Research Korner

The Myth of Prosperity: Globalization and the South

The Myth of Prosperity: Globalization and the South   Introduction             During the turn of the century, the world experiences more drastic changes than before, and these include changes happening in the environment, in the people, culture, religion, information, education, economy, and technology. In comparison to the events that happened in the past centuries, everything happens today in fast-pace. With what is happening to the world right now, it can be understood that these changes are being brought about by the continuous development of knowledge and technology, and the development in such aspects led to globalization.             Globalization refers to the scurried development of economic activities, which cut across national and local peripheries (Hurrell, 1999), and has long been the subject of various political, sociological and even anthropological debates. It has been viewed from many perspectives, both positively and negatively. Many researchers hold the economist’s view that globalization, or the increase of cross-border economic, social, technological and cultural exchange, is inherently good for the welfare of all nations. Meanwhile, others are more apt to view globalization negatively ( 1996). The phenomenon some claim has been linked to humankind for hundreds of years (2000). It is certainly at a very intensive stage today, with the integration of financial services and economic activities in using information technology ( 1999). In addition, according to  (2004), although economic activities may be the prime mover behind globalization, the consequences affect all aspects of land and life, as cultural patterns, political arrangement, and social development are all undergoing widespread change. It is evident that the massive economic progress that has transpired since the dawn of the twentieth century is one of the major contributions of globalization. However, the worldwide increase in Gross Domestic Product or GDP is also coupled with the uneven distribution of economic development across nations, which further widens the gap between the rich and poor countries. As globalization flourishes, rich nations continuously grow economically and socially, while developing countries are lagging behind. This can be supported by recent findings on the disparities between the GDP increase of First World countries and that of the Third World nations (1999), wherein the increase of GDP among rich countries averages to nearly a six-fold, while poor countries have recorded less than a three-fold. This implies that income inequality has indeed amplified. This can be further proven by the condition of most countries in Africa, where GDP declines at a staggering rate relative to that of most highly industrial societies. Along with this problem, some other sources of problems can be identified, as brought about by globalization. In the case of India, globalization has also played a crucial role in the development of its society and economy. The colonization of India has brought about its primary globalization, with its effects of democracy, laws, a judiciary, a free press, 40,000 miles of railroad track, canals, harbors, and the English language (2007). However, despite these advantages, at present, India remains to be “poor and impoverished” (Wells, 2007), for material benefits for the few has not translated into a generous ‘trickle down’ for the poor masses. Because of this, the advent of globalization, though generally seen in a positive light has nonetheless posed a complex intellectual problem in analyzing its effects. Primarily, does globalization writ-large promote a greater understanding of the world or does it merely diffuse a wider array of essentialist and simplistic stereotypes? Does it propagate income disparity and exploitation or does it offer freedom of choice? Given the information at hand, the purpose of this research is to fully explore the impacts of globalization on the nations of the South, more specifically, on the inequities and imbalances in terms of the existing poverty, imbalances of trade and adverse social and environmental impacts that the globalization process furthers. In addition, this paper will be relating important concepts to the modern Dependency Theory or Neo-Dependency, in challenging the Myth of Prosperity brought about by globalization. These concepts will be given emphasis in relation to India’s globalization.   Purpose of Research The aims of this research are: <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> To raise issues regarding the impact of globalization on Southern nations</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> To highlight the crucial gaps in the globalization process and to channel the discourse towards a more holistic and sustainable approach</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> To effectively demonstrate the imbalances of the global system, highlighting the political, economic, social and environmental impacts that adversely affect the development of Southern nations</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%"> To draw pertinent theoretical lessons from the research and contribute towards a better understanding of the effects of globalization on the South</li>   Proposed Methodology             To further gather evidence of the negative effects of globalization to the Indian society, this research will be basing its findings and conclusion on the concrete proofs and testimonies of participants and use of surveys that proves the increasing incidence of poverty in India, brought about by globalization. The actual immersion of the researcher to the Indian society would be helpful, as the researcher will be given enough chance and opportunity to interact with the poor masses. In this way, the whole research will be obtaining reliable and credible sources regarding the views and conditions of the masses in the Indian society. In addition, actual immersion with the poor Indian masses would help the researcher know the needs and wants of the members of the society, thus, making it easier for the authorities and members of the government to provide for the citizens of India. Participants of the research will be chosen from the entire Indian population through random sampling. Random sampling is a process of selecting a sample or subset from a set of all sampling units, giving each sampling unit in the frame an equal chance of being included in the sample, and when a specific sample of a size of population is truly random, all samples of that size have the same chance of being selected (1978). Random sampling has four types, namely, simple, systematic, stratified, and cluster random sampling. In this proposed method, the research will be using stratified random sampling. Stratified random sampling or proportional or quota random sampling involves dividing a particular population into homogenous subgroups, called strata, and then taking a simple random sample from each subgroup (2006). This sampling strategy will be useful to guarantee that the sample will contain sufficient numbers of certain kinds of items or persons (1978). Using this type of random sampling involves a number of advantages. First, it guarantees the researcher that he or she will be able to represent not only the overall population, but also the key subgroups of the sample, especially small minority groups (2006). Second, this type of sampling allows for more comprehensive data analysis since information is provided for each stratum or subpopulation, and lastly, it is administratively convenient (1978). This type of sampling will be relevant and useful for obtaining important information from the population, because the framework of the Indian society is also composed of strata or layers, as in the caste system. The use of the stratified random sampling would enable the researchers to obtain credible and consistent data from each strata of the society. In this way, it would be easier for the researchers to classify the needs and wants of citizens belonging to different strata of the Indian society. With this, it would be simpler to classify their conditions as being brought about by globalization or some other economic, societal, political, or religious factors. Data will be collected in the residential area of the participants, wherein 50 families will represent each stratum. Each family will be asked to select a participant, who will be asked to answer surveys or questionnaires and interviews. During the visits of the researchers to each families belonging to five different classes, namely, the Brahmans or priests, Kshatriyas or rulers, warriors, and landowners, the Vaishyas or merchants, the Shudras or artisans and agriculturalists, and the Harijans or the ‘untouchables’ (2007), observations regarding their lifestyle will be made. Observations of the lifestyles of families from each class will be done in terms of the food they eat, the clothes they wear, the amount of money they obtain from their livelihood, their education, their literacy, and the other needs of their family. In addition, another aspect of observation that can be done to analyze their needs is through observation of their attitudes towards other members of their caste, and towards members of other castes. In this way, even the personal and individual effects of globalization can also be obtained.             Aside from these methods of observation in obtaining primary data, reliable and credible data can also be obtained through surveys. Surveys are relevant and useful alternatives in allowing the participants to answer questions regarding their lifestyles and opinions in relevance to their needs and wants. Through surveys or questionnaires, the researcher will be able to measure and observe the literacy rate among the participants, and their ability to answer and rate each items in the questionnaires respectively. Each questionnaire or survey will contain 15 to 20 items that corresponds to the possible conditions and opinions of the participants. Items in the questionnaires or survey would generally tackle the present condition of India’s society, regardless of the caste system that each participant belongs to. Through this, the differences from each caste or stratum will become evident.             Moreover, obtaining useful and relevant first-hand information can be done through a series of interviews. Interviews can also be useful to support the answers of the participants in the surveys or questionnaires and to explain their opinions on it. In addition, interviews serve to be a good source of information regarding the opinions of participants on the effects of globalization in India. This would also be a good avenue for reinstating their needs and wants, the changes that they would like to propose, and the current conditions they suffer from. Through interviews, the researchers will be able to effectively and efficiently interact with the participants, in order to obtain and extract adequate information from them.             Obtaining information and immersing in the society would take approximately four to six months, to completely acquire sufficient and relevant information. The researchers will be able to mingle and interact with all the members of the 50 families in each caste system. Interacting and mingling with the members of the family would mean eating the same food that they eat, wearing the clothes they wear, and doing the same chores that they do. In this way, it would be easier for the researchers to understand their situation and be able to extend their help to these citizens. Moreover, completely understanding their desolate situations would enable the researchers to effectively relay the message to the authorities and to the government.             After obtaining adequate amounts of data, the researchers must be able to compile them into one useful source of relevant information. To be able to do this, statistical analysis by using statistical methods can be used. Through statistical analysis and the use of statistical methods, such as simple mean, median and mode, it will be easier for the researchers to analyze their data and find significance from them. Several statistical methods can be used, including, T-test, chi-square test, analysis of variance or ANOVA, Mann-Whitney U test, regression analysis, correlation analysis, Pearson correlation coefficient analysis, and the Spearman’s rank correlation analysis (2007). The use of these statistical methods would enable the researchers analyze and conclude if the globalization of India really plays a role in the present condition of the citizens. These conditions include poverty, illiteracy, underdevelopment, and inefficiency in terms of governance.             The use of different statistical tools or methods would lead to the results of the research or study. The results from the gathered raw data and the combined data in using the statistical tools will be used to form the conclusion of the study. The results will be then be explained and justified using the gathered resources or evidences, written, researched, and studied by other authors and researchers. These researched sources will be used to support the arguments and results presented by the actual study or research. With these researched sources, the results of the study will be further proven, with the support of the arguments of other authors. This will be easier for the researchers of the study to make conclusions and convey their message to the citizens of India, most especially to the authorities and the members of the government. Moreover, through the results and the supporting evidences, the researchers will be able to provide their readers with necessary evidences that would further give solid testimonies for their arguments. From these, it would be easier for the readers to understand and assess their situation under the mercy of globalization. In addition, they will be able to provide themselves with solutions to the problems they encounter. This would also give them the right to demand from their government, thus, pressuring the government to give importance to the welfare of the citizens, not only to the middle-class and elites, but also to those who badly need their assistance and care.   Discussion             The main themes or issues that can be identified include the concepts of globalization and its effects to Third World countries, such as India, and its relation to the concept of modern dependency theories or neo-dependency.             As defined by the International Monetary Fund or IMF, globalization is the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through increasing the volume and variety of cross-border transactions in terms of goods and services, free international capital flows and more rapid and widespread diffusion of technology ( 2007). From this definition, it can be understood that globalization is related to various economic, political, cultural, and technological aspects. In terms of economics, businesses participate in globalization to increase the international flow on capital, including foreign investments, which would lead to the economic stability of the nation, to provide developments in infrastructures and establishments. It could also create international agreements among different nations, and may lead to more job opportunities in the nation. This also affects the political aspect, as more projects will be produced, locally and nationally, and will practically help the nation or country in their stability and leadership. More opportunities may also mean the boosting of confidence of each individual to become more productive and effective. Culturally, there will be an increase in the exchange of information, and multiculturalism will be achieved, having no inferior or superior races. This will lead to a boom in travel and tourism, which would totally help locals promote their products, and profit from their small businesses.             Theoretically speaking, this situation seems easy to achieve through globalization. However, although the chain of events mentioned above can be attained through it, several disadvantages are still overlooked, which entirely affects the economy and society of a nation. Primarily, as mentioned earlier, the worldwide increase in GDP is coupled with the uneven distribution of economic development across nations, which further widens the gap between the rich and the poor. In addition, globalization has four dimensions, namely, trade, movement of capital, movement of people, and the spread of knowledge and technology. Only those developing nations that are able to keep up with the pace of global trade have benefited from globalization. Asian countries like Singapore, Japan, and Taiwan have fared well from the global trade, while the entire African region has managed scantily. Another disadvantage is the increase of “brain-drain” in many Third World countries, brought about by the migration to advanced countries. These disadvantages, and many others, thus contribute to the uneven distribution of wealth in the economy of many nations.             In the case of India, since the early 1990s, the country’s economy has been liberalizing with the unanimous approval of the more affluent nations of the population, such that foreign investors that have flooded into the country are not subject to the purview of national laws, as are the domestic investors. Dependence on foreign capital has always led to the sacrificing of national policies in favor of the demands and conditions of international agencies of international finance. International lenders rarely lend without conditions and external liberalization in India, the lowering of import duties was a condition imposed by international financiers, which led to the reduction in social spending that is often disguised as a matter of improving “efficiency” and controlling “unnecessary budget deficits”. This results to providing few material benefits and has not translated into a generous “trickle down” for the poor masses.             The problem with water, roads, and electricity, contributed to the desolate conditions of the 700 million residents still living in rural India, and the 200 million that constitute the urban poor. In addition, problems in politics brought about the voting out of the ruling nationalist coalition in the midst of the most rapid expansion in years, for elections took place in the aftermath of the generous monsoons that boosted spending in much of rural India. Television is the most dominant gateway of globalization affecting the perceptions and attitudes of the younger generations. Traditional dress is increasingly displaced by Western dress seen on TV, and teenage abortions rose by 20% in a year, as teenagers feel pressure to have sex, because of the explosion of sexually explicit imagery from sources like MTV and the Indian equivalent channels ( 2007). Another disadvantage that can be pointed out is the increasing rate of Indian immigration to the United States and other countries, which is particularly related to the high-tech sectors. It has been reported that 25% of the graduates of India’s four most prestigious technology institutes immigrated to the United States, and has led to a situation, wherein more Indian technological talent is in the U.S. rather than in India ( 2007). This has led to the country’s “brain-drain”, wherein more advanced countries utilize the talents and skills of immigrants, instead of being used in their own countries. India’s intellectual elites periodically pay attention to these deficiencies but the middle classes were too much occupied by the ruling party’s mantra of “India Shining” to anticipate the recent electoral shock. In its wake, the masses’ growing urgency for basic needs has come to the forefront again. India can build dams but cannot maintain rural irrigation systems. It can launch satellites but cannot or will not build public toilets. India’s political elite has taken a long time to grasp the message from India’s poor and the “feel good” liberalized economy has yet to provide the right balance for India’s poor majority.  These conditions have led many economists and sociologists to believe that the poverty in India is partly brought about by globalization and the concept of Neo-Dependency. Neo-dependency is defined as the development of a nation, as part of an international system in which the leading powers have used their economic strength to make a nation’s development dependent on, and subordinate to, the interests of those leading powers (1999). Results of such dependence include the reliance of most countries on almost exclusively on one or two export goods, and their internal growth is arrested because they are at the mercy of the fluctuating and changing world prices for their only exports, thus, this larger market is controlled by the great powers (1999). The concept of neo-dependency is relatively simple. However, its explanation is quite complicated, if this will be associated to the decline of economies of different Third World nations. The concept can be explained as follows: poor or developing countries export primary commodities or raw materials to the developed or rich countries, which then manufacture or process these raw materials into new and innovative products. These new and combined products are then sold to the poorer countries as their imports. The “Value Added” by manufacturing a usable product always costs more than the primary products or raw materials used to manufacture those products, thus, Third World countries would never be earning enough from their export earnings to pay for their imports (1996). In essence, the concept of neo-dependency encompasses the entire operations in the economy of a nation, such that this concept explains the tendency for poor or developing countries to opt for exporting their raw materials to developed or rich countries for profit. However, because of being poor, many developing countries lack the capacity and the technology to afford technical and industrial advancements that would enable them to develop. Because of this, many developing countries use their cheap labor to produce such raw materials that would be used to produce innovative products in other countries. Unfortunately, the manufactured products are then sold to developing countries as their necessity. Because the manufactured products are expensive, the profit from selling raw materials does not compensate the expenditures in purchasing the manufactured imported products. From this, it can be understood that neo-dependency explains the reality, of what is happening currently at the economy and society of India. Aside from this explanation, the concept of neo-dependency can be perceived as one of the strategies and avenue for globalization. Through the exchange of goods of different countries, globalization is already taking place. The concept of globalization does not mean presence around the world, but means that a country must perceive global competition and global markets to prosper. “Global” means the entire world, but is made up of smaller, more individual geographic entities beginning with the market in the nation’s current state or province and extending beyond (2002). Through making effective relationships with other countries, India is able to export its products and raw materials to other countries, thus, introducing their crafts and products to the world. Due to this interaction, India is able to establish market in countries like the United States, China, and the United Kingdom.  However, because of neo-dependency, India is becoming dependent and reliant on the importation and exportation of products, which contribute to their poverty and debt as a nation. The exploitation of such avenue for the nation’s growth, development and source of income is attributed to its large scope of land that can be maximized for agriculture and other land-based businesses. It has been reported that India’s economy is diverse and encompasses agriculture, handicrafts, textile, manufacturing, and a multitude of services, with two-thirds of the country’s workforce earn directly or indirectly from agriculture and the growing sector ( 2007). Because of this, the economy of India has been reliant on the production of crops, which are used as raw materials in other countries, and this made the citizens of the nation stagnant on their role in the society. Nevertheless, the advancement of science and technology in other countries led countries, such as the United States, United Kingdom, and Japan to invent and innovate technologies that would enable them to make production of goods faster and more efficient. With this, agricultural countries lagged behind due to the high costs of those technologies. In addition, such countries like India are characterized by high levels of population, and this can help the country with an increased workforce to till the land and harvest produce, for more hands can be depended upon for agricultural advantage. In relation to the concept of neo-dependency is the theory of dependency, which can also explain the current condition of India in relation to its globalization. Dependency can be defined as an explanation of the economic development of a state in terms of the external influences, including political, economic, and cultural, on national development policies, and a historical condition, wherein the economy of a certain group of countries is conditioned by the development and expansion of another company, to which their own is subjected (1996). The Dependency Theory has three common features, where one, is that dependency characterizes the international system, having two sets of states described as the dominant and the dependent, where the dominant states are considered the advanced industrial nations and the dependent states are those from Latin America, Asia and Africa, having low per capita GNPs and rely heavily on the export of a single commodity for foreign exchange earnings. Second feature is that external forces are of significant importance to such dependent states, where external forces include multinational corporations, international commodity markets, foreign assistance, and communications. Last feature, the relationship between the dominant and the dependent states is dynamic due to the fact that their interactions are not only reinforced but also intensify the unequal patterns (Ferraro, 1996). From this, it can be understood that the Third World nations are dependent on the business and foreign resources provided by the dominant or developed countries. The explanation is similar to the concept of neo-dependency, for it also indicates that India’s economy is at the mercy of the dominant country’s economy. With this, once the developed country has already exhausted India’s resources, it will soon find new sources and leave India’s economy and industry weeping and suffering. Both concepts are related to the globalization of India, as neo-dependency and dependency indicate the operations in the economy of the country. Through the application of these concepts, India is become “globalized”, and thus, participate in the globalization of other countries also. In line with globalization is the role of the capitalist system in the application of the two concepts, which enforced a firm international division of labor that is responsible for the under-development of many nations in the world. The dependent states, such as India, supply cheap minerals, agricultural commodities, cheap labor, and serve as the repositories of surplus capital, obsolescent technologies, and manufactured goods, wherein its flow is dependent and determined by the economic interests of the dominant or developed states (Ferraro, 1996). With capitalism, division of labor is being implemented in such states, which supposedly contribute to the growth and development of the country. However, due to capitalism, the economy of India becomes dependent on the economy of the dominant states. In addition to this, despite many important advances since the “Bretton Woods” agreement, the state of Third World development remains extremely unsatisfactory. About a billion people live in extreme poverty and more than 800 million do not get adequate nutrition. Third World Debt looms large on the horizons of most underdeveloped nations and development continues to benefit the Third World elites, the developed nations, and their multinational corporations. The division between the North and the South continues to widen with very little “tricking down” to the poor majority in many nations, and one-third of the world’s poor are getting poorer. Moreover, in both rural and urban areas, the broader enabling environment does not adequately support the needs of the poor, such that rural poverty can be associated with isolation, lack of roads, poor infrastructure, and limited institutional presence, while urban poverty is generally associated with poor quality housing, over-crowded, unsanitary slum settlements, ill-health related to spread of infectious diseases, the threat of exposure to environmental hazards, and fear of evictions from illegal squatter settlements in precarious locations (2001). From these, it can be seen that the effects of globalization and the application of the concepts of neo-dependency and dependency did not bring adequate success to the economy and society of India. It can be argued that in addition to the effects mentioned brought about by these concepts is the increasing levels in the population of India. Although the high levels of population can help with the success of the country’s agriculture, the drastic increase in its population may hinder the country to adequately provide shelter, education, employment, and food for most of its population. It is a given fact that India is continually developing and obtaining resources from other richer countries, and simultaneously, the increase in its population also happens. Because of this, it can be understood that India’s sustenance does not compensate the increasing levels of its population, thus, making the majority of its population suffer from poverty. Through globalization, neo-dependency and dependency, the society of India becomes caught in between development and lagging behind, given the structure of their society. A limited number of the society are the ones given the chance to succeed and benefit from globalization, depending on their position in the society, which include businessmen, merchants and the elites, for luckily, they have the access to education and wealth. This leaves the poor to suffer the scraps of success being enjoyed by the few elites and the politicians in the country, as they do not have the chance to obtain education and employment easily. The increasing number of populations has robbed off the chance of most citizens to become employed and to become accommodated in schools and universities. Another reason to be considered also is their culture, which do not give equal opportunities to both genders, in terms of status, employment and education. Globalization has opened a portal of communication to almost all parts of the world, and this enabled interrelations even more effective and efficient to majority of individuals. However, the desolate conditions brought about by the lagging behind of the economy of India have given unequal opportunities to its citizens to enjoy such opportunities. In addition, because of the increasing incidences of “brain-drain”, many Indian talents and skills are not being utilized by its own country, thus, being used by more advanced and developed nations to their edge. This, in turn, lessens the chance of India to develop as a nation, for instead of contributing to the growth of their own country, Indian intellectuals seek employment and shelter from rich countries to compensate their capabilities with money. With this, many Indian intellectuals migrate and become citizens in developed countries such as the United States, Japan and the United Kingdom to give them the opportunity to grow individually, in terms of their career. This, in turn, contributes to the decline of the economy of India, as its intellectual citizens’ skills and talents are not utilized effectively by their own country.   Conclusion             From the above discussion, it can be deduced and understood that globalization is one important concept in the world today, which must be given enough importance and attention. With globalization and the concepts related to it, it can be seen that many countries are given the chance to grow and development in a variety of aspects. However, globalization also brings about negative effects to many citizens in different countries, due to its unequal distribution of wealth and services.             It is true that there is no direct relationship between globalization and poverty. Nevertheless, the events that happen because of globalization may lead to the ineffectiveness and the poverty of many Third World nations. In addition, several factors and aspects must be considered and given importance to be able to pinpoint the causes of such conditions. Nonetheless, this paper argues that globalization is the major cause of such conditions in India. In addition to this, assessments and additional researches must be made to further understand the conditions in India. Through several researches, many will be able to understand the true desires and needs of the citizens of India, thus, would help improve the economic and societal conditions in the country.

The Myth of Prosperity: Globalization and the South

The Myth of Prosperity: Globalization and the South Introduction During the turn of the century, the world experience...

Why students are smoking?

Abstract Tobacco policy has assumed center stage in recent years. A product responsible for more than 400,000 premature deaths annually in the United States alone clearly raises a serious public health concern. Yet in society there is a strong presumption that freedom of choice to engage in risky activities ought to be protected from paternalistic regulation. As a consequence, it does not follow inexorably that public health concerns require governmental action (Rabin & Sugarman 2001). Perhaps the clearest evidence in support of this proposition is the lack of any discernible current support for an absolute prohibition on the sale and consumption of tobacco products. Correspondingly, until very recently, the tobacco industry relied, with unbroken success, on this same personal responsibility theme in the judicial forum as the foundation of its defense to smokers' compensation lawsuits. Along with small employers, the strongest opponents of restrictions on smoking in public places have been bar and restaurant owners. Despite such opposition, some recent state legislation and local ordinances have banned smoking in restaurants and required strict ventilation systems in bars (Hendry & Shucksmith 1998).   Smoking rates amongst young people demonstrate a hard core of smokers resistant to every form of media campaign, for example. Information campaigns about HIV are shown to raise knowledge levels, yet risky sexual behaviours are still commonplace. Drug culture seems to embed itself more firmly among youth whether health promoters advocate ‘say no’ strategies or seek a harm-minimization approach. As information approaches have been shown to fail in terms of transforming behaviour, health promotion has turned more and more to methods which seek to develop skills or to impart strategies that can be used by young people. The emphasis of much such work is on individuals accepting personal responsibility for their health and having both the knowledge and skills to make decisions appropriately. Viewing smoking as a symptom of affliction, rather than a cultural practice or individual lifestyle choice, transforms the political landscape of tobacco use (Snell 2005). The move to refigure smokers as powerless victims of an addictive drug does not remove the debate from the realm of ethical and moral judgment. Rather, it widens the scope of normalization and imbues it with the authority and familiar appeal of medical discourse. True, the discourse of nicotine addiction constructs addicted smokers as sick, not bad, but it assumes that the only way to live a meaningful, productive, and happy life is to adopt a healthy nonsmoking lifestyle, a lifestyle that consists of much more than abstinence from nicotine. Smokers learn to maintain a constant level of nicotine in their blood. They are sensitive to tiny variations in dose, and if given milder cigarettes will inhale more deeply to achieve their preferred concentration. Anti-smoking texts portray this as an entirely unfortunate reaction, reducing the potential benefits of low-tar brands. For them, the finely tuned and specialized corporeality of the smoker is a corruption of the body's natural state of organic and self-contained integrity (Brodie & Redfield 2002).   The smoker's connection with the cigarette and her responses to nicotine appear as increases in the range of the body's powers, that is, the body's capacity to affect and be affected. In addition to the delicate manipulation of drug levels are the sensory and aesthetic stimulations of smoke in the airways, object in the mouth, and movement of the hand. The actions and reactions of smoking can be read as a testimony to the adaptability and sensitivity of a body that can actively produce and experience pleasure through all sorts of connections, flows, and intensities, including regulated flows of toxins (Klein 1993). As smoking does not have the obviously life-disrupting and socially harmful consequences of other addictions, most texts give a dominant role to physical health in their production of tobacco use as a major social issue. But for most smokers the seriously deleterious medical consequences of their habit lie in the future, while its rewards are experienced in the present. Hence anti-smoking material highlights links between the remembered past, present behavior, and the anticipated future, constructing a unidirectional and linear notion of time. Through its deployment of the notion of risk, anti-smoking discourse tends to negate the gratifications of the present in favor of the dangers of the future. Mainstream public health literature is less metaphorical in its use of temporal explanations. It depends explicitly on the truth of the connection between smoking and future ill health, aiming to make the probable and the possible real enough to motivate behavior change. While accepting that nicotine addiction is a central aspect of smoking, this literature downplays its power, placing faith in the ability of education and awareness to provide the resolve needed to quit (Brigden & De Beyer 2003). The paper helped in analyzing why students are smoking. The paper made use of Qualitative methods. Qualitative method thrives on understanding data through giving emphasis on determining people’s words and actions.  Qualitative method has an orientation that it should gather data that can be acquired through quantitative methods. In qualitative research, the researcher creates a natural setting which he/she can use to understand a phenomenon of interest.   References Brigden, L & De Beyer, J (eds.) 2003, Tobacco control policy: Strategies, successes, and setbacks, World Bank, Washington, DC.   Brodie, J & Redfield, M (eds.) 2002, High anxieties: Cultural studies in addiction, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.   Hendry, LB & Shucksmith, J 1998, Health issues and adolescents: Growing up, speaking out, Routledge, London.   Klein, R 1993, Cigarettes are sublime, Duke University Press, Durham, NC.   Rabin, RL & Sugarman, SD 2001, Regulating tobacco, Oxford University Press, New York.   Snell, C 2005, Peddling poison: The tobacco industry and kids, Praeger, Westport, CT.

Why students are smoking?

Abstract Tobacco policy has assumed center stage in recent years. A product responsible for more than 400,000 premature deaths annually...

LEARNING/TEACHING STRATEGIES

INTRODUCTION      Since the dawn of time, human had always had this thirst for knowledge.  No one knows for sure, but to my opinion, because this is our only advantage in the animal world.       We don’t have claws, bony plates for shield, nor abilities as speed and strength that can outmatch other creatures in the animal kingdom.    That’s why we developed our brains, to learn and have an advantage over other creatures, even over our own kind.      Learning is a continuous process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values, through study, experience, or teaching, that causes a change of behavior that is persistent, measurable, and specified or allows an individual to formulate a new mental construct or revise a prior mental construct. (cited in )      This process depends on experience and leads to long-term changes in behavior potential. Behavior potential describes the possible behavior of an individual and not his actual behavior in a given situation in order to achieve a goal. But potential is not enough.  If individual learning is not periodically reinforced, it becomes shallower and shallower, and eventually is lost in that individual.  (cited in )      Often, learning is synonymous with education.  Education is the conscious attempt to promote learning in others. The primary function of "teaching" is to create a safe, practical, and productive learning environment. Teaching is managing of the total learning environment to promote, enhance and motivate learning.  (cited in )        Learning environment is the place, which is usually physical, where teaching and learning occurs.  The learning environment can have both positive and negative effects on the mentor’s ability to teach and the student’s ability to focus on the learning task.  A constructive learning environment is a place where social interaction is encouraged (, 1972), provide spaces for student privacy ( 1986), and facilitate and maintain suitable degree of sensory stimulation.      And as our technologies develop, so does our learning environment.  And with the development of the hypertext, hypermedia, Multimedia, thought the Internet and the World Wide Web, a new kind of learning environment developed, the Virtual Learning Environment.        The Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) is a software system designed to facilitate teachers in the management of educational courses for their students, by helping teachers and learners with the course administration.      The system can track the learners' progress, which is monitored by both teachers and learners.         These systems usually run on servers, using one or more databases and a programming or scripting language such as PHP to serve the course to students as internet pages.  (cited in )      Components of these systems usually include templates for content pages, discussion forums, chat, quizzes and exercises such as multiple-choice, true/false and one-word-answer. Teachers fill in these templates and then release them for learners to use. New features in these systems include blogs and RSS. Services generally provided include access control, provision of e-learning content, communication tools, and administration of the user groups.  (cited in )      This computer program facilitates computerized learning or e-learning for distance learning, this is commonly used in face-to-face classrooms too.  These e-learning systems are also called: Learning Management Systems (LMS); Course Management System (CMS); Managed Learning Environments (MLE); and education via Computer-mediated Communication (CMC) or Online Education.  (cited in )          HYPERTEXT, HYPERMEDIA, MEDIA, AND MULITMEDIA     Media      Media are the tools we use to store, process, and communicate information. Media imply physical devices, formats about how to write and read the information exactly and not to forget the organizations around these media enabling us to function in society.  ( 1996) Hypertext      Hypertext is a method to create and access nonlinear text. Texts in hypermedia are small, self-containing paragraphs. Essential words or groups of words called hot spots in a paragraph refer to other paragraphs or to other words or groups of words in other paragraphs.      The user is free to decide whether to create a link or not: Any semantic relation or mental association may be an argument for defining or tracing a link. After clicking on a highlighted term, the user jumps via the link and will immediately see the requested explanation.  (. 1996)      The idea of hypertext appeared first in 1945, when there was an ever-growing problem of investigators shocked by the enormous quantities of available information created by colleagues, which costs researchers years and years to search for relevant ideas.        Instead of card boxes with records indexed by a limited set of key words.  thought about a personalized information base, called a memex, which stores all books, records, journals, annotations and communications of a person.      Too many words obscure the meaningful links between text fragments and also introduce ambiguity: The same word usually has quite different meanings in different contexts. Creating only a few links simplifies the preparation of a hypertext system, but is not helpful for those users who ask for subtle semantic relations.   Multimedia      Multimedia are those computer-based applications that allow the user to see and hear different types of information via one screen with audio support. The combination of more than one modality of information such as text, pictures, video, animation, and sound fragments on one screen with simultaneous control of one software application brings the user a bigger variety in information and realizes important elements for virtual reality.  ( 1996)      A video, a slide projector, an audio tape recorder, and computer screens or teletype keyboard printers could be considered as multimedia.      Media combinations or multi media is quite complex.  It needs one integrated computer device that has the facilities to capture, store, and display video sequences from different sources and synchronize them.  That’s why traditional hybrid multimedia configurations were too complex to build up, debug and maintain even for instructional designers who has high skills in technology and instrumentation.  (. 1996)      This is also the reason why multimedia players which are strictly for CD - ROM or Compact Disc - Read Only Memory, and CD - I or CD - Interactive uses the standard way and has very little innovation, though they are widely used.        Now a days, CD - ROM are being integrated in computer environments such as the Macintosh and MS - Windows.  While, CD - I are fitted into normal television sets of the low - end consumer market such as academic institutions.   Hypermedia      Hypermedia are computer-based applications for consulting multimedia information resources. The access of new information is equivalent to the previously described hypermedia method, clicking on relevant areas such as texts, pictures, and video, animation, and sound fragments. The hot spots in time-based fragments can be situated on a time scale, an oscillogram, or a scenario line.  (. 1996)      Hypermedia gives a better concept on how to utilize multimedia resources.  Hypermedia implicitly supports how to access information elements and how to crisscross in information space.      This figurative space is typical for the complexity that arises in creating and using hypermedia. Orientation and navigation are the costs that emerge from the desire to interconnect information elements and from the ambition to browse freely between semantic elements that you would normally find at different locations in books, different books, different libraries, and the like.   HYPERMEDIA AND CONSTRUCTIVISM      According to  (1993), "The concept of Computer programmed instruction has continued to be an effective and enjoyable method to motivate and reinforce student for learning". Programmed instructions usually involve breaking the contents down into many small pieces of information.   (1997) say that programmed instruction was more effective than traditional teaching methods for three reasons: first was because it has immediate knowledge of results; second, it is an individualized learning; and third, it is an expert’s instruction.      But also,  pointed out the behavioral models of computer programmed instruction’s weaknesses: first, it has isolating factual information; second, the learning is in isolation; third, it has a linear structure that does not match some learning activities; and fourth, its lack of flexibility and user-friendliness          The human mind is unlike some particular computer that needs to be programmed in a particular way in order to operate systematically or efficiently. Information systems can not cover the complicated, vague, and perspective -sensitive processes of meaning making of the human mind. Therefore, even well programmed instruction can not process human learning appropriately.      Based on human cognition, the innovative educational computer programs, like hypermedia, are developed on constructivist learning theory. Constructivist models of computer programs have emerged from the work of developmental theorists such as .       One side is called cognitive constructivist, which states that learners construct their own knowledge of the world through assimilation and accommodation.  While another side, called social constructivist places more emphasis on the social context of learning ( 1997).      Environmental experience is the key concept in 's cognitive theory and 's learning principles. 's theory has three processes that form the basis of environmental and experiential theories, and these are: assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration (, 1983).      Assimilation is the incorporation of new experiences into existing experiences. Meaning, accommodation develops new cognitive structures with the same subject or content with the existing structures.  This means, the child's existing cognitive structures are modified and adapted in response to her/his environment. Equilibration is the process of achieving balance between things that were understood and those yet to be understood.  This refers to the dual process of assimilation and accommodation of one's personal environment.      Meanwhile, according to  (1938), the three learning experiences are situation, interaction, and continuity.      Situation represents experiences of an environment affecting the child, which is similar to ’s assimilation.  While interaction is concerned with the current transactions taking place between the person and their environment. This is similar to ’s accommodation. And last, continuity refers to the longitudinal learning or to situations and interactions that follow, similar to ’s equilibration.      While the cognitive constructivist approach focuses on problem solving, thinking skills and learning strategies, the theory of social constructivism emphasizes the student's ability to solve real-life practical problems.      In general, constructivist learning environments have these following six characteristics: 1) These environments provide multiple representations of reality; 2) These environments emphasize knowledge construction instead of knowledge reproduction; 3) These environments emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context; 4) These environments encourage thoughtful reflection on experience; 5) These environments enable context-dependent and content-dependent knowledge construction. And 6) these environments support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation.      Since these viewpoints, computer technology in a constructivist learning environment should attempt to match human learning processes. Computer technologies, such as hypermedia, multimedia, and simulation, should be developed in a constructivist approach (, 1997). The learning environment should basically have the following characteristics: 1) Users should be more actively involved; 2) Users should have more controllable opportunities; 3) Users should have a great deal of control of the interaction between users and machines; And 4) users should aim at accomplishing more creative tasks, such as problem solving and critical thinking skills.   THE HYPERMEDIA-BASED LEARNING THEORIES      The concept of the hypermedia-based learning environment can be examined from four different learning theory’s perspective, and these include: 's three-form theory; dual coding theory; the theory of multiple representations; and cognitive flexibility theory.       (1996) posits that there are three ways in which individuals can represent the real world, and these are through forms of action, icons and symbols.   People can convert these realities into their own unique perception of reality.      Action would include enactment and demonstration, icons include images and pictures, and symbols include words and numbers.  The active form, which is based on stimulus-response theory, is the state of doing.  The summary image or a mental picture of a path or pattern is the iconic form.  The symbolic form, mainly consists of language, is an abstract form since the word is a disconnection from the reality it represents. These three forms of representation are based on the argument that development must be connected to a theory of knowledge and to an effective theory of instruction (, 1997).      As had pointed out, it is possible to modify instruction according to the nature of the subject and to the nature of the learner when instructors lean more heavily toward the abstract, symbolic form for advanced students.   While  (1997) suggested that it is possible to develop more creative and efficient ways to help students to better represent computer-reality using action, images and language.       stated that, "Teaching by telling is out of context of action.” It is clear that learning by doing is a powerful way of learning. In addition to this, (1995) also pointed out that hypertext and hyperlinks are too complex unless the three forms of representation are used in the instruction.      Indeed, the hypermedia tool can create an integrating environment that combines enactment, icons, and symbols.  But still, it is still in the hands of the educators how they will put the curriculum into hypermedia, and create a positive learning environment for acquiring knowledge.      Meanwhile, from the point of view of the dual coding theory, it emphasizes that two separate systems can work independently or together for verbal and imagery processing ( 1996).  The dual coding theory suggests that pictures are easier to remember than words.  And also, when information coding in both systems, information is easier to be remembered than information coded only in the verbal system.      For example, it was found that text materials that are lacking of pictures are more difficult to understand and recall than the same text materials presented with a presentation of an organizing image (, 1995).  Another study by  (1990), the results indicated that iconic representation could not replace the symbolic ones, but however, it has adequately shown that words and images together make a powerful team in an effective learning.      This theory consists of verbal and imagery subsystems. The verbal subsystem specializes in presenting and processing language-based events and information. This subsystem includes verbal codes for concrete objects and events, such as books or computers.  This subsystem also includes representation for abstract, non-concrete information, such as ethical issues.      Meanwhile, the imagery subsystem specializes in representing and processing information related to nonverbal objects and events. This subsystem includes images for shapes, sounds, actions, emotional responses and other nonverbal objects and events.      Another theory that supports hypermedia-based learning is multiple representations. According to the knowledge processing approach from learning and cognitive theories, a monolithic depiction of a subject matter from one perspective may not be adequate for ill-structured domains and may not be sufficient for inducing learners to construct a mental representation of subject matter content ( 1991).      Multiple representations indicate different conceptual views. Cognitive processing of multiple external representations is assumed to: 1) Enhance the likelihood that a particular mental representation may be adequate for solving a particular problem; 3) Support the construction of context-indexed mental representations; 4) Enable situated learning experiences for enhancing memory performance and usability of knowledge; 5) Improve the construction of mental representations of different views of subject matters with multiple representational modes; And 6) enhance cognitive flexibility and knowledge transfer ( 1997).      Cognitive flexibility theory, like multiple representations theory also emphasizes the complexity and ill – structure of many knowledge domains of the real world (, 1991). From an ill-structured aspect of knowledge, advancing knowledge acquisition, such as attaining an understanding of important elements of conceptual complexity, the ability to use acquired concepts for reasoning and inference, and the ability to flexibly apply conceptual knowledge to novel situations, can be facilitated by the principles of this theory.  This cognitive flexibility theory is systematically applied to an instructional theory.  In general, this theory has the following characteristics: 1) Random access; 2) the major learning activity is a nonlinear exploration of the learning environment; And 3) multiple representations of the content are presented (, 1997).      Cognitive flexibility theory points out those traditional instructional designs, like textbooks, lectures, computer-based drill, are inadequate for implementation within ill-structured domains because they depend on organized and linear techniques. This theory suggest that instructional designs should be easily accessible in amanner that it closely mimics non – linear nature of domain for it to fully comprehend the complexcity and unpredictable variability of information (1995). DESIGNING A HYPERMEDIA LEARNING MATERIAL      Designing a hypermedia-based learing material consists of the following phases: Preparation; Development; and Evaluation. Phase 1: Preparation      Determining the users' characteristics.  Learner characteristics is one of the most important factors effecting the design of hypermedia learning material.  Specifically, it is necessary to examine the level of prior knowledge that the learners have on the subject.  If the learner has prior knowledge, it is easier to integrate the new knowledge into the existing knowledge structure and decide on meaningful learning steps in the instructional tool.  In addition to this, the age and maturity of the users are other important aspects to be considered.      Identifying the objectives of the units.   Before one develops a hypermedia learning material, one should identify the objectives of the units.  In other words, what he learners should ought to achieve after taking these units.      Conducting content analysis. Content analysis should be conducted and concepts, interrelated concepts, and procedures should be determined on the basis of the objectives of the units determined.  Systematic relationships between the concepts should be organized.  A subject-matter expert should be called to evaluate the semantic relationships of the concepts determined.      Determining the learning strategies.  According to  (1996), meaningful learning involves gaining ideas, concepts, and principles, and then relating new knowledge to existing knowledge.      This means one should first provide general and simple knowledge, then detailed and specific knowledge.  At the beginning of each unit, a short video episodes that explains the units overall can be used as advance organizers to help users relate new knowledge to the existing knowledge in their memory.      Identifying the knowledge organization approaches that best suit the learning strategies.  One should manage the issues of knowledge organization and linking nodes to each other at this point.  One is suggested to use hierarchical links in the material, by first presenting the basic concepts, and then subordinate concepts related to the basic concepts. In addition to this hierarchical links, one should elaborate to explain the concepts from simple to complex and from general to specific. Phase 2: Development      Concept mapping.  To ascertain interrelations between concepts determined in content analysis, one should construct concept maps of the units.  This stage is important because this shows each node and links between the nodes.      Story boarding.  Story boarding is the last step before the programming stage. Story boarding involves showing each navigation window on a page.  This includes active keys, the names of linked windows, links, text, visuals, video, sound, and graphics of the page.      Programming.  One can use any hypermedia program available in the market, such as Microsoft FrontPage 2.0, an HTML editor.   It is advised to seek help to a computer software technician or computer software engineer to what kind of program is suitable to you. Phase 3: Evaluation      After the material is developed, seek an instructional technology specialist, a subject-area expert, and three subject-area teachers for evaluation.  Then revise and improved the material according to the feedback received from those experts. AVANTAGES AND DISADVATAGES OF HYPERMEDIA-BASED LEARNING Advantages      In the building hypermedia-based learning instruction, four advantages of this learning environment can emerge: 1) multiple perspectives, 2) collaborative learning, 3) learner-orientation, and 4) interdisciplinary learning. Multiple perspectives      Hypermedia-based learning instruction offers multiple linkages and contextual learning environments. Owing to its having multiple perspectives, hypermedia provides an environment that goes beyond the traditional instructional approach rather than settling for a single dimension ( 1996).      From a constructivist point of view, individuals using their experiences as a foundation can construct knowledge personally from internal representations.  In this kind of learning activities, knowledge is based on individual constructions that are not tied to any external reality, but rather to the learner's interactions with the external world (, 1993).   Collaborative learning      Hypermedia learning instruction offers interactive communication and creates a potentially collaborative learning environment. In this system, learners can engage in side-by-side and online discussion, debate, or negotiation. In addition to this, this simultaneously synchronous and asynchronous nature provides a productive environment for group problem-solving activities for the generation and testing of new ideas. Moreover, this feature of the networking process for collaborative learning is a democratic environment where all learners have an equal opportunity to share their views. Learner-orientation      Hypermedia provides a "high learner control" environment.  These learner control systems enable learners to make decisions about which paths to follow through instructional materials, the scope and extent of inquiry into different domains and contents that will be followed.  In fact, increasing learner control can aid learning by individualizing the instruction and making it more motivating (, 1989).  The Web system, based on hypermedia and hypertext linking, facilitates student-centered instructional settings and creates a motivating and active learning environment (, 1994). Interdisciplinary learning      The characteristics of hypermedia facilitate interdisciplinary learning through its massive information database, multiplicity, multiple linkages, multiple mixed media, and responsive interactive navigation tools (1996).  The hypermedia learning environment, based on non-linear and interactive communication, encourages learners to explore related knowledge and information to promote interdisciplinary learning activities.  When hypermedia are integrated with the Internet, this web-based hypermedia system allows all individuals with a browser to transfer files and information from thousands of possible real-life sources to themselves ( 1998). Disadvantages or Limitations      Also, there are four limitations of hypermedia-based learning, and these are: Learner's background discrepancy, Disorientation, Over-rich information, and Ineffective user-interface. Learner's background discrepancy      Unlike structural computer-assisted instruction (CAI), hypermedia provides loose structure and more interactive learning circumstances.  Many users of hypermedia systems have found that they could not take advantages of this medium if they lacked the required computer skills (1998).  Making learners lacking the necessary basic skills and self-discipline may do better in a traditional delivery mode of learning.      Although a hypermedia learning environment provides a transformable relationship among the learners themselves, their collaborators, their teachers, and the information base, learners' self-regulated skills are still a crucial factor to build a successful implementation and integration of hypermedia learning instruction into the curriculum ( 1996).  Before engaging in a hypermedia learning environment, one should ask what the teacher and the student’s attitudes towards hypermedia. Disorientation      Although the characteristics of hypermedia of providing nonlinear and learner-controlled instructional environment match human metacognitive skills and assist users to understand what needs to be done in a particular situation and to navigate and process information (1995), one drawback of this structure is the potential for users to become disoriented or "lost" in hyperspace ( 1990).      To avoid losing learners in hyperspace, a potential approach might be developed using the "big picture" at first ( 1996). This means that learners first focus the majority of their attention on the structural aspects of the instructional lesson.  Once learners have a grasp of the main structure, then they could be instructed to focus more attention on the details of important concepts and ideas.  Another approach would be is to create more user-friendly interfaces to assist learners to control their directions, and this is beginning to happen in the field. Over-rich information      The problem of over-rich information is one of the typical issues with hypermedia instruction in Internet systems. This situation presents users with cognitive overload. Typically, in a hypermedia environment, users are no longer merely consumers of information; they are also expected to create and add their own knowledge to this instructional system. So the information sources become increasingly varied (1998).      From a sociocultural viewpoint, knowledge can not be divorced from learners' historical and cultural backgrounds ( 1992). This means that learning is the interpretation of knowledge by learners, and learning best occurs in the context that it will be used (, 1995). When information overloading occurs, learners find it more difficult to select and interpret information into their own knowledge. Moreover, they may become frustrated searching endlessly in cyberspace. Ineffective user-interface      User-interface, or the information landscape, refers to the way information is organized and the interface through which the users have access to the information.  Today, the problem is not so much in finding information but sifting through the huge amount that is readily available and locating the particular pieces that are of most interest at the moment.  So the quality of user interfaces has a great deal to do with whether a new media program is easy to use and helpful or frustrating and irritating ( 1997).      User interface design is a crucial role in hypermedia systems.  Commonly, tools like browsers, search engines, concept maps, guide tours, and metaphors are all user interfaces in hypermedia instruction. Owing to individual differences, educators should pay more attentions in users' attitudes while designing hypermedia learning environments.  An effective user-interface is a key factor to provide users with an ability to arrange the information in nonlinear ways. CONCLUSION      Hypermedia learning environment may help students learn course-related knowledge in several ways.  This environment should be used not only for distance learning but also an instructional aid in traditional learning to help students enhance their learning, and provide an interactive rich environment.      But still, further studies should be made for the future of hypermedia learning, such as combining it with other type of software.  In addition, different cognitive styles might also affect knowledge acquisition and retention in hypermedia learning environments and this should also be studied.                       BIBLIOGRAPHY:

LEARNING/TEACHING STRATEGIES

INTRODUCTION Since the dawn of time, human had always had this thirst for knowledge. No one knows for sure, but to my opinion...