics and links to other sites, with the end result that a document will look more or less the same in a browser for Windows, MasOS or UNIX. Web browsers utilize HTTP to communicate with a server and then translate HTML code to display pages on the client computer.   Clicking on a hypertext link, which is an embedded address or URL, will effect a transfer of information, whether to another document, image or file. Hypertext is something of a mis-nomer, as links within a web document can also be anchored to images.             (2002) further explained that HyperText Transfer Protocol enables the easy retrieval of documents from the Internet regardless of where they are held. HTTP defines URLs not only for the Web but also FTL, Gopher and Usenet sites, making it an extremely useful means of accessing a wide range of document. To implement data transfer as simply as possible, HTTP provides web authors with the ability to embed hypertext links within documents. a) Discuss the following terms as applied to the HTTP and explain how each can provide performance improvements to HTTP applications: • Persistent connections             Wikipedia explains, “HTTP persistent connection is a connection method introduced in HTTP/1.1 which enables using one connection to send/receive multiple HTTP requests/responses” (see picture below). Figure 1: Schema of multiple vs. persistent connection. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:HTTP_persistent_connection.svg)                         Among its advantages are: (1) since there are less connections that are open simultaneously, there us less memory and CPU usage; (2) HTTP pipelining of responses and requests is enabled; (3) because TCP connections are fewer, network congestion is reduced; (4) no handshake is observed so subsequent requests with latency is reduced; and, (5) TCP connection was usually closed for penalty but not anymore during reports of error.             RFC 2616 explains, “a single-user client should not maintain more than 2 connections with any server or proxy. A proxy should use up to 2*N connections to another server or proxy, where N is the number of simultaneously active users. These guidelines are intended to improve HTTP response times and avoid congestion.”             On the other hand, there are web browsers that support persistent connections to their proxies and web servers. Netscape navigator queues all persistent connections that are idling. Internet Explorer however, typically opens 2 connections for each server. Inactive persistent connections for 60 seconds goes time out. Mozilla Firefox also supports persistent connections with customized per-server and per-proxy. Finally, Opera also supports persistent connections like Mozilla’s.   • Pipelining             HTTP requests are normally issued sequentially. Response to the present request must be totally received before issuing the next request. The following request depends on bandwidth limitations and network latencies causing considerable delay before it is seen by the server.              (2005) explains, “HTTP allows multiple HTTP requests to be written out to a socket together without waiting for the corresponding responses. The requestor then waits for the responses to arrive in the order in which they were requested. The act of pipelining the requests can result in a dramatic improvement in page loading times, especially over high latency connections.” Figure 2: Schema of non-pipelined vs. pipelined connection.               There has been a striking development in page loading times with pipelining of requests, especially at high latency connections like the satellite Internet connections. Moreover, network load is abridged as few TCP packets are sent over the network. This happens because a number of HTTP requests may fit into a single TCP packet.             HEAD and GET requests are the only idempotent requests that can be pipelined. PUT and POST requests are not to be pipelined. New connection with requests should not be pipelined also as they have not been yet determined if the proxy or origin server supports HTTP/1.1. This means that pipelining may only be done on reusing existing persistent connection.             Both the server and the client is required in HTTP pipelining. However, servers are not required to pipeline responses. They are required not to fail if clients choose to pipeline requests.             RFC 2616 explains that: “a client that supports persistent connections MAY “pipeline” its requests (i.e., send multiple requests without waiting for each response). A server MUST send its responses to those requests in the same order that the requests were received. Clients which assume persistent connections and pipeline immediately after connection establishment SHOULD be prepared to retry their connection if the first pipelined attempt fails. If a client does such a retry, it MUST NOT pipeline before it knows the connection is persistent. Client MUST also be prepared to resend their requests if the server closes the connection before sending all of the corresponding responses. Client SHOULD NOT pipeline requests using non-indempotent methods or non-indempotent sequences of methods. Otherwise, a premature termination of the transport connection could lead to indeterminate results. A client wishing to send a non-idempotent request SHOULD wait to send that request until it has received response status for the previous request.”   • Conditional GET / client caching             GET is the most common type of HTTP request. GET is used to request a “representation of the specified resource”. It is considered a safe method because they are intentionally for retrieval of information only and should not alter the status of the server. This means that they should not have side effects. However, GET requests in practice may still cause modifications on the server.             GET is also defined to be a idempotent method. This means that numerous matching requests should have the same outcome as a single request.             An example of a change on the server is when an HTML page uses a plain hyperlink to start deletion of a domain database record, this causes an adjustment of the server’s status as a side-effect of a GET request. This is not encouraged as it can cause problems for search engines, Web caching and other automated agents, who can create unintentional modifications on the server.             The three basic means of HTTP for controlling caches is defined by Wikipedia as:             “Freshness allows a response to be used without re-checking it on the origin server, and can be controlled by both the server and the client. For example, the Expires response header gives a date when the document becomes stale, and the Cache-Control: max-age directive tells the cache how many seconds the response is fresh for; Validation can be used to check whether a cached response is still good after it becomes stale. For example, if the response has a Last-Modified header, a cache can make conditional request using the If-Modified-Since header to see if it has changed; and, Invalidation is usually a side effect of another request that passes through the cache. For example, if URL associated with a cached response subsequently gets a POST, PUT or DELETE request, the cached response will be invalidated.”   b) Outline THREE different Internet protocols commonly used to retrieve mail from mail servers by e-mail user agents. Compare and contrast these.             Domain Name System.  (1999) explains that: “A domain name is an easy-to-remember replacement for an Internet address. When an individual or corporation registers for a domain name, it is actually assigned an Internet Protocol (IP) address. This address "consists of several domains, `moving left to right from the most specific to the most general, with each domain separated by periods. Because IP addresses are difficult to remember, Internet users substitute unique "domain names" as pseudonyms for the computer's real identification number. When a domain name is entered into a computer it is automatically converted into the numbered address, which contacts the appropriate site.”             Post Office Protocol. Sloboda explains that: “POP3 is the set of standards and languages that ISPs use to rout electronic mail from the sender to the receiver. It is the e-mail equivalent of a street address and zip code. Users log into their ISP am download messages to their computers from the ISP's server Traditional ISP accounts use the POP3 system. It is one of the easiest to use and requires software that generally comes with a web browser Popular e-mail software. With traditional POP e-mail, the messages are transferred from the computers of the ISP to the user's. web-based e-mail services store all "read," "unread" and "sent" e-mail on the provider's computer. The messages are never transferred to the user's computer. This gives the user the advantage of being able to log into any Internet accessible computer to access their e-mail files. With POP e-mail, the user can only access old messages from their computer. POP e-mail, or POP3, is a common e-mail system used by most ISPs and some corporate e-mail systems.”             Internet Message Access Protocol. (2005) explains that: “Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is a similar but more powerful program that was developed at  University in 1986. It is currently in its fourth version (IMAP4). Its advantage is that it allows you to search messages that are still on the mail server for keywords and thus decide which to download; that is, it allows one to create killflles.”             Of the three, POP3 is the one that is used more as it can be accessed and used anywhere anytime. It is the most recommended one.   Task 4 – IntServ and QoS             In computer networking, an architecture that states the fundamentals to guarantee quality of service (QoS) on networks is called IntServ or integrated services. For example, IntServ can be used to let sound and video reach the receiver with no disruption.             The design of IntServ is that all application has to make an individual reservation if it requires some kind of gurantees. In addition, each router in the system must implement IntServ. The purpose of the reservation is descrive by “Flow Specs”, while the fundamental mechanism to hint it across the network is “RSVP” . a) Explain how the Integrated Services (Intserv) architecture allows an Internet connection to have a guaranteed Quality of Service (QoS).               It has been said that many establishments want the best out of their network. Now, who wouldn’t? Everyone wants a network that absolutely guarantees its performance. That is, to convene an absolute, worst-case scenario for response time or latency. Not just that, a predictable performance is not enough; everyone wants a performance bounded with the promise that end-to-end delay will not go beyond a particular limit. To achieve these, a network must have an industrial-strength quality of service (QOS).             Manipulating internal queues to manage the order in which different traffic types are programmed for transmission on outbound links is a packet-scheduling task in most routers and some switches. First-in, first-out (FIFO) scheduling is simple compared to these sophisticated techniques.             Application of any of these scheduling algorithms requires traffic to be classified first as it enters the router. This classification can be based upon the explicit signaling information located within each packet, TCP/UDP socket number, incoming router port or source/destination IP address.             Packet scheduling may start as soon as traffic classification is done whereas prioritization is the most straightforward technique. “Fairness” may have to be featured into the scheduling algorithm as low-priority applications experience time-outs before transmission.             Multiple disintegration of high-priority traffic will bring queuing interruptions while competing for the router output link. Once congestion take place, prioritization cannot guarantee vital data will reach its end in a timely style - only high-priority packets will leave the router ahead of low-priority packets.             Router prioritization is sufficient to make sure transaction-processing applications are prioritized in a router network. However, it cannot guarantee network performance.             Then what is enough to guarantee delay through a network if router prioritization does not? According to Passmore (1998), link bandwidth reservation is the simple answer. However, he also explains that “allocating bandwidth in a way that achieves bounded, end-to-end latency is very complex.”             Packet scheduling is the same mechanism implemented by routers for bandwidth reservation. But there is a difference. Bandwidth (and equivalent router buffer) allotment is expected to be necessary for every link down a network pathway if end-to-end latency guarantees should be met. The test is to tweak the routers so the required bandwidth will be allocated in the occurrence of dynamically changing network topologies, a large number of traffic classes and new application requirements.             Then a few years back, an IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) working group developed an answer to a guaranteed latency that utilizes more administrator-friendly packet-scheduling technique with a technique to control traffic entry into the network. Integrated Services (IntServ) was born.             Unfortunately, it still was not adequate to meet complete latency guarantees. A way to reserve bandwidth before a flow traverses the network, so the routers can allocate buffers beforehand (or point out that guaranteed end-to-end service cannot be delivered) would be needed. This is where RSVP (Resource Reservation Protocol) comes in.             So what happens here? Wikipedia explains how: “all machines on the network capable of sending QOS data send a PATH message every 30 seconds, which spreads out through the networks. Those who want to listen to them send a corresponding RESV (short for “Reserve”) message which then traces the path backwards to the sender. The RESV message contains the flow specs. The routers between the sender and listener have to decide if they can support the reservation being requested, and if they cannot then send a reject message to let the listener know about it. Otherwise, once they accept the reservation they have to carry the traffic. The routers then store the nature of the flow, and also police it. This is all done in soft state, so if nothing is heard for a certain length of time, then the reader will time out and the reservation will be cancelled. This solves the problem if either the sender or the receiver crash or are shut down incorrectly without first canceling the reservation. The individual routers may, at their option, police the traffic to check that it conforms to the flow specs.” b) Explain how the Differentiated Services (Diffserv) architecture allows an Internet connection to have a differentiated QoS.                         Wikipedia states that: “DiffServ or Differentiated Services is a computer networking architecture that specifies a simple, scalable and coarse-grained mechanism for classifying, managing network traffic and providing QOS guarantees on modern IP networks. DiffServe can, for example, be used to provide low-latency, guaranteed service (GS) to critical network traffic such as voice or video while providing simple best-effort traffic guarantees to non-critical services such as web traffic or file transfers.”             DiffServ is another IETF work and standards alternative that relies on the Type of Service (TOS) bits within each IP packet header to signal service quality. Each router can then classify traffic based on the TOS bits and adjust its scheduling algorithm as needed for the packets in each service class.             DiffServ is yet another "good news, bad news" situation. Using TOS bits provides information to the router only after each packet arrives. With this signaling mechanism, there is no concept of a flow and the router doesn't have to maintain any flow state information. This is good news, because DiffServ doesn't suffer from scalability problems.             The bad news is that the lack of state information makes the router less effective in providing QOS - it can't know how to reserve buffers before incoming traffic flows arrive. That's why the IETF calls it differentiated rather than guaranteed service. While DiffServ promises to become useful for transaction processing or other traffic that benefits from prioritization, it can't provide strict network latency guarantees. c) Explain why it is likely to be difficult to implement Intserv in the core of the Internet.               IntServ is not actually very popular. The reason? Its because it makes it difficult to track all reservations. How come? IntServ works on a small-scale but each router has to store many states. This makes it difficult to track all reservations as networks scale up to an Internet size system.             It has been found that the solution for this problem is a mutli-level approach.   Task 5 – 60 Marks             Using available Internet and library resources, research the provisions of the ISO standard 17799: 2005 – Code of Practice for Information Security Management. a) Outline the CLAUSES and CONTROL OBJECTIVES of the standard.             International Standards Organization (ISO) 17799, a set of recommendations organized into ten major sections covering all facets of information systems policies and procedures. the ten domains of ISO 17799 and what they help with are (Andress, 2003):             “(1). Business continuity planning – counteract interruptions to business activities and to critical business processes from the effects of major failures or disasters. (2). System access control – control access to information; stop unauthorized admission to information systems; guarantee the fortification of networked services; thwart unauthorized computer admittance; detect unauthorized activities and guarantee information safety when traveling and telecommuting.   (3). System development and maintenance – ensure security is built into operational systems; prevent loss, modification, or misuse of user data in application systems; protect the confidentiality, authenticity, and integrity of information; maintain the security of application system software and data; and ensure that information technology (IT) projects and support activities are conducted in a secure manner. (4). Environmental and physical security – thwart unauthorized entrance and damage to and interference with business grounds and information; stop loss or compromise of property and disruption to business actions; and percent cooperation or stealing of information-processing facilities. (5). Compliance – avoid breaches of any criminal or civil law, any statutory, regulatory, or contractual obligations and any security requirements; ensure compliance of systems with organizational security policies and standards; and, maximize the effectiveness of-and minimize interference to and from-the system-audit process. (6). Personnel security – decrease risks of human mistake, robbery, deception, or mistreatment of amenities; guarantee that users are conscious of information safety threats and concerns, and are ready to support the corporate security policy in the itinerary of their usual work; and, reduce the harm from security incidents and malfunctions and learn from such incidents. (7). Security organization – manage information security within organization; maintain the security of organization information-processing facilities and information assets accessed by third parties; and, maintain the security of information when the responsibility for information processing has been outsourced to another organization. (8). Computer and network management – guarantee the right and safe process of information-processing services; reduce the danger of systems failure; defend the reliability of software and information; preserve the reliability and ease of use of information dispensation and communication; guarantee the conservation of information in networks and the defense of the sustaining communications; avoid harm to resources and interruptions to company activities; and, put off loss, alteration, or mistreatment of information exchanged amid organizations. (9). Asset classification and control – maintain appropriate protection of corporate assets and ensure that information assets receive an appropriate level of protection. (10). Security policy - provide management direction and support for information security.” b) For each of the clauses, critically appraise how the main control objectives relate to an organisation with which you are familiar and briefly outline what would be required to enable the organisation to meet the objective.             ISO 17799 also provides guidelines for an auditing standard. Obtaining ISO 17799 certification is a long, arduous process. Many toolkits and policy templates are available to help make everything a bit easier.             Request for Comments (RFCs) 2196 and 2504 also provide excellent starting points for creating a solid security policy. Gartner Group, a Stamford, Connecticut, research firm, recommends that a strong information security policy contain the following key components (see below): Gartner Group provides the following tips to help you avoid the common pitfalls in policy writing: Avoid creating information-security policies without considering the organization's culture. Many security policies are developed using templates or sample policies from other organizations. Information-security policies that are inconsistent with the organization's culture and business practices will often lead to widespread noncompliance. Develop policies that are realistic and explicitly endorsed by management. Before issuing the policy, address concerns regarding user acceptance and costs associated with retrofitting systems or business practices. Don't underestimate the need for effective policy-awareness programs. Employees must understand a policy before they can be expected to comply with it. An effective awareness program should include advance notice of the policy and an announcement letter from a key stakeholder. When the policy is issued, it should mention compliance-monitoring measures and whether there will be a grace period before these activities begin. It is extremely important that the procedures for obtaining policy exceptions and reporting violations be thoroughly explained. An awareness campaign should include regular reminders to employees and might also include self-audits that can aid employees and departmental managers in identifying compliance issues. Develop policies in conjunction with compliance-monitoring procedures and include disciplinary action for noncompliance. Compliance-monitoring procedures are needed to ensure that policy-interpretation errors and violations are detected and addressed. Where possible, organizations should implement automated tools to ensure timely, consistent policy enforcement. If manual processes are used, they must be regularly scheduled. Incidents must be formally tracked and investigated, policy violations must be handled according to severity, and disciplinary actions must be applied consistently. Incident-management procedures should address how to investigate and collect evidence and when to contact law-enforcement agencies. Finally, data on employee compliance, exceptions, and violations must be communicated regularly to senior leadership to ensure that they remain informed and supportive.              (2003) recommends also: a statement of ownership of information, definition of an employee / user’s responsibility for the protection of the information asset and intended recourse for noncompliance. She further explains that there are keys to a successfully developed and implemented information security policy and is lies in the answers to the ff. questions: do employees understand the difference between appropriate and inappropriate use? Will employees report apparent violations? And do employees know how to report apparent violations?             If the answer to all three questions is yes, then the employees will follow and adhere to the policies.

CNM Assignment

COMPUTER NETWORKING AND MANAGEMENT Task 3 – HTTP Upon connecting to the Internet, there are various different protocols and ...

Computer-mediated communication

1.1.1.1 Computer-mediated communication Having described mediated mass communication we are now focussing on a specific type of mediated communication – computer-mediated communication (CMC). Technologies like radio or TV have brought mass means of communication, which changed the way people were communicating and receiving information. The introduction of computers and especially their connection via the Internet brought again new communication conditions. It has capabilities and functions that differentiate it from traditional media and face-to-face communication. While a variety of definitions of the term CMC have been suggested, this study will use two definitions. December (1996) provides a definition of CMC, which incorporates the classical communication theory by Schramm as well as the social exchange of information: “the process by which people create, exchange, and perceive information using networked telecommunications systems that facilitate encoding, transmitting, and decoding messages”. Culnan and Markus (1987) saw CMC as “Interactive, computer-mediated technologies that facilitate interpersonal communication among several individuals or groups” (p.422). Technology is used for gathering information, stay in contact with distant others, leisure, as well as for social purposes like presenting oneself to others and maintaining relationships (Lea and Spears, 1995; McKenna, Green and Gleason, 2002). CMC offers many services, including, teletext, videotext, facsimile, e-mail, computer conferencing, bulletin boards, electronic databases (Rice, 1990), voice messaging (Gulck, Goliz and Rosenbaum, 1991), Inter Relay Chat (IRC) (Reid, 1991; Halbert, 1999), Mud Object Oriented (MOO) (Jacobson, 1999), Multi-User Dungeons (Mud) (Utz, 2000). CMC’s properties differ from other mediated or interpersonal communication. In his book Understanding the psychology of Internet behaviour, Joinson (2003) offers five key dimensions helping to understand the link between technology and social behaviour Synchronicity: Communication can take place synchronously or asynchronously, depending on the communication channel used. Due to speed of reply some asynchronous communication technologies can have the same or similar characteristics as synchronous do, with the exception that a respondent does not have to reply immediately.  Thus an individual has more time to plan, reflect on and revise his comments (Joinson, 2003). Walther (1992) refers to CMC as asynchronous channel in which time and geographical space are not relevant anymore. Individuals who communicate via CMC can be geographically dispersed and can send and receive messages at times convenient to them. The cues transmitted: In contrast to face-to-face communication a main shortcoming of CMC is the lack of nonverbal cues (Joinson, 2003; Short et. al, 1976). The resulting impacts of the lack of “social context cues” in CMC are discussed in more detail later. Bandwidth and cost constraints: Cost in terms of money, bandwidth and time have an influence on how messages are crafted. If costs are high, users tend to craft short messages. The brevity of a message has an impact on how it is perceived (Joinson, 2003). Anonymity: Because visual cues are missing others identity cannot be perceived immediately (Joinson, 2003). the more equal participations, less hierarchy, less dominating conversation pattern. Less social information or a low social presence can equalize status difference more equa. Individuals more control over timing and content of their self-disclosures (Wellmann, 1997).  The relative lack of social presence online fosters relationships with people who have more diverse social characteristics than might normally be encountered in person. Exclusivity: A further important point is whether sender and recipients can exchange messages privately (Joinson, 2002). Furthermore CMC conversations leave a written record. This recorded conversation leads to a “persistent conversation” which “aids the user’s cognitive processing” (Herring, 1999 p. 17). Equally important is the fact that, because individuals can keep track of their conversation they can hold simultaneous conversations and or refer to them later (Herring, 1999). A research group, called the ‘Communication Research Group’ based at University College London, conducted early research in CMC, focussing on understanding mediated communication. They focused on the characteristics of CMC and how they relate to the perceived presence of the communicating individual. Early findings favour a ‘cue-filtered-out’ interpretation, arguing that less social information is transmitted in CMC, because contextual information, such as physical attributes, non-verbal cues and gestures are lacking (Joinson, 2003).  In face-to-face interactions contextual cues (e.g. nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, postures, dress, social status, as well as vocabulary, grammar, tone, accent) influence the ways in which impressions of one another are formed (Goffman, 1959; Lea and Spears, 1995). In CMC many of these contextual cues are absent or strongly attenuated, and scholars are investigating in how people form impressions of one another or how they engage and transmit messages via CMC (Short et al. 1976; Sproull and Kiesler, 1986)? There are three well-established theories related to the ‘cue-filtered-out’ (missing contextual cues) interpretation: social presence theory, media richness theory and social context cues theory. The importance those theories are highlighted by Rice (1993) stating that “the essential underlying principle in both theoretic tradition is that a good match between the characteristics of a medium (such as high in social presence or media richness) and one’s communication activities (such as social-emotional activities like getting to know someone, or equivocal tasks like strategic decision making) will lead to ‘better’ (more effective, satisfying, etc.) performance” (Rice, 1993, p. 453). The first serious discussions and analysis of social presence merged during the 1970s with a series of experiments conducted by the Communication Studies Group. Short et al. (1976) has developed the Social Presence Theory. If there is little Social Presence, the communication is more impersonal. The theory further explains that media differ in their “capacity to transmit information about facial expression, direction of looking, posture, dress and nonverbal, vocal cues” (Short et al., 1976 p. 65). Fulk et al. (1987) explain social presence as people, who communicate with one another perceive each other to be psychologically present, more friendly and emotional. Short et al.’s (1976) first study analysed the difference between telephone communication and face-to-face communication, focusing on “what people lost” (p. 26) when using a telephone (Joinson, 2003). They argued that if information is only transmitted via an audio channel, compared to face-to-face, social information get lost and only task-oriented messages can be transmitted. Short et al. (1976) suggest that for communication to be successful, ‘intimacy and immediacy’ or the ‘sense of being with one another’ is needed. The concept of ‘immediacy’ has been introduced by Mehrabian (1969) and describes “those communication behaviours that enhance closeness to and nonverbal interaction with another” (p. 203). He suggests that nonverbal cues lead to more intense, affective and immediate interactions. The other important concept to which social presence is related is ‘intimacy’. This concept is based on Argye and Dean’s (1965) intimacy-equilibrium theory, which argues that there is always equilibrium in intimacy between individuals communicating with one another (Joinson, 2003). If one individual reduces or enhances an intimate behaviour the other communicator will compensate for it (Walther, 2002) Since, according to Short et al. (1976), intimacy is especially expressed through nonverbal cues (e.g. eye contact), communication over CMC is less intimate. However, Short et al. (1976) speculated that verbal cues might substitute for missing nonverbal cues: “thus head-nods indicating agreement may be replaced by verbal phrases such as “I quite agree” (p. 64). The ability of a medium to transmit cues determines how much social presence is involved. According to Short et al. (1976) face-to-face communication has the highest level of social presence while electronic medium, due to low capacity to transmit cues, has low social presence. On the same line as Short et al. (1976), media richness theory (Daft and Lengel, 1984) refers to the number of cues, which can be transmitted through a media. They categorised them classifying face-to-face as being the “richness” - because of numerous channels (verbal, audio, visual, etc.) and immediate feedback - followed by “moderate” media like videoconferencing and telephone. CMC is considered to be ‘lean’ for not being able to transmit nonverbal cues and have slower feedback capabilities, and letters and memoranda have been classified as being the “leanest” media. Daft and Lengel (1984) view the appropriate selection of a medium to convey a message as a rational process, where an individual selects the media most appropriate to transfer a specific message. In other words, the transmission of interpersonal, emphatic or emotional, and complex information requires instantaneous feedback and a higher level of interactivity of a rich medium. Thus it is suggested that CMC is better for lean and task-oriented messages (Daft and Lengel, 1987). In some situations, however, a lean medium can be beneficial: Social context cue theory (Kiesler et al, 1984, Dubrovsky et. al. 1991) states that it is the medium itself that provides social context cues. Kiesler et al (1984) point out that CMC has “(a) a paucity of social context information, and (b) few widely shared norms governing its use” (p. 1126). The fact that social standards will play a smaller role in CMC has been taken up by Dubrovsky et al. (1991). According to them communication can be influenced by status hierarchy, which can be perceived through static (people’s appearance) and dynamic social cues (people’s behaviour). Kiesler et al. (1984) investigated CMC with a main focus on uninhibited communication and group decision-making. They found that the lack of social context cues could lead to flaming. Because of reduced social context cues the social status of the participants was not obvious anymore and group opinions and agreements became more extreme. The reduced social context cues lead to stronger group norms, de-individuation and group polarisation. For McKenna and Bargh (2000), as for Kiesler et al. (1984), anonymity in CMC leads to de-individuation. One of the most significant studies in the 1980s was Sproull and Kiesler’s (1986) investigation into Electronic Mail Systems (EMS) behaviour of employees in a Fortune 500 office equipment firm using questionnaire data and EMS samples. They point out that “all communications media attenuate to at least some degree the social context cues available in face-to-face conversation. The telephone reduces dynamic and static cues by eliminating visual information about communicators. Letters and memos reduce static cues by imposing standardized format conventions: they eliminate dynamic cues altogether” (Sproull and Kiesler, 1986 p. 1496). According to Sproull and Kiesler (1986) the lack of social context cues, which fosters a greater anonymity, leads to relatively self-centred behaviour, status equalisation and more extreme communication. It can lead to more extreme communication as individuals are not very much concerned about their appearance and use intense language (i.e. flaming: antisocial messages). They further found that people overestimate the value of their own contribution in contrast to the value of a message of their group. Further, they proposed that due to status equalisation, individuals might have access to information to which they would not have had access before. Status equalisation also leads to communication on more equal terms with all kind of participants. Additionally they state that the uninhibited communication behaviour leads to more idea sharing and generating across organisational boundaries what would not have been possible using face-to-face communication (Sproull and Kiesler, 1986). After early research focussed on technology’s impact on, scholar’s attention moved to social aspects of CMC. Fulk at al. (1990) introduce the Social Influence Theory, which sheds a different light to media richness theory. Media selection is not solely considered to be a rational process but takes the social content of an individual as well as its perception and preferences of media into consideration. Thus, taking the context and use of media into consideration extends the view of richness to be an innate property of a media. The aforementioned literature suggests that CMC does not have the ability to convey social context cues and thus CMC is not an appropriate medium for social interactions. However, contradictory theories and empirical findings appeared and more recent studies questioned if this findings are generalisable to all CMC and their applications. It is criticised that most research was conducted in controlled laboratory experimental settings, which often does not have the same dynamics as real-world interactions. Group structures and the diversity of participants are often different to real-world compositions. Another aspect that has been criticised is the time allocation, as experiment duration has often been less than one hour (Walther, 1992, 1994, 1995, 1996). Additionally he questions if group CMC is equalising statuses. Walther (1992) argues that for the “operational definition of dominance” (p. 65), higher participation has been attributed to equality. Other approaches, such as “content and linguistic construction of speech” (Walther, 1992 p. 65) have not been widely considered. Walther (1992) introduced the social information processing theory (SIP), and claimed that CMC users have the same interpersonal needs as individuals communicating face-to-face (Walther, 1992). He discusses the fact that “humans are driven to interact with one another” (p.68) and are seeking social rewards. Those drivers are the same, regardless if someone is communicating face-to-face or through computer mediated channels. He further states, that even if nonverbal cues are filtered out, CMC is able to carry the exchange of social cues. The lack of social context cues can be overcome through “various linguistic and typographic manipulation, which may reveal social and relational information in CMC” (Walther, 1995 p. 190). To do so, a certain “paralanguage” (Carey, 1980 cited in Walther, 1992) such as emoticons, has been created and people have learned to verbalise nonverbal cues (Walter, 1992). Walther (1992, 1995) notes that CMC communication needs more time than face-to-face does, as it takes longer to decode verbal cues compared to multichannel (spoken as well as nonverbal) cues. Time is a crucial variable in CMC because the number of messages exchanged in CMC is lower that in face-to-face. Walther (1995) found that it takes four times longer to convey a message via CMC compared with face-to-face. Thus, time spent to send messages and the amount of sent messages via CMC is an important determinant of whether a message can achieve the same intimacy as face-to-face communication. Since it takes longer to convey messages, unfamiliar users need to send more messages to obtain personal information about each other and draw on that information to form impression of each other. Time has another important aspect: “longitudinal groups have something that one-shot groups do not have: the anticipation of future interaction” (Walther, 1996 p.12). Anticipation of future interaction leads communicators to be more friendly and to seek more information about one another (Walther, 1996).  In his meta-analysis of 21 experiments Walther (1994) concludes there is higher social involvement in longer conversations compared to brief conversations. Walthers’s findings are supported by Utz (2000), who found support for the SIP theory. She points out that when individuals (German college students) spend longer computer-mediated conversations they developed a paralanguage that leads to friendships and developments of emotions. Walther (1995) develops these findings by claiming that computer-mediated conversations rate higher in social behaviour than face-to-face conversation do, regardless of time. Drawing on SIDE theory, Walther (1996) developed an explanation for the phenomenon of “hyperpersonal” communication. Hyperpersonal communication can create a greater sense of intimacy then what can be experience in face-to-face interactions (Walther, 1996). Hyperpersonal communication offers a fully integrated view of CMC, suggesting that a sender of a message optimises its self-presentation, while the receiver idealises the perceived image of a sender. It is fully integrated because it not only takes the sender and receiver but also the channel and feedback into account (Walther, 1996).   Based on the findings deindividualisation described in SIDE theory any personal cues that is transmitted is likely to be “over attributed” by the receiver of a message. Additionally similarities and shared norms are perceived when individuals experience salient group identity (Walther, 1996). In absence of other cues a receiver is prone of stereotyping impressions and attribution of similarity. Thus an idealised image of the sender is created (Walther, 1996). While the SIDE theory takes the receiver’s view into account, the SIP theory also integrates the sender’s view, which is described further below. A sender has the opportunity to carefully construct his messages with goal of providing a positive impression. This process has been named: selective self-presentation (Walther, 1996). This self-disclosure can be edited without having to deal with “noise” (nonverbal cues) that could disturb their self-presentation. Walther (1996) described this process as follows: “They were better able to plan, and had increased opportunity to self-censor. With more time for message construction and less stress of ongoing interaction, users may have taken the opportunity for objective self-awareness, reflection, selection and transmission of preferable cues” (Walther, 1992b, cited in Walther, 1996 p. 19). In terms of channel users of asynchronouse tools do not have any time and space constrains. Thus, “they can concentrate on both the task and the social dimensions of communication because the time spent on one function need not reduce time for the other. As a result, CMC should allow more intended and desirable message construction” (Walther et al., 2001, p. 110). An individual’s perception of its communication partner leads to evoke an answer and act towards what was anticipated. This feedback process is called self-fulfilling prophecy and increases the hyperpositive image which is again fed back to the other person.

Computer-mediated communication

1.1.1.1 Computer-mediated communication Having described mediated mass communication we are now focussing on a specific type of mediated ...

The Influence Of Academic Facilities On Academic Performance Research Proposal

Title                 The title for the proposed study is The Influence Of Academic Facilities On Academic Performance. This paper will show the goals and objectives of the study and the different procedures, instruments and approaches to be used in order to achieve these goals and objectives.   Background of the Study/Literature Review                 There are different studies which show the connection between academic facilities with the academic performance of students. The Minister of Education, Science and Sports, Papa Owusu-Ankomah of Ghana called on the students to take advantage of the different academic facilities offered by the government in order to improve their academic performance. The government of Ghana mainly focuses on investing on the school facilities in order to help the learning process of the students. For instance, in 2007, the government invested a total of 650 for its six-classroom block via the Ghana Education Trust Fund (GETFund) for Prempeh College in Kumasi (Ghana News Agency, 2007).                 The study of Adedipe (2007) showed that the lack of physical resources, which include lecture halls, halls of residence, laboratories, libraries and other academic resources commonly result to poor academic performance, because it breeds over crowdedness (cited in Fabiyi and Uzoka, 2009). In addition, the study of Fabiyi and Uzoka (2009) indicated that planning and design of educational facilities for schools, colleges and universities have influence towards the outcome of learning. In addition, according to Earthman (2002) and Schneider (2002) the design of school building and components has influence over the learning process of the students, because it can create an ambiance that will permit or hinder learning procedures. The correlational study of Earthman (2002) showed a strong and positive connection between the entire condition of school building and the achievements of the students.   Aims and Objectives                 The main aim of the study is to evaluate the influence of academic facilities on academic performance of the students. In line with this the following are the specific objectives of the study: ·         To describe and analyze the different direct and indirect impact of academic facilities towards the learning process of the students; ·         To analyze the current academic facilities problems in Ghana; and ·         To assess how the students perceive about the academic facilities in their respective school and how it affects their studies.   Methodology The research study to be used in the proposed study will be descriptive method. According to Creswell (1994) it intends to present facts about the nature and status of a situation as it exists at the time of the study. In addition, it also concerns with the relationships and practices that exist, beliefs and processes that are ongoing, effects that are being felt or trends that are developing (Best 1970). Therefore, it can be helpful in order to describe the current conditions and situations based on the impressions and perceptions of the respondents of the study (Creswell 1994). Both qualitative and quantitative data will be gathered for this study. This is to ensure that both non-statistical and statistical data will be used in order to support the findings and result of the study. Data Collection                 Surveys will be implemented in the study. Surveys are the most common form of research method for collection of primary data (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000). One of its purpose is to describe, e.g., to count the frequency of some event or to assess the distribution of some variables such as proportion of the population of different age groups, sex, religion, castes and languages, knowledge, attitude and adaption of practices about particular issues, and other information of similar nature about the population (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000). Survey interview and questionnaire will be used in this study, which will be used in order to gather primary data. On the other hand, secondary data will be gathered from different online libraries and databases which include BMJ, EMERALD, SCIENCE DIRECT, EBSCO, QUESTIA and GOOGLE BOOK. Sampling Population                 The target population is 300 students from 3 schools in Ghana of 3 levels (elementary, secondary and higher education). The students will be selected via random selection process. Data Analysis                 The data results of the study will be analyzed by determining their corresponding frequency, percentage and weighted mean. The following statistical formulas will be used: 1.             Percentage – to determine the magnitude of the responses to the questionnaire.                 n % = -------- x 100              ;               n – number of responses                 N                                            N – total number of respondents 2.            Weighted Mean                 f1x1 + f2x2 + f3x3 + f4x4 + f5x5 x = ---------------------------------------------;                                 xt where:                 f – weight given to each response                                 x – number of responses                                 xt – total number of responses   References   Best, J. W. (1970). Research in Education, 2nd Ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc.   Commonwealth of Learning. (2000). Manual for Educational Media              Researchers: Knowing your Audience. Vancouver, Canada:     Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia (CEMCA).   Creswell, J.W. (1994). Research design. Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.   Earthman, G. I. (2002). School facility conditions and student academic achievement. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA’s Institute for Democracy, Education & Access (IDEA).   Fabiyi, A. and Uzoka, N. (2009). State of physical facilities in Nigerian Universities: implication for repositioning tertiary institutions for global competition. Retrieved on 29th November, 2010, from http://www.herp-net.org/   Ghana News Agency (2007, March 21). ‘Use facilities to improve academic performance - Minister’. GNA. Retrieved 29th November, 2010 from www.modernghana.com   Schneider, M. (2002). Do school facilities affect academic outcomes? Washington, D. C. National Clearing House for Educational Facilities.

The Influence Of Academic Facilities On Academic Performance Research Proposal

Title The title for the proposed study is The Influence Of Academic Facilities On Academic Performance. This paper will...

Natalie Portman_My Favorite Female Actress (Foreign)

Beauty, Brains, and Talent: A Lethal Combination   Most child stars, unfortunately, fade to obscurity as they get older. The minute they get a growth spurt or crossover the damning threshold of adolescence, their fifteen minutes of fame is totally up. The public forgets about them, the same way they forgot about Home Alone tyke Macaulay Culkin (among others). Some child stars, after the demise of their careers, they try to relive their glory days and end up getting seriously messed up –– you know, drugs, booze, sex, etc. Before you know it, they’re washed up has-beens in rehab, a la Lindsay Lohan.             Few actors have managed to escape the confinement of the Child Star image. Only those with top-notch talent, fierce determination, and excellent management have crossed over. Actors like Natalie Portman.             Academy Award-winner Natalie Portman (born on June 9, 1981 in Jerusalem, Israel) was discovered in a pizza parlor when she was eleven years old and kicked off her career playing brainy baby characters in movies, like her feature film debut, Leon: The Professional (1994). After that, she starred in movies featuring big names like Al Pacino and Robert DeNiro in Heat (1995), and Jack Nicholson in Mars Attacks! (1996). She shot to Household Name status with the release of Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, the prequel to the hit franchise created by George Lucas, in 1999 as Queen Amidala. She reprised her role as Padmé Amidala in Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002) and Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005). Portman proved her versatility as an actress by starring in movies of diverse genres, such as: Anywhere But Here (1999), a drama-comedy film, as Susan Sarandon’s daughter; romantic comedy/drama Garden State (2004), opposite Zach Braff; Closer (2004), with Julia Roberts and Jude Law; V for Vendetta (2006), a sci-fi action movie; The Other Boleyn Girl (2008), with Scarlett Johansson and Eric Bana, a historical drama based on King Henry VIII’s affair with the Boleyn sisters; Black Swan (2010), earning her an Oscar; No Strings Attached (2011), a romantic comedy opposite Ashton Kutcher; and Thor (2011), an action movie based on the Marvel comic book of the same name.             Granted, there are actresses who have much more sophisticated and superior resume, but none of them have Natalie Portman’s intelligence and stunning good looks.             Her selection of projects is one of the reasons why I like her. Unlike many actresses who just accept whatever role thrown at them, Portman actually reads and considers the script and doesn’t “sell out” for the sake of movies –– she has principles and she’s sticking by them. For instance, she has said that she refused to be in a horror movie or any kind of “Jennifer Love Hewitt type” film. She turned down her role in Anywhere But Here because she had to shoot a love scene that involved nudity and only accepted when the script was re-written minus the love scene. She turned down the title role in Lolita (1997), as she disapproved of young artists being exposed to sex in movies.   “I think there's enough exploitation out there that it's not necessary to do more.” –– Natalie Portman on Lolita.               Another reason to like her? She obviously cares about the quality of a film of hers than she is about looks. What other actress would willingly shave her head for a role, just as Natalie had done for V for Vendetta?             What truly sets her apart from most actresses was the fact that she continued her studies despite her blossoming career. She multitasked between being a movie star and a regular high-school girl. She even went to prom (“A designer is going to give me something to wear. It's the most amazing perk I have.” –– when asked about her prom dress). And guess what? After graduating Valedictorian of Syosset High School in 1999 (and, yes, I do mean valedictorian), she proceeded to study Psychology and Neuroscience in Harvard. She felt that she could use college to “explore what other careers I might be interested in,” and that she didn’t care if it ruined her career. “I’d rather be smart than a movie star,” she said.             Smart? Hello, Neuroscience? Duh. Check. Beautiful? That goes without saying. Check. Talented? She didn’t win an Oscar for nothing. Check. A caring, moral, passionate person who has her entire life ahead of her? Check. Natalie Portman is a true movie star and a true intellectual. This is the type of woman we want young girls to look up to. This is one child actress who isn’t going anywhere for a long time.     Reference: ·         IMDB. 2011. Natalie Portman - Biography. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000204/bio. [Accessed 29 May 11].

Natalie Portman_My Favorite Female Actress (Foreign)

Beauty, Brains, and Talent: A Lethal Combination Most child stars, unfortunately, fade to obscurity as they get older. The minute they...

People Resistance Change

People Resistance Change Introduction Business leaders often imposed power to their subordinates in order to have a socially responsible organisation. This effort usually changes not only the culture of the business organisation but also their overall business process. Over the past years people, business practices and the environment have evolved. Change is the only thing that is constant in this ever changing world. From the physical attributes of individuals, up to the environment, change is very evident. Just like the environment and people, businesses also undergoes changes, it can be either massive or minimal. Others practice the virtue of being socially responsible, while others are not. Often times, changes occur in the management of the corporation, in order to keep up with the competition. According to MacCalman & Paton (2000) the people who went home winners and on top have the common characteristics of effectively handling the changes in the situation. Changes in management is a process that any organisation must undergo, a business will not be complete if it never experienced change.   Discussions             Before we discussed change management, the word change must be first defined. According to Davidson (2001) “change is the significant difference in what was before.” In business it means accomplishing tasks in a new format, following new directions, acquiring new technologies, new management procedures, acquisitions and merging and other important events in corporations.             Organisations and people that resist changes will inevitably face wider exposure to risks and losses (Griffin, 1993). As illustrated in the book of Griffin (1993), there are a number of situations in which change is necessary within the organisation such as socially responsible activities that is being utilised by different companies in order to cope up with the competition. Aside from what was mentioned earlier, there are still many issues and concerns that are necessary for change in the organisation, however the most substantial thing is that organisations acknowledge that changes happen constantly for different reasons and the management must address these changes as soon as possible to prevent great losses.             Why an organisation does undergo changes? What are the factors and reasons for undertaking it? According to MacCalman & Parton the most influential factor in changes in organisations is the external environment which instigates reaction. Some of the examples given by MacCalman & Parton in the external environment that triggers changes in the organisation are: <ul style="margin-top: 0in; margin-bottom: 0in" type="disc"> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Changes in 	 	technology being utilised</li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Changes in the tastes and 	expectations of the 	 	consumers</li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Changes due to competition</li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Changes because of 	 	legislation by the government</li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Changes due to modifications 	in the 	 	economy whether locally or internationally</li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Changes in the 	 	communications media</li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Changes in the 	 	value systems of the society</li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Changes in the 	 	supply chain</li> 	<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> 	Changes in the 	 	distribution chain</li> </ul> The second factor that initiates change in the organisation is the internal changes which are the reactions of the organisation to the external changes. Aside from the responses there are also some factors that contribute to the internal changes, an example of this is a new marketing strategy for existing and new products with consideration to their stance of being socially responsible.             And finally, changes in organisation happen if they try to act in advance in order to deal with the expected risks and difficulty. An example is when an organisation anticipates the problems that may occur and creates and devises plans to combat and negate the impact of those problems. One of the keys for a successful organisation is a good manager with excellent leadership traits. Can you imagine an organisation, a company, or any other organisation succeeds without good governance? According to Kousez & Posner (2002), credibility is the foundation of a good manager. A manager should be credible for him to lead. In addition to this characteristic, a manager should possess honesty, competence, aspiration, and a forward-looking approach. Come to think of this, would you believe in managers who do not practice what they preach, do not walk the talk, do not do what they say they will do, and do not keep their promises? What would happen to the change process in a company if managers are lacking of skills? As part of the development of the competitive advantage of the business organisation with respect to leadership capabilities of managers, several factors should be considered. Social responsibility, use of power, change management and of course leadership among business industries should be given enough priorities. If a proper leadership style and used of power are used firms can have the edge it has to counter any threats, solve any problems, and achieve its goals. Use of power given by leaders gives a company critical edge to counter any threats from its competitors and its environment. Use of power given by leaders helps to compete in a global business environment. It steers the company into making right decisions and right practices with regards to competitors thus enabling it to survive in the global business environment. Actually, it gives a company critical edge to solve problems it has. Through effective use of power and social responsibility this solving problems can be easier for any company. Methods and preventive measures can be formulated towards problems the company has. Use of power given by leaders gives a company critical edge to achieve its goal. Companies use different things to reach the goals and objectives they have. Without this the goals cannot be easily reached. Furthermore, the use of power given by leaders gives the company direction on what should be done. It provides ideas on what approach will be used on certain situations. It also directs the company in doing the right things so that the company can reach its goals.   CONCLUSION As discussed, the knowledge of the underlying sources of competitive pressure highlights the critical areas where strategic changes may yield the greatest payoff, and highlights the areas where business industry trends promise to hold the greatest significance as either opportunities or threats. Understanding these sources will also prove to be useful in considering areas for diversification, though the primary focus is on strategy in the industry. With respect to the previous discussion and statement question, social responsibility alone is not only the essential thing to competitive advantage. Other factors such as change management, use of power and leadership also need enough consideration. Basically, change management is a process in which all companies undergo. This is an important procedure because it enables the organisation to make decisions that will be advantageous and beneficial to the company. In addition, organisations that are open to change are generally more successful compare to companies that resist it. On the other hand, corporate leadership in accordance to their of power focuses on the techniques and expertise of efficient organisation, planning, direction, and control of the operations of a business. In this ever changing global business environment a company must be competitive and do everything it can to counter any threat from its competitors. Having a good leader gives the company some edge in facing competition in the global business environment. Companies take part in strategic alliances to attain advantage over their competitors and for both companies to acquire benefits from each other. These strategic alliances won’t be successful if there is no leadership. Leadership gives many things to the company. It is an important aspect of a company. Although leadership can come from core intellectual assets practical application is also vital for the success of the company and for the company to be competitive in the global business environment.             In examining issues of social responsibility, we may argue that it is integral to any business’ success. We may also wonder how the economy would affect consumers’ feelings over time.  Most of the research literature came from an era of prosperity.  Consumers could afford to be discriminating. As economic times become more difficult, would consumers forsake social responsibility for price?  What does that say about the importance of social responsibility for the consumer?  We will have to wait and see as consumer confidence wanes during hard economic times.             Research evidence and professional commentary (e.g. Smith, Thompson & Kenner, 1991) tout the benefits of giving for the individuals in management.  While it is only natural that working outside of the corporate environment should help to hone leadership skills, the return on investment for the individual is not deeply addressed.  While volunteerism is a whole new business ethos than that of the profit world, the “warm fuzzies” that are created from community involvement should lead to a more well rounded and confident citizen whether in business or private life.             The business of business is business.  The good works of those who spend their daily lives in business or the professions are not inherently more noble than those made by men and women in other walks of life, but it is also evident that through community involvement, the business community distinguishes itself.  It gives the community unique qualities which define business.  Those in business are often tolerant of risk, embrace change, have the willingness to commit, know how to be accountable, and have the ability to persevere in the face of adversity.  They are able to form profitable partnerships that will benefit all involved including the community and can translate those business principles to the public sector to insure success i.e. success for the community and success for the business. REFERENCES: Davidson, J.P. 2001, The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Change Management, Alpha Books.   Griffin, R.W. 1993, Management (4th Ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.   Kouzes, JM & Posner BS 2002, The Leader Challenge, Second Edition. San Francisco, California: Jossey Bass Wiley.   MacCalman, J. & Parton, R. 2000. Change Management: A Guide to Effective Implementation, Sage Publications Inc.   Smith, H. L. & Thompson, JK 1991, Social responsibility and small business: Suggestions for research. Journal of Small Business Management. Vol. 29. No. 1

People Resistance Change

People Resistance Change Introduction Business leaders often imposed power to their subordinates in order to have a socially respon...