Research Korner

History of the Desegregation of American Schools

History of the Desegregation of American Schools   Social inequality and racial collectivism in America did not only misplace and isolated the black community geographically but also crippled them in different aspects of their society.  Such aspects are: economy, politics and culture. The geographic isolation of blacks undermines the power of pluralist politics and means that whites have less to gain when public funds and resources are channeled to all black areas and away from multiethnic communities. The isolation contributes to the disinvestment and decline in many urban black areas by making them vulnerable to cutbacks in public funds and services. White politicians are more apt to target black neighborhoods for spending cuts because of the minimal political fallout.   According to (1996), the story of international action against racial discrimination as of international action against many other evils, is that of the great effort to extend the rule of law. It is a highly political struggle, because it is about cajoling states to give up a little of their sovereignty. They are uncertain to do this unless they can get something in exchange. By complying with a convention they may be able to contribute to a cause they think important, to improve their image in the diplomatic world, or to put pressure on some other state of whose policies they disapprove.   The African American culture has been of great interest to a large number of studies. This is due to the unique and fascinating character and personality of its people. African Americans have a history and life experience that they alone fully understand. The civilization they experienced and the current social and economic pressures they endure are largely different from the more popular and highly researched lives of the Caucasians and Asians. As a race, these people have suffered greatly in the long story of their existence, and until these days, it is still evident in the low treatment of the racist and narrow-minded groups of people that, for some people, is inevitable in the global community that is now shared all over the world. This is evident in the calls that concerned individuals and private institutions, foundations and sectors that address anti-racism and anti-discrimination in the national and international setting. Such social stigma related to skin color is doubled by the discrimination felt by the African American gays and lesbians in their community and in the workplace. In effect, it is highly relevant that the roots of the nature of gender orientation be given light to others to fully understand and empathize with African American homosexuals.   The segregation and discrimination of the black urban community is the result of politics and economy in the mainstream history of the United States. It is also a given fact that the black community is in the side stream of America’s history. From 1450 -1750, the North American continent experienced enormous changes. The European explorers ventured to what they called then as the “New World” in search of vast amounts of natural wealth.  Corollary to these exploratory activities, these European explorers also traveled to Africa and began a trans-Atlantic slave trade.  Millions of Africans were brought to the Americas and traded there as slaves. This mass movement of people led to a new social and economic system; with the color of the skin as a determining factor whether one would live as a slave or as a free citizen. By 1750, both the free and enslaved black people showed an intense attachment to America. After 1750, many African-Americans already found their freedom. In 1830, Philadelphia held the first meeting of the American Society of Free Persons of Color (later became the National Negro Convention). This organization for the black people was created to establish a black community and seek true freedom ( 1998).            America is a country that places great values to education as an important characteristic in sustaining the democracy maintained and uphold by the Constitution.  The significance of education has long been hailed through the innovations in science and technology pioneered in the United States in the goal to provide the best kind of learning experience to the young members of the population. The support of the government and private sectors and organizations in promoting and upholding the right to education of every student has long been the driving and mechanical force in putting children in schools for them to avail the needs to be educated.  The United States in particular has been known to uphold freedom and equality in experiencing the good life.  The individualist cultural orientation of the country made the people of America to place importance in the concept of independence in the effort and time dedicated in advocating the relevance of individual choice and freedom.   And the application of such concepts in the everyday life importantly covers the aspect of education.   The problem it seems, with the educational system is that it has been too complacent or too comfortable to address the issues of institutionalized racism. The academe has taken refuge in its insistence that racism could not exist in an academic institute because of the ideals that the institute claim to uphold. In the University, no student or employee shall, on the basis of their race, color, or national origin be disqualified or excluded from participation in, be denied or deprived of the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any University program or activity. University programs and activities include, but are not limited to, admissions, recruitment, financial aid, academic programs, student treatment and services, counseling and guidance, discipline, classroom assignment, grading, recreation, physical education, athletics and employment (Campus Conduct). Most of the time, discrimination is associated with the act of making a disparity, as in favor of or against a person or thing. It is a form of behavior that shows prejudice, but not only the form. It is the failure to treat people in the same way. In most cases, discrimination exists because there is no acceptance and respect. It has also been influenced by traditions and cultures.   The rise of civil rights movement in America since 1940 brings a significant change in the life of the African-American people. Two of the primary goals of the modern civil rights movement are to push for educational change and to improve the educational situation of African-Americans. However, the reforms demanded by the movement were not well received by the majority of school personnel and researchers (1991). Many years of bloody revolutions and social uprisings took place before American schools; lunch counters and worksites were desegregated. President  issued an executive order in 1961 offering opportunities to the African-American community as compensation for years of discrimination. By the late 1960s, President  instructed companies working on federal projects to attain minority-hiring objectives. On the other hand, President , taking side against the Michigan in the Supreme Court case, said that he strongly supported diversity of all kinds including racial diversity in higher education ( 2003).               In 1965, there were only few African-American students who chose to enroll at the previously all-white schools of Cave Street Elementary for grades one to six and Deshler High School for grades seven to twelve in Alabama. In Deshler, one’s race interfered with one’s right to have a decent education.  Maria, an African American student, recounted some incidents that demonstrated her perceptions of hostility about the educational atmosphere in Deshler (2000).  By the 1970s, African-Americans have shown intense interest in pursuing their educational goals. In 1992, 52 percent of them planned to proceed directly to a four-year course after high school graduation as compared to 32 percent in 1972.  Also, there was an increase on the percentage of African-Americans to enter academic programs at two-year colleges. During the 1980s and 1990s, the number of bachelor degrees given to African-Americans increased noticeably. In spite of these gains however, their number was still lesser compared to the number of white Americans and Asian-Americans who wanted to enroll in college after high school. The U.S. Census Bureau in 2000 revealed a lesser percentage of African-Americans who received bachelor’s degree in their 20s and 30s. This statistic is smaller than the percentage for all racial and ethnic groups in America, taken together. This discrepancy caught the attention of the political leaders in the United States that is why they wanted to increase the participation of African-Americans in higher education, as one of the country’s educational objectives ( 2002).               According to the report made by the National Assessment of Educational Progress last 2000, the standardized test scores of average African-American and Hispanic students are lower, as compared to the scores of white students at comparable grade levels. The U.S. Department of Education concluded after its examination on 27 school reform models, that most of the reform models failed to make significant improvements. In January 2002, President , signed the No Child Left behind Act into law. This new education reform bill was designed basically to close the achievement gap between white upper-and middle-class public school students and poor children and children of color (2003). According to, U.S. Secretary of Education, he optimistically said before the National Press Club that every day our service to our children becomes better and each day we come one step closer to the future of excellence and inclusion, discarding the deficiencies and rectifying longstanding problems (2004).                (1996) authored a book that deals with racism in schools, its effects on the academic performance, interpersonal relationships as well as the general outlook on life of African American students as well as other students of ‘color’. He pointed out how most academic institutions, in their confidence that racism has no place in such an idealistic institution often forget that some of their actions and behavior actually have racist implications. Accordingly, racism shows itself repeatedly in classrooms owing to the ignorance of individual teachers as well as administrators through institutionalized racism. The article entitled “A Pernicious Silence: Confronting Race in the Elementary Classroom” by Lillian Polite and Elizabeth Baird Saenger talks about creating classroom communities which are supposed to be, constructive, developmentally appropriate communities of learning that are necessary for solid learning to happen. There is an emphasis on everyone’s need to feel comfortable in order to take risks, and learning that is built on risk-taking. The problem is that teachers may also unwittingly create communities of silence ( 2003).    The provision of appropriate educational needs for children with special disabilities has long been a common issue in education. Arguments and debates have been raised in line with the right policies on how to educate children with special educational needs (SEN). According to  (1997), children with disabilities are traditionally educated in segregated classrooms, specifically designed to cater the students’ certain incapacities. Educators find this segregation system beneficial, as they are able to apply curriculum formulated specifically for special children. Likewise, children with disabilities benefit from this system not only because of the appropriate curriculum but the thought of attending classes with classmates of the same disabilities enhance their confidence or self-esteem as well. Furthermore, being segregated assures the security and sufficient support the special children needs. While social skill development may vary based from numerous results of previous studies, inclusion is capable of enhancing children’s academic achievement through speech and language programs, improved parent–teacher communication, greater use of group work, a student participation in class discussions, and increased community acceptance of people with disabilities. Furthermore, several educators have argued that exposing children into ordinary education settings will be the most effective means of equipping children into better self-supportive adults in the future.   There are concepts of schools as ideological state apparatuses, and of cultural capital, used to analyze curriculum knowledge that has been selected, and cultural behaviors privileged and rewarded through both the formal and the hidden curricula. There are also identified mixture of gains and losses created by the National Curriculum in terms of educational equality regarding 'race', gender, special needs, sexual diversity and social class. The general principle is that policies are being directed toward school populations which are differentially recognized for educational purposes and for whom higher levels and different modes of financing are required. A whole range of school populations, however they are delineated by country authorities, according to various social, cultural, linguistic, racial, ethnic, geographic, physical and mental characteristics, are the subjects of special educational attention. A new comparative study could usefully follow the precedent established in the present report to examine the general principles in this field in which policy is related to finance (1979).   For the positive aspects in integration, it is included that the additional resources should now be available for all students. Although the validity of normalization as a basis for integration was questioned from the start, the concept played a significant role on pressures towards integration, and continues to do so. Critics claimed that normalization did not recognize the fact that the society includes a wide range of individual differences. Moreover, it did not adequately recognize the diversity of educational, vocational and other opportunities that are available to people in the adult world. For the advocates of integration, however, the right to education meant the right of students with disabilities to receive an education mean. These are speech and language programs, improved parent–teacher communication, greater use of group work, a student participation in class discussions, and increased community acceptance of people with disabilities. Students at mainstream schools were more likely to have higher academic achievements than those at special schools, even when developmental level was similar. Against these benefits, inclusion also brought its share of challenges. Although the concept of inclusion may have its own set of drawbacks, such disadvantages can be resolved primarily through effective training of educators.   Human development is crucial. It was said that no country can secure sustainable economic growth or reduce poverty without healthy, well-nourished, and well-educated people. The love for learning is so great that it should be associated with a way of life. Education helps people to be more objective in their approach to life’s problems, more analytical in trying to understand them and more aware of the consequences that can arise when handling them. Education can help lead a fuller and richer life and to be more conscious of the economic and social environment.   Annotated Bibliography:  (1996). International Action against Racial Discrimination However, in democratic countries people are accustomed to seeing their governments criticized daily in many of the morning newspapers, but when a foreign official criticizes the same government, reactions are different. People would ask whether conditions in the foreigner's country are such that he or she is entitled to complain. Diplomats, in particular, are trained to defend their countries' honor. They are always on the look-out for fear that the rules of international relations are applied unfairly to their countries' disadvantage (1996).    Campus Conduct (n.d.). Race, Color or National Origin Discrimination. 20 Dec 04 Individuals are being treated unequally due to the influenced of some strong factors like religion, sex, national origin, sexual orientation, and even disability. Efforts towards establishing an earnest multicultural institute are being made however to address and handle this problem and it begins with initiating a self examination on one’s awareness in detecting racist forms of behaviors and attitudes. Common solutions propose to break the silence by gaining enough courage to talk it through with the kids in order to gain a better understanding of themselves as well as growing in a culturally diverse environment (Campus Conduct).    (1979). A study of British Policy and the Political Impasse in India Through contacts with the parents much has been learned by the teachers about the children, which has, in many cases, enabled them to solve problems and unexplained difficulties which they had encountered. But a great deal remains to be done. The policy is to be implemented thoroughly and completely. There are crucial areas where policy has failed to effect change in the past and where it can succeed in the future, particularly in relation to equality. Policies legitimate certain concerns, provide resources to further them, and provide a basis for evaluation and refinement ( 1979).   (1997) Mainstream or Special? Educating Students with Disabilities   These argument concerned academic achievement, the detrimental effects of labeling associated with placement outside the mainstream, the racial imbalance in special education, and recent advances in individually paced curricula which would make it possible to accommodate students with disabilities in the regular class. Most importantly, it was argued by educators that these centers are the best way of preparing students with disabilities for ultimate integration into the community as self-support adult (1997).    (1996) Through Students' Eyes: Combating Racism in United States Schools. In both urban and suburban schools, students of color experience inequality by being given a smaller amount of instructional time biased texts and curricula, harsh sanctions (suspension and detention), lowered teacher expectations, and teacher/administrator and school denial of racist actions. White students who lack sufficient understanding of racism on the other hand often accuse the victims of using their ethnicity or race as a crutch in order to get special treatment due to their laziness to do things on their own initiative. As a result, some potentially brilliant student of color represses his skills and talent out of fear of being bullied and a resentment of not being taken seriously ( 1996).    (2000). Creating Caring and Nurturing Environments for African American Children.   During that time, African-American students were treated unfairly and unjustly by some teachers and white students (2000).   . (2003). Race matters: this year, the Supreme Court could dismantle affirmative action. Would it be ending an unfair practice or hurting the cause of racial equality?.   This affirmative action does not only help the minorities who have been subject for discrimination for so many years but also improved the educational experience of everyone in the university. One student from a university in Michigan said that she is proud for having friends who are black (2003).        (2003). Pernicious Silence: Confronting Race in the Elementary Classroom   The article states that when teachers avoid the subject, and pretend that it doesn't exist as an issue, or when the issue is treated lightly, they are sending a very strong message which may be unintentional but it produces stifling results. However, when teachers find ways to address the issues surrounding race in society it has been found that children feel liberated. They begin to be more open about their questions and there is more space for them to focus on all kinds of learning (2003).   The Terrible Transformation, Revolution, Brotherly Love and Judgment Day (1998)   Many societies were founded by the blacks. The black community in Philadelphia created schools for their children because they were denied access to public schools. However, the conflict between the blacks and the whites worsened which led to the Civil War in 1861. After four years, African Americans were promised of rights of citizenship and slavery was abolished (WGBH Educational Foundation, 1998).   . (2003). Predicting African American Parents’ and Guardians’ Satisfaction with Teachers and Public Schools.   The law requires every classroom to have a highly competitive teacher likewise; the states are required to measure the students’ performance regularly. Recent reports show that the law is working well and the strategies are very effective ( 2003).    (2002). African Americans’ Educational Expectations: Longitudinal Causal Models for Women and Men.   Aside from being a political and social issue, this issue is also economic. The economic success of young people also relies on their achievement of an academic degree (2002).    U.S. Secretary of Education Rod Paige Delivers Remarks at the National Press Club (2004).   There are various opportunities offered to African-American students. The African American Cultural Program (AACP) offers experiences beyond academic pursuits. It provides training in the areas of news casting, promotions and public affairs. The Central Black Student Union (CBSU) extends help in planning and sponsoring social, educational and cultural programs for students through early events like “Cotton Club” (2004).   (1991). The Education of African American   One important milestone in the African-American education was the landmark case of Brown versus the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954, in which the Supreme Court unanimously overruled the “separate but equal” doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson, holding for the first time that the de jure segregation in the public school clearly violated the principle of equal protection under the law guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution. The decision was then applied to mainly southern school systems ( 1991)

History of the Desegregation of American Schools

History of the Desegregation of American Schools Social inequality and racial collectivism in America did not only misplace and iso...

Generic strategies

Introduction This essay provides a rundown on the basic application of generic strategies in two organizations that are in different industrial sectors.  In lieu to this essay, the chosen two organizations are both multinational companies and are manufacturer of goods that is primarily driven by the companies’ respective expertise on modern innovations.  The two organizations being chosen has proved their mark in the business, thus exploring on their current generic strategies is interesting.  Nike and Honda motors, are in the shoe industry and in automotive industry pertaining to the latter. Further, since both are not domestic organizations, accessibility to primary data are barely unachievable though the supporting data can still purport to the critical analysis that is to be made by the two organizations.  To begin with, an overview of the nature of generic strategies would be of help to better understand the whole context and useful in the formulation of critical analysis for the current generic strategies being employed by Nike and Honda.  Generic strategies was formulated by Michael Porter that has considered a category scheme consisting of three typed of strategies being employed by businnesses.  These are the level of differentiation, relative product cost, and scope of target market.  Further, these three generic strategies are defined along two dimensions namely strategic scope and strategic strength.  By strategic scope connotes the demand-side which focuses on the marketplace factors and the strategic strength on the other hand, connotes the supply-side in which it focuses internal environment of the company that would serve as the company’s competitive advantage.  However in the year 1980 in his classic book Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitor (Porter 1980), he altered the category scheme into cost leadership, differentiaton and market segment or also known as the focus segment.  To simplify the three revised and simplified generic strategies category scheme for business, an illustration of the Porter’s generic strategies will be shown in the diagram below: Cost leadership strategy place emphasis on efficiency through the production of high volumes and standardized products in order to take advantage the scale of economies and the curve effects being experienced.  Researches about the impact of profit on the market share indicated that firms with high market share were often profitable and so does with low market share, but for the firms with moderate market shares are the ones that is likely to be least profitable.  Porter (1980) explains, high market shares were successful because they pursued a cost leadership strategy and firms with low market share were successful because they used market segmentation to focus on a small but profitable market niche.  The association of distribution strategy, on one hand, is in the acquisition distribution channels that is extensive, whereas, the promotional strategy, on the other hand, engages in the virtue from the low cost features of the products.  Several benefits can be reaped off from the successful implementation of the cost leadership strategies.  Among the several benefits that it can bring are the processing of engineering skills, the design of the products that provides easeness in the manufacturing process, sustainable accessibility to capital that is inexpensive, supervision of labour can closely be supervised, tightened control of the cose and the incentives based on quantitative targets. The second named generic strategy comes in the form of differentiation that pertains the creation of the product that is innovative.  The innovativeness of the products that will be created would mean that there is a tendency of reduction in the price elasticity of demand and customers are likely to be brand loyal due to the fact that customers’ in any sense is willng to spend more provided that they get a good deal of the products and that customer’s are getting back their money’s worth.  The last generic strategy to be previewed is the segmentation strategy wherein target markets are being filtered to come up with a selected and specialized markets.  Therefore, tailoring the marketing mix to these specialized market enables company to cater the needs of the selected target market which in turn can gain competitive advantage such that the demands of the target market are being meet. Despite of the great contribution Porter has made, criticisms rose and challenges the use of generic strategies claiming they lack specificity, lack flexibility, and are limiting. For the critics, the application of generic strategies is like trying to get everything be perfectly fit into a peg but the bottom line is that generic strategies would not be a perfect fit.  Michael Treacy and Fred Wiersema (1993) have modified Porter's three strategies to describe three basic "value disciplines" that can create customer value and provide a competitive advantage. They are operational excellence, product innovation, and customer intimacy.  Main Part HONDA The redefinition of motor-cycle market in the United States is a classic case in corporate strategy.  The penetration of Honda in the United States market was being marketed under the slogan “You meet the nicest people on a Honda”.  Honda’s strategies succeeded because the strategy was an archetype of Japanese penetration on the Western Market (e.g. like that of Shiseido).  According to Boston Consulting Group (1975), the aggressive pursuit of domestic volume has established a low-cost in the expansion overseas.  On the contrary, Pascale (1984) asserted from his interview to Mr. Honda that “Mr Honda was especially confident of the 250 cc and 350 cc machines. The shape of the handlebar on these larger machines looked like the eyebrows of Buddha, which he felt was a strong selling point.”  Currently, the continuing commitment of Honda to make innovative automobile that not only provides consumers with reliable cars but also the manufacturing of automobiles that cuts the cost of fuel consumption by enhancing fuel efficiency.   Strategic scope and strategic strength               Honda as being in an automobile manufacturing industry markets to the people especially into the world’s major busy cities where buying an automobile is almost a must to keep going and stay away from the fuzz of commuting in the morning rush and in the late afternoon traffic. At Honda even though they are not the number one in automobile industry, they provide means in which to give people an alternative by introducing cars that is fuel-efficient in response to the unpredictable rise of fuel consumption.    The heart of Honda’s strategic strength is the capabilities to produce innovative yet simple, low-cost products.  Honda’s competitive advantage over the rest of automotive manufacturers is not the flashy design of automobiles but lies in the strategic differentiation strategy being employed by Honda especially in the quest of developing new innovative means to enhance fuel efficiency without the extra cost.     Cost leadership strategy   Honda as being founded by Japanese, the value for diversity is prevalent.  Mirrored from the core of Honda’s philosophy is the principle or respect for the individual with attached components of trust, initiative and equality that guides Honda in all of its business operations.  Accordingly, Soichiro Honda says, "Action without philosophy is a lethal weapon; philosophy without action is worthless."  Evidence from case studies also supports the view that firms of different national origins will tend to pursue different competitive strategies (Hamel and Prahalad 1985; Hout, Porter and Rudden 1982). This may reflect different organizational cultures (Hofstede 1980; Haire, Ghiselli and Porter 1966), or alternatively, the formulation of competitive strategy in response to environmental conditions in the domestic market, which are then carried over to foreign markets.  In Honda the recognition of the need to embrace diversity as having a diverse workforce, diverse dealer body and diverse team of suppliers proves to be as one of their competitive advantage.  In the dealer aspect, Honda continues to enhance the number of minority-owned dealers via the dealer development programs.  Even though minority-owned dealers are considered to be a small time dealings, but in Honda they believe in the power of small time dealings making it big in the future that might as well spells profitability to Honda.  In line to the enhancing of the number of minority-owned dealers, Honda establishes the American Honda Dealer Investment program aims in lowering financial barriers for qualified dealer candidates.   Differentiation strategy The differentiation strategy is not at all easy to maintain since the expenditure of huge amount of money and resources should be pulled together to make the differentiation strategy to be effective.  Among the factors that constributes to the effectiveness of differentiation strategy are design, brand image, reputation, technology, product features, networks and differentiated customer service that can barely be imitated. At Honda they are very particular in inventing automobiles that is not harmful to the environment as part of their goal in making environmentally friendly products and Honda is being characterized by its simplicity that is evident as the brand image Honda wanted to project in the market.  Several milestones and recognition has been awarded to Honda in terms of the organization’s promotion of protecting the environment.  To name a few recognition that Honda received as being environment friendly are, the introduction of the first car to pass the emissions requirement of the Clean Air Act without a catalyst (CVCC Civic model), development of the first fuel cell electric vehicle in the world, the first gasoline-powered car sold in California to meet the Super-Ultra-Low Emission Vehicle standard, Named the cleanest internal-combustion vehicle on earth by the EPA, the development of a the car Civic GX that runs entirely on natural gas so it is therefore pollution free vehicle, and the certification from the international environment management standards (ISO 14001) to all major Honda plants worldwide.             The mandate by Mr. Honda “Do Not Imitate" is a challenge being given especially to the Resource and Development to constantly challenge themselves in seeking out for new initiatives and to remain as front runners in innovation.  In 2001, Tochigi R&D center was opened as the world’s first indoor all-weather facility.  Consequently in 2003, an Automotive Safety Research Facility featuring seven advanced safety testing laboratories.  Proving to the world of the commitment of Honda to quest for innovations that is a strong and valuable competitive advantage they have engulf in the organization.   Segmentation strategy Honda’s realization of the full use of segmentation and involved the creation of a distinctive distribution network and the differentiated products and services Honda has been offering.  The target market of Honda is the mass-market model such that they can exhibit its greatest impact on clean air and fuel economy.  The Power of Dreams embodied by Honda envisions the development of vehicles for the future while improving the existing technologies.  The introduction of continued advancement of internal combustion engine technology and new generation of gasoline engines would provide the world with extremely low emission levels and increased fuel efficiency. Conclusion The focus of Honda is in the generic strategies of differentiation and cost leadership strategies.  With great emphasis on the differentiation strategy, has equipped Honda strong points in what the future has yet to unfold.  The anticipation of the future will enable them to be very potentially potent to be emerging as the number one automotive choice in the world since their continuing efforts in innovating cars that is fuel efficient yet environment friendly.  Despite in the argument of Porter (1980) saying that cost leadership and differentiation are such fundamentally contradictory strategies, requiring such different sets of resources, that any firm attempting to combine them would wind up "stuck-in-the-middle" and fail to enjoy superior performance.  However, in support of the generic strategies being employed in Honda, Hill (1988) argued that sustainable competitive advantage rests on the successful combination of these two strategies.      NIKE   Who in the world did not hear anything about Nike?  Nike as a very prominent brand in the shoe industry with a check mark as its trademark had started its operation 33 years ago that is founded by Bill Bowerman, the legendary University of Oregon track & field coach, and Phil Knight, a University of Oregon business student and middle-distance runner under Bowerman.  Nike caters primarily to the athletes worldwide whose mission has always been to provide a competitive edge, to help athletes perform better climbing the inside the athletic mind, feeling every beat of the athletic heart, flexes, bends, twist and torque every inch of athletic sinew and muscle. It's not easy, but it's natural for us. We're athletes. From the mission statement of Nike, the enduring commitment to athletes entails a mission to bring inspiration and innovation to every athlete in the world.  Similarly Bowerman quoted “if you have a body, you are an athlete.  Moreover, Nike’s total revenue for fiscal year 2005 reported an amount of $13.7 billion as their net revenue, a 12 percent increase from the fiscal year 2004.   Strategic scope and strategic strength               The strategic scope of Nike is to cater to every athlete and the aspiring athletes all over the world that will be characterized by innovative features from the shoes, to apparels and gears.  The market of Nike is very much diverse in nature yet the market is particularly promising such as the market is not only limited to athlete but the people from all walks of life who does exercise or just have fun in playing.               The strategic strength of Nike is in the innovation they have been creating for the people especially for the athletes who wants something new to show off and sports enthusiast who have a fetish for wearing unbelievably innovated shoes.  Like for example, the product Nike Shox who has a distinct feature that is capable of shock absorption.   Cost leadership strategy             Nike as being the number one footwear brand works with the top suppliers.  An issue that circulates in the contract factories of Nike has been pervasive and needs to look into. The disclosure of the contract manufacturing base opens for the prospect to a deeper level of collaboration with Nike’s stakeholders as a response to the working conditions in manufacturing industry and for the reason for the said disclosure is to enable brands sharing of information regarding about compliance performance and duplication efforts would be minimal.  Nike believed that the creation of mechanisms that enable corporate responsibility, in which Nike has been struggling, is when the forces of market enable corporate responsibility to occur in a widespread context.  In the corporate responsibility report (2005), Nike’s inability to gauge progress in the organizations goals necessitates them to established plans setting targets as key objectives for Nike team to pursue for this year (2006)     Differentiation strategy   Nike relies more on the differentiation strategy and presumably it is the strategy where they excel.  Versatility as the strength of Nike goes beyond its basic function of impact protection such that Nike can shape and tuned to cater the demands of athletes in a detailed manner.  Needless, to say Nike’s footwear are being customized to meet the standards of the athletes and the people in general.  Aside from the innovative features of their footwear, Nike’s apparel has had a share in the invention of innovative designs and high performance fabrics they have been using to produce their apparel products.  The FIT technologies regulates the management of temperature conditions and moisture to help athletes train and compete in any sort of conditions without affecting athlete’s performance.  Three FIT technologies are being used in Nike, the dri-fit, thermal fit and Nike sphere thermal.               Behind every innovative invention are the brilliance of the man and woman in the research and development combined with state-of-the-art research facilities.  In Nike, researchers are being subdivided accordingly to its field of expertise: these are the biomechanics, the study of human movement and related forces; the physiology, study of the integration of body’s energy system and responses to environmental stresses; and sensory/perception, the evaluation of subjective product attributes.  All of the specialized fields take into account the possible sources of confounding factors such as gender, skill level, geography and age.  Given these considerations before taking into account the dynamics of invention, Nike has been considered the master of innovation in shoe industry.  It is amazing to note that the careful and meticulous attention to details enables Nike to produce innovative features in their products that sometimes just gets people in awe as to how they are able to come up with such products especially to athletes.     Segmentation strategy               Nike has penetrated the market and was able to focus on the different facets of footwear.  In every stores and boutique, every Nike products are being sort out in the shelves according to it’s shall I say, function.  For example, the labeling of the shoes as being for basketball, tennis, cross-training or running, that enables customers to know exactly what they are looking for.  In the segmentation strategy, they have been very specific to their target market, whether for boys, girls, children, men and women.    Conclusion Nike’s total sales in the United States for the fiscal year 2004, accounted for 23 percent of total sales, whereas the non-U.S total sales accounted for approximately 13 percent, meaning, Nike may have done well in the United States market since Nike is from the United States and American people are fanatic with sports and has a high purchasing power.  Or perhaps, the reason lies in the defect in the cost leadership strategy which may have had affected Nike in terms of sale.  Price is out of contention in this matter, according to Lynch and Ariely (2000) found that price might be ignored as long as the product-customer fit is enhanced. U.S. firms have been found to place greater emphasis on product quality, and less on new product development, promotional expenditure or pricing in overseas markets (Craig, Douglas and Reddy 1987; Douglas and Craig 1983; Scheeweis 1983).   The reputation of Nike in the market is unquestionable.  Nike’s dominant generic strategy is in the differentiation strategy wherein the other two generic strategies may not be a prioritized strategy for Nike.  In support if Nike in the use of only one generic strategy, an experiment by Dess and Davis (1984) found that firms employing only one of Porter's generic strategies outperformed firms pursuing elements of more than one strategy       REFERENCES:   Craig, S., Douglas, S. and Reddy, S. (1987). Market structure, performance and strategy.  In Cavusgil, S. (ed.) Advances in international marketing. JAI Press. Douglas, S. (1989) ‘Examining Generic Competitive Strategy Types in U.S. and European Markets’, Journal of International Business Studies, 20, 3, 437+.   Douglas, S. and Craig, S. (1983) ‘Examining performance of U.S. multinationals in foreign markets. Journal of International Business Studies, 51-62.   Douglas, S. and Rhee, D. (1989) ‘Examining Generic Competitive Strategy Types in U.S. and European Markets’, Journal of International Business Studies, 20, 3, 437+.   Haire, M., Ghiselli, E.E and Porter, L.W (1966). Managerial thinking: An international study. New York: Wiley.   Hamel, G. and Prahalad, C.K (1985). Do you really have a global strategy? Harvard Business Review, July-August: 139-44.   Hill, C. W. L. (1988). Differentiation versus low cost or differentiation and low cost: A contingency framework. Academy of Management Journal, 13, 3, 401-412.   Hoffman, R. (1994) ‘Generic Strategies for Subsidiaries of Multinational Corporations’, Journal of Managerial Issues, 6, 1, 69+.   Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills/London: Sage Publications. Honda (2006).  Environment, from http://corporate.honda.com/environment/index.aspx, Date accessed 29/04/2006 Honda (2006).  Honda’s Diversity, from http://corporate.honda.com/america/diversity.aspx?id=diversity_overview, Date accessed 29/04/2006 Hout, T., Porter, M. and Rudden, E. (1982). How global companies win out. Harvard Business Review, September-October: 98-108. Kay, J. (1995) Foundations of Corporate Success: How Business Strategies Add Value. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kim, E. and Il Nam, D. (2004) ‘Testing the Applicability of Porter's Generic Strategies in the Digital Age: A Study of Korean Cyber Malls’, Journal of Business Strategies,  21, 1, 19+. Lynch, J. G. & Ariely, D. (2000) ‘Wine online: Search cost and competition on price, quality, and distribution’, Marketing Science, 19, 1, 83-103. Nike.com form http://www.nike.com.  Date accessed 28/04/2006 Nike (2005) Corporate responsibility report, from http://www.nike.com/nikebiz/gc/r/fy04/docs/company_profile.pdf, date accessed 28/04/206   Pascale R. T. (1984) ‘Perspectives on strategy: The real story behind Honda's success', California Management Review, 26/3: 47-72.   Porter, M. (1980). Competitive strategy: Techniques for analyzing industries and competitors. New York: Free Press.   Scheeweis, T. (1983) ‘Determinants of profitability: An international perspective’, Management International Review, 23(2): 15-21.

Generic strategies

Introduction This essay provides a rundown on the basic application of generic strategies in two organizations that are in different in...

Ryanairs' financial objectives

RYANAIR CASE STUDY ANALYSIS   Introduction             Each organization has been affected by factors that affect the entire performance. In this regards, different companies are trying to establish organizational objectives that would cater to the growth and development of the company. Primarily, the goal of this paper is to analyze an industry in terms of its financial and non-financial objectives and analyze how these objectives conflict or compliment with each other.   Overview of the Company             One of the most recognized airline industry is Ryanair. Accordingly, the company started in year 1985 having only 57 staff members and with one 15 seater turboprop plane carrying passengers from the south of east of Ireland to London-Gatwick and carried 5000 travellers on a certain route (2002). The company continuously grows because of the determination of the management to gain competitive position in the marketplace. Accordingly, Ryanair has been able to have some financial and non-financial objectives. For instance the financial objectives of Ryanair is to achieve revenue growth annually, increase earnings by 15% per year, increase dividends per share by 5% annually, increase net profit margins, stronger bond and credit rating,  more diversified revenue based and to have stable earnings for the future. On the other hand, non-financial objectives include the aim of having bigger market share, better customer service than their rival companies, stronger business image, and reputation with clients than rivals, to be recognised as a leader among airline industries, to be able to compete in the global market and to have stable competitive advantage. In order to achieve, this Ryanair has been able to implement different marketing approach to make the airline industry survive in the stiff competition and to be able to gain competitive advantage in this sector.  It can be mentioned that the company was noted to be the most punctual airline to travel from Dublin to London.   And because of their approach the company has been able to be known as the second largest airline in UK and the largest low-fares airline in the entire Europe. The following table shows the comparison financial and non financial objectives of Ryanair. Table 1  Comparison of Financial and Non-Financial Objectives Financial Objectives Non-Financial Objectives Stakeholders Financial Objectives Stakeholders Non-Financial Objectives Achieve revenue growth annually stronger business image and reputation with clients than rivals Consumer, Management Shareholders Management, staff and employees Have stable earnings for the future. better customer service than their rival companies Consumer, Management   Management, staff and employees More diversified revenue To be recognised as a leader among airline industries Marketing management Consumer Management, staff and employees   The table above shows the comparison of the financial and non-financial objectives of Ryanair. Herein, it shows that the three financial objectives includes the achievement of revenue growth annually, having a stable earnings for the future and more diversified revenue and the non financial objectives includes the stronger business image and reputation with clients than rivals, better customer service than the rival companies and to become a leader among airline industries. Based on the comparison table it shows that the stakeholders of financial objectives include consumer, management, marketing management and other shareholders. In this regards, it can be said that in order for Ryanair to achieve their financial objectives, the management should be held responsible for any business operations and the consumer will be the one to help them achieve such objectives. On one hand, in terms of non-financial objectives, the stakeholders involved includes the management, staff and employees of the airline industries since they are the one which directly involved in providing quality services. Although, there is a difference in terms of stakeholders, these objectives can be achieved using specific and common management approach.   Recommended strategy             In order to achieve both financial and non-objectives the company should be able to consider specific marketing and management approach.  In this regard, Ryanair should implement marketing and management approach to achieve the objectives stated above. It is said that Ryanair should continuously concentrates on driving their own costs to offer the lowest fares possible and remain profitable and stable in the market. The objectives of Ryanair are to meet the demands of travelling which can sustain their financial needs. The core mission of the Ryanair is to provide safe, cost, competitive and efficient in providing services the aviation transportation., to retain their employees’ dedication and devotion to fulfill the objectives of the industry, to maintain a minimum standard of 98% on-time performance rate while complying will all application regulations and to sustain an environments where dignity and family values are being utilized. Being at the forefront of the company’s day-to-day challenges in operations, the goal of Ryanair is to be recognized as the most professionally run, family oriented and viable airline in the entire UK. Most people, especially those who are striving to be the best on their fields always seek ways to be developed.  Most of these individuals came from the business world, since the competition on this arena is very stiff. One wrong move, may lead to total failure that may even bring you back from the scratch. In line with this, marketing strategy has been developed to have a quality services. Quality is defined as meeting or exceeding the needs and expectations of the customer. Thus, the goal of any business or industry should be to find out what their target market wants and then fine tune the process to ensure that they get it.  The term 'customer' is used to include internal customers as well as external customers. In line with this every work group has a customer, the person who receives their output (1998). And because competition becomes tougher and tougher through the years, many industries have adopted different marketing strategy approaches to meet their missions, visions, and goals.  The marketing concept states that the nature of the marketing orientated organization, whether product or service based, profit or non profit based, is the identification and genuine satisfaction of customers needs and wants, more effectively and efficiently than the competition.             In general, the success of any industry attributes to how well the management carries all its responsibilities and how well the mission, vision, and goal are being set along with the corporate approach imposed within an industry may it be non-profit or profit organisation.   Conclusion             Based on the given analysis, it can be said that Ryanair must be able to consider strategic approach to ensure that they are able to meet their financial and non-financial objectives. These strategies should be able to also meet the needs of the clients and customers to sustain competitive position in the airline market.

Ryanairs' financial objectives

RYANAIR CASE STUDY ANALYSIS Introduction Each organization has been affected by factors that affect the entire perform...

Code of Ethics - Strategic Management

Code of Ethics: a sample case for implementation, purpose and benefits, and steps in strategic formulation and implementation   Ethics in business is primarily an applied ethics. Ethics influences the value system of every organisation and employee by serving as a moral guide or “base” (Sweet 2001). Furthermore, business ethics is a potential vehicle for employee pride and motivation as well as a focus for customer satisfaction (Hall 1991). Ethics is a part of the manager’s responsibility as the ethical environment reflects managerial value system including personal and organisational perceptions and preferences of morality and known to be fundamental on a person’s attitude towards ends and means (McCarty and Bagby 1990, p. 21 cited in Fox 2000, p. 70). Fox (2000) believes that ethics are values that traditionally sprouted from religious or organisational influences and may evolve from personal experiences. There is importance in combination of value systems that leads to generalised principles, which are used as guidelines in making and evaluating decisions and specific cases that require acceptable conduct among people. General theories of business ethics are considered generic and are not directed to specific applications (Walle 1995). In almost all organisational setting, Frederick and colleagues (1994) state that ethical guidelines are expressed in the forms of code of conduct, outlining the organisation’s foremost expectations to every contributing factors such as the employees and other stakeholders. Business ethics further support management strategies, accountability structures, organisational policies, incentive systems, training programs, and decision-making processes. It ensures their unity of work as the common denominator of strengthening the organisation’s essential ethical code of conduct. This paper narrates the case of an up-market eatery. It specifically deals with the stakeholders’ interest in accordance to effective management.   A detailed code of ethics for circulation to all employees Whereas, this organization recognizes and addresses stakeholders’ interests and needs are considered better than others. It is considered that the stakeholders are any group that is affected by, or can influence, conducts of this organisation. In order to serve the needs and interests of stakeholders or other groups, managers are expected to employ their managerial expertise toward highest standards of effective management and customer satisfaction. Organisational relationships are associated by stakeholders’ interests and managers’ ability to be guided in terms of strategies employed in maximising organisational performance. The influencing ability of stakeholders is high that most managers are required to give in to it. This influential power guides managers to decision making in relation to strategic issues affecting the whole business operations. Managers are often dependent on stakeholders’ interests and act on the applicability of generic strategies. Such interests reflect desires that are subjected to moral evaluation by the manager by looking on ethics on business management. To serve stakeholders’ interests, the following ethical behaviours should be observed: Þ    Stakeholders’ desires are crucial consideration in decision making of managers. Þ    While the organisation requires maximum satisfaction on the employees as well as the customers, the managers in response to the desires of the stakeholders must encourage responsible planning, management, and development. Þ    Strict compliance to individual policies on bribery, extortion, facilitation payments, environmental problems, and human rights are addressed in details. Þ    Sexual and racial discrimination, price discrimination, and destructive products are also firmly avoided. Þ    Integrity and competence are significant managerial factors particularly in performance of their identified duties. Þ    Participation is an important aspect of determining the acceptability of stakeholders’ desires and interests. Þ    Responding to ethical dilemmas is a manager’s or leader’s concern. Þ    Stakeholders’ interests are mainly covered by managerial responsibilities.   A circular to all employees explaining the purpose and benefits of good ethics in managing an enterprise   Re: Stakeholders’ Interest For: Senior Managers and Employees Date of Implementation: Immediately Business ethical practices and principles are important elements in building an ethical working environment with strong corporate guidelines. These guidelines govern the overall condition of the organisation in terms of allowing members of the workforce be familiar with the upper management authorities’ deliberation of ethical behaviours as significant ingredients of business operations. Generally, ethical codes are used as functional agents that govern the conduct of the members of a particular profession. It guides individuals in making decisions based on sound moral judgment. Codes further enhance working relationships and adjudicate disputes among members of the organisation. General principles of business ethics should guide behaviours in any field and type of business and its operations. Also, these codes are clearly articulated, wide-ranging, phrased in order to accentuate and provide commendation on doing the right thing other than listing a series of prohibitions. Perhaps, established code of conducts help in ensuring managers’ ability to respond on times when they are struggling on moral crises and confusion. They keep hold of a strong moral compass. In hospitality and tourism industries, holding on to the moral compass of managers is a challenge when they try to serve the desires of stakeholders. Ethics and quality is equivalent because the production of quality goods and services is a clear manifestation of ethical treatment of the consumer. In this case, serving the desires of the stakeholders is difficult. It exposes the manager to ethical concern on how to come up with balance on customer satisfaction and profitability. The duty of the managers must stick on the basic and personal beliefs of what are right and never entertaining unethical options. It is acknowledge that most employees prefer to work in a working environment governed and guided by high ethical standards. In addressing ethical dilemmas, managers should stick on managerial foundations and practices and full adherence to morality. Articulating stakeholders’ desires is a challenge yet can be fulfilled successfully through holding and believing into management principles and practices including organisational and individual commitment to morality. Ethical decision making poses danger on unethical or selfish motives of stakeholders as seen on their unjustifiable desires. Thus, managers should know how to classify ethical dilemmas and react to such in the best and most acceptable ways possible. According to Hudson and Miller (2005), ethical decision making is also expected to be affected by the type of ethical dilemma being faced by, and level of ethical education of the managers. Managers are to be educated and trained to compare outcomes to the various stakeholders for each promising decision and decide on the choice that has the best outcomes for greater number. More often than not, the moral ordeals that are faced by managers are difficult to describe as they are complex and complicated (Marnburg 2005). These ordeals might occur instantaneously and involve several factors of people, things, or circumstances. Interpreting and understanding managerial pursuits including complying or defying the desires of stakeholders is based on the manager’s own set of expectations toward behaviour that is or is not match with their individual standards and values. While managers are often subjected to ethical dilemmas where they need to lie, break certain law, cheat subordinates, and the likes, they feel that they need to occasionally participate in such behaviour as it is an implicit part of the working setting (Marnburg 2005). However, it is argued that such practices are simple yet open violations of moral standards. Reacting on stakeholders’ desires as example of workplace ethical case needs a concrete instrumentation based on virtues of justice, integrity, competence and utility. These virtues are expected in a manager’s complete personal disposition. For Fleckenstein and Huebsch (1999), the idea of impartiality, sound judgment, and correctness is exemplified in justifiable decisions that are made in response to some desires of stakeholders. Utility is a virtue that projects the principle of efficiency by providing the greatest amount of good to the greatest number. If managers are able to consider these virtues, identifying the merits of stakeholders’ desires is easier, thus, facilitating accountable and ethical decision making. Choosing what is good to the majority of stakeholders is prioritised if and only if the means used justify the end. Through participation, there are more opportunities of accumulating choices and solutions that a manager can choose in response to a moral dilemma. The consensus of other members of the management is needed in organisational ethical cases. It is expected that managers are able to communicate to other managers on issues affecting the workplace especially on cases where a certain department is governed by two or more managerial figures. The concept of who is to be blame or is anyone to be blamed is also considered. Relationships on individual’s performance and certain ethical dilemma are apparent, where “moral voice” is quite strong.  The behaviour being shown by the superiors in every moral situation in the organisation is often associated to outcomes. For example, a neglect of duty or lack of knowledge of operational and managerial matters is referent to coming up with poor judgments and decisions. No one is claiming or forcing managers to pursue in rationality, efficiency, and profit given the unconditional circumstance. However, it is the ethical codes that manipulate managers on how to act, what to do, or when to do things according to what is perceived to be standard and acceptable. Sometimes, managers become schizophrenic on their personal value systems (Pruzan 2004). But then again, it is always the ethical codes and the belief of what should be the most appreciate action based on morals are to be considered. This is also applicable on the instances of integrating managerial duties to stakeholders’ desires. Managers need to identify specific situations where temptations and potential dilemmas exist and the common reaction is for them to act according to clear corporate code of conduct for all the employees to understand, abide, and emulate. Wong (1998) affirms that an individual’s line of thinking about work ethics serves as his/her basic compass that will navigate him/her to act in accordance to what is right. The ethical beliefs of an employee affect their ways on coming up with rational judgment on any work-related concerns.    A brief report on the steps involved in strategic formulation and implementation Before the application of the detailed code of conduct, drafting copies of codes of ethical conduct and are to be distributed as guidelines to employees in overcoming ethical dilemmas; involving employees to scheduled seminar-workshop and training programs concentrated on enhancing ethical behaviours; or providing in-house advisors who can be directly consulted during urgent ethical cases; and so on (De Mesa Graziano 2002). There is always consultation among parties involved. Communication is very relevant. The duties of managers are always bounded on standard management principles and practices. Research and development efforts are encouraged so as to determine weak areas and loopholes of the said code of conduct. Responding to the its weaknesses will lead to more effective organisational governance provided that the desires of stakeholders are classified based on merits of desires on whether or not valid or invalid, etc. Feedback systems are also available. All parties concerned and affected are always open to communicate and air their issues pro or against the circulated code of conduct. Memorandums and formal letters are to be addressed to HR department with quick actions and resolutions. All in all, the code of conduct application will take effect after its official publication among all employees and other parties affected within the bounds of the organisation. It is then expected that such code of conduct are strictly implemented and reap positive results.   References De Mesa Graziano, C (2002) ‘Promoting Ethical Conduct: A Review of Corporate Practices’, Strategic Investor Relations, Fall, 29-35   Fleckenstein, MP and Huebsch, P (1999 March) ‘Ethics in tourism-reality or hallucination’, Journal of Business Ethics, 19: 1, 137-142   Fox, J (2000) ‘Approaching managerial ethical standards in Croatia's hotel industry’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 12: 1, 70-74   Frederick, RE, Hoffman, WM, Kamm, JB, and Petry Jr., ES (eds) (1994) Emerging Global Business Ethics, Quorum Books, Westport, CT   Hall, SSJ (1992) Ethics in Hospitality Management: A Book of Readings, Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association, East Lansing, MI   Hudson, S and Miller, G (2005) ‘Ethical Orientation and Awareness of Tourism Students’, Journal of Business Ethics, 62: 4, 383–396   Marnburg, E (2006) ‘”I hope it won’t happen to me!” Hospitality and tourism students’ fear of difficult moral situations as managers’, Tourism Management, 27: 4, 561–575   Pruzan, P (2004) ‘The question of organisational consciousness: Can organisations have values, virtues and visions?’ Here and Now Online Magazine 4U [online] (cited 18 November 2008) Available from <http://www.herenow4u.de/eng/the_question_of_organizational.htm>   Sweet, W (ed.) (2001) The Bases of Ethics, Marquette University Press, Milwaukee   Walle, AH (1995) 'Business ethics and tourism: from micro to macro perspectives', Tourism Management, 16: 4, 263-268

Code of Ethics - Strategic Management

Code of Ethics: a sample case for implementation, purpose and benefits, and steps in strategic formulation and implementation Ethic...