Land Allotment Strategy used with the Choctaw Indians and the Treaty Strategy applied to Cherokee Indians.
Prior to the discovery of Christopher Columbus of the Americas, there are already native settlers living in parts of the United States. The Native Americans more popularly known as American Indians are the Indigenous people that live in North America. Prior to the colonisation of Europeans in the lands of North America Native Americans are living peacefully in their own lands and homes. However during the 19th century, according to (2007) when the European settlers is expanding rapidly in the South of the United States, the Native Americans that is composed of what they called the five nations which are the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chicasaw and Seminole were regarded as impediments. In the notion of the European settlers these Indian nations, according to PBS, were hindrance to the progress. Due to the fact that these white Americans wanted the land of these Native Americans in order to plant and raise crops and animals, they forced the then government to create treaties so that they could obtain the land.
This paper examines the land-allotment strategy utilised by the white settlers with the Choctaw Indians and the Treaty strategy applied to the Cherokee Indians. Moreover, a comparison of these two treaties will also be given. In addition, the differences and similarities of the two strategies to the Indian lands. Finally, a discussion on the outcomes of each approach will also be given in this paper.
According to (2004) based on history the Choctaw Indians composed one of the largest, most prosperous, and well-organized Native American Groups in the South East of the United States. Moreover, discussed that the Choctaw Indians were farmers who added to their diet through fishing, gathering, and hunting, moreover, survival activities included the total community and created the base in which the social organisation relied.
Clearly, the Choctaw Indians were the most progressive tribes in the Southern part of the United States. According to (1997) at the turn of the nineteenth century the Choctaw Indians were still occupying their lands in the region of Mississippi, which is a favourable area for planting and producing cotton, and between the years 1801 and 1820 the Choctaw have given up almost half of their land to the white Americans and most of it is due to the determined efforts of then secretary John C. Calhoun. According to (2006) in the year 1820 the treaty of Doaks Stand was signed between the chieftains and the white Americans wherein the Choctaws exchange their prime cotton-producing lands which were approximately 4,150,000 acres for an uncertain land west of Mississippi. And in the year 1930, according to Chasteen the fate of the Indian Choctaws were sealed when Andrew Jackson made the Choctaws sign the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek wherein under this treaty the lands that were under the control of the nation of Choctaw which is around 10,421,139 acres would be exchanged for the same amount of land in their territory in which the Choctaws already owned under the Treaty of Doaks Stand.
According to (2002) Cherokee Indians are a group of Native Americans that live moistly in North Carolina and Oklahoma, and call themselves as ANI-Yun’wiya which means principal people, they also make up the second largest American Indian nation living in the United States. After the Choctaws were successfully removed from their lands in the Mississippi Valley, the then President Andrew Jackson started to take the lands of other Indian nations like the Creeks, Cherokees, and the Chicasaw.
According to , in order to avoid harassment from the white settlers the Cherokee Indians used legal means in order to safeguard their rights in their aboriginal land, and in 1827, the Cherokee have adopted a constitution which stated that they are a sovereign nation so that their lands could be protected from the white settlers who wanted them to cede their lands. However, the state of Georgia did not acknowledge the status of sovereignty of the Cherokee nation. But after just a year the Cherokee Indians appealed in the Supreme Court and this time the court favoured the Cherokees, and again the state of Georgia refused to adhere by the ruling of the court added to the fact that President Jackson have refused to enforce the ruling.
In addition, according to PBS after Jackson was sworn in the office as president he pushed the legislation called the Indian Removal Act in which it gave the power to negotiate the treaties with the tribes. According to (2007) in December 28, 1835 the Treaty of New Echota was signed, the terms under the agreement the United States will pay the Cherokee Indians $4.5 million, cover the costs of relocation and will give then a new land in exchange for their land in Georgia and Alabama, however the treaty was never signed by the Cherokee nation, therefore the Cherokee Indians did not recognize the validity of the agreement. John Ross, a chieftain of the Cherokee Nation drew a petition asking the Senate to void the Treaty of New Echota, but the petition was ignored and the Cherokees that did not comply with the treaty was forced to move to the west.
The Land-Allotment Strategy used with the Choctaw Indians has similarities with the Treaty Strategy and these are the lands that the Indians own will be exchanged by questionable lands in the west. Another similarity is that the government of the United States have created agreements wherein it discusses the exchange of lands. In addition, the Native Americans were removed from their aboriginal lands under the regime of President .
There are also differences between the Land-Allotment Strategy and Treaty Strategy and these are in the Land-Allotment Strategy the Choctaws exchanged their land for also the same amount of land, on the other hand, under the treaty strategy, Cherokee Indians will exchange their land with a new land in the west, relocation costs and $4.5 million. Another difference is that the Choctaws chieftains have signed the agreement, while the Cherokees did not.
The outcomes of the approach of the white settlers with the land of the Native American Indians are not good, with the Choctaws losing the sovereignty in their own lands and a number of lives were lost during the relocation of the Choctaw Nation such events include Choctaws that suffered under one of the worst blizzards during that time, contracting diseases such as cholera, and meeting up with a storm upon crossing the Lake Providence in Louisiana. In the case of the Cherokees about 16,000 of tem were forced to move and began their march known as the Trail of Tears wherein approximately 4000 Cherokee Indians died due to hunger, cold and diseases.
Relationships of the European Immigrants, Native Americans, African Slaves, Post-Bellum African Americans and Mexicans to the land throughout the nineteenth century
Immigration in the United States has been continuously happening ever since Christopher Columbus discovered it. After the discovery of the land in 1493, numerous white settlers from the European Continent have migrated to the United States. According to (1911) there are two general causes for immigration during the periods of 1820 to around 1875 and these are people that repelled the mother country and people that were attracted to the United States.
This paper examines the different relationships to the land experienced by the European Immigrants, Native Americans, African slaves, Post-Bellum African Americans and Mexicans which have contributed to the success of these various ethic groups during the 19th century in the United States of America.
Relationship of European Immigrants to the Land
According to (2006) during the 1750s up to 1830s the move of the British Government towards large scale scientific-farming have increased the output of the farmers however a number of them have became redundant which become one of the reasons why most of them immigrated to the United States, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Canada. In addition, after the 1830s the number of people migrating from Britain has increased drastically, especially people that had been hit by the agricultural depression in the counties of Britain. In the case of the Irish people they immigrated due to the Irish Famine wherein approximately 350,000 people died due to the outbreak of diseases and famine. German people, according to Spartacus immigrated to the United States due to the failed revolution in the year 1848. Just like the Germans most French that immigrated to the United States were political refugees from the failed revolution in 1848. The Europeans have various relationships with the land, in the case of British people, upon immigrating in the United States they stayed in the field of agriculture and settled in mill towns in Massachusetts. In the case of the Irish, due to the fact that most of people that immigrated were poor they settled close to the port wherein they get off from the ship. German’s on the other hand lived in the cities and owned schools, churches and bookstores by the year 1860, just like the Germans French people settled in cities such as Chicago, New Orleans and New York. The Europeans treated the land of the United States as their second home, and have lived and worked in areas wherein they are familiar. Therefore, European immigrants have successfully integrated in the American society at the same time contributing to the culture of the US.
Relationship of Native Americans to Land
The relationship of the Native Americans to the land is different from that of European, African, and Mexican settlers. According to (1997) many Native Americans have planted and used the land for many years, however compare to their European counterparts, the Native Americans will only utilise the land wherein they have asked permission to farm, have offered prayers to the gods, and performed ritual of thanks. Cousins discussed that the Native Americans view their lands as a living network rather than portions in which they could sell and purchase. In addition, Cousins discussed that one of the most extensive ideas of the Native Americans is the belief that the land is alive in which every form of land is the place of various spirits and these spirits are the ones that sanctifies the land. Due to the products that the land shares to the people, Native Americans believe that the people must give and offer thanks such as singing songs of gratitude, leaving offering, and praying. The Native Americans consider that the land has sacrificed a lot by giving humans what they need, and in order to show gratitude the humans must also sacrifice by leaving something that they regard as important. Another way in which the people can show gratitude is through respecting the land by not polluting, wasting the resources or drastically modifying the land. They believe that when human interferes with the landscape of the land it will have negative consequences especially in the ecosystem. Clearly, the Native Americans relationship with land is different from other people living in the United States, and for this reason the relationship has contributed to the success and preservation of the Native American Culture in the United States.
Relationship of African Slaves to the Land
In the United States slavery played a significant role in the economic development of the nation. The African Slaves were made to work in the lands of plantation owners wherein they plant and harvest the crops. Aside from working in the land the African Slaves also worked in construction and domestic jobs. In the early 1800s the importation of slaves to the United States was banned, and slavery in the Northern part of the United States was abolished, however on the Southern part of the US, slavery was still rampant. Due to the fact that slaves are bought and worked on manual labours, slaves cannot own a land. In severe instances some of the slaves were worked to death by the owners and because of that uprising occurred which resulted in murder, destruction of property and many more. The relationship of African Slaves to the land is different they viewed land not as a source of productivity but a source of slavery and maltreatment.
Relationship of Post-bellum African Americans to the Land
After the African Slaves were freed they were able to acquire rights such as owning a land. According to (1997) because of the involvement and experience of the black slaves with the task system in the agricultural production they were able to obtain property earlier and had more opportunities in the economy, they were also more efficient in developing their labour arrangements after the end of slavery. Therefore, a number of African-Americans became more effective in handling their own land after their emancipation from slavery.
Relationship of Mexicans to the Land
Mexicans account for one of the largest immigrants in the United States today. Mexicans are among the oldest immigrants in the United States, therefore a number of them have their own lands in the United States, as well as, Mexico. According to (2007) the land that is owned by a Mexican in the United States is viewed as a commodity because an average Mexican moves every four years, and owning a ranch in Mexico is a dream of most Mexicans in the United States rather than having a condominium or a town house in an urban area. It only shows that even though Mexicans immigrated and rise in the United States they are still deeply rooted with their traditions and culture. Therefore, their relationship with the land in the United States is different from their land in Mexico.
Factors that contribute to the Success of European Immigrants in Acquiring Wealth in the United States
United States of America is often referred as the nation of immigrants. Almost every individual currently residing in the United States is a descendant of an immigrant from another country. The turn of the 19th century have United States felt the surge of numerous immigrants from Europe and Africa. According to (2007) during the 19th century, the United States became the world’s first industrialised nation, which have attracted a number of immigrants from various parts of the world. Moreover, MSN Encarta discussed that most of the industrial workers during the 19th century were foreigners, and from the years 1865 to 1885, most of the immigrants that arrived to the United States came from European countries such as England, Germany, Ireland, and Scandinavia. These European immigrants arrived to the United States poverty-stricken and no money to start a good life in the US. However, they become successful in acquiring wealth in the United States.
This paper examines the factors that contributed to the success of the European Immigrants and their descendents in obtaining wealth and a higher social status than the indigenous people of the Unites States and immigrants outside Europe. In addition, it also discusses the exceptions of other European Immigrants and the reasons why they were not able to acquire the same status as others.
According to various historians, there is no specific reason why people emigrate from one country to another and different studies have tried to explain this phenomenon. During the 19th century, according to (2001) the early rise of immigration was due to the potato famine which affected the majority of Ireland and the North West Europe. In addition, according to (2007) most of the English people that immigrated to the United States were farmers that were affected by the agricultural depression, while the German and French immigrants left their home country because of the failed revolution of the people.
After the immigrants disembarked in the United States assimilating with the culture and surviving have been very difficult for most of them since, a number of European immigrants cannot speak and even understand English; moreover they do not have the money to live a comfortable life. But despite of these obstacles they managed to become wealthy. Apart from using African slaves to work in the fields, there are also other factors that contributed to their success. According to (2007) European immigrants’ responses were also contributory factors in their success in the United States, and these are:
Acculturation- not only the European immigrants, but all immigrants in the United States, as well believe that education and success in the financials and economic means of an individual was the key in becoming an America. They believe that being hard-working and having loyalty to the new country will win over the white Americans and will treat the immigrants equal. However, not all of the immigrants wanted to stay and live in the United States for long and the reason for going to the US was to earn money and then return to their home country, just like in the case of Italian migrants wherein the return rate was 60 per cent.
Institution-Building- For most of the immigrants may it be European, Hispanic or Asian their capability to acquire wealth in the United States was based on their capability to create composite organisations and strong communities such as union, churches and businesses. In creating their institutions the immigrants were able to assimilate in the American culture, at the same time, preserving their heritage and traditions. A big example is the Irish people, wherein they both use the assimilation and resistance to new cultures, the Irish immigrants was involved in institutions like unions, the politics, and the church. According to the University of Michigan the convergence of ethnic views and the American ambitions was very obvious in the urban politics of the United States wherein Irish leaders, as well as, other ethnicities utilised a mixture of ethnic beliefs and the longing to participate in the American politics. In addition, the key to the successful penetration of the European immigrants in the political strategies was due to their concentration within the ethnic ghettoes; moreover, unlike other immigrants the Europeans were eligible for naturalisation.
Ethic Niche Markets- the core in the strategy of European immigrants for having a successful life in the United States is the development of situations in which the Ethnic traditions would suit the American Economy. This strategy became the basis for European immigrants to save money, for their descendents which can be used to enter the business, politics, and life in America.
The European immigrants and their descendants were able to assimilate and obtain greater status and wealth in the United States because they are gifted with the following characteristics, according to the University Michigan:
- European heritage
- White Skin
- The capability and desire to assimilate with the American culture
- Good Fortune and the capability of taking advantage of the opportunities of the industrialisation.
- The decrease of new immigrants from the home country.
In the case of acquiring the wealth and status of European Immigrants, there is no particular group of immigrants that can be identified as having lesser status than the other, because it all depends on the person and the situation. Like in the case of the Irish people, upon disembarking from Europe most of them lived near the ports since they do not have enough money to purchase lands and relocate to rural areas in the United States, however there are also Irish people that became wealthy and acquired businesses in the United States. Just like the Irish, some of the English, German, and French people also obtained wealth and status, while some did not. In the case of the Italians, as mentioned earlier they did not assimilate and care much of the status because 60% of the immigrants went back to Italy, as soon as, they earned the money and the country became stable again. It is impossible to generalize a race and tell that they were not able to obtain high standards of living than the others, it all depends on the situation and the location an immigrant was in.
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