Research Korner: Poverty Case Studies

Social Investment : An Anti-Poverty Approach

With the help of social investment, there is a desirable anti-poverty approach that can integrate the economic growth. The partnership of social investment or social work in terms of the developmental needs of the society can deal more effectively with the changing economic environments and political priorities. A combination of international organizations can strengthen the basic social services allotted for the poor. International social work means that the main beneficiary is the people as an effective driver of changes in sustaining the equitable growth and wealth. Social service can be effective if there is a strong investment all for the opportunities such as the education, health and human capital development. It is important that the social investment and priorities are revealed against the poverty. The Human Poverty Index(HPI) is the contemporary theory proposed by the United Nations which is the result of the ongoing procedure of social works around the world. The developmental strategies that it can contribute to the country are to measure the dimensions of poverty aside from the information that it can gain from solely income (Seipel, 2003).

Social Investment : An Anti-Poverty Approach

With the help of social investment, there is a desirable anti-poverty approach that can integrate the economic growth. The partn...

A Sample Theoretical Framework : Input-Process-Output Model

Chapter 3 Methodology             Methodologies are outlooks on research; they set out an image for what research is and how it should be carried out. Basically, axioms and methods are connected to each other. Methods are tools or techniques of gathering of data, techniques of analysis, and techniques of writing. Since it is a tool, then a scrupulous method can often be used by many different methodologies (both qualitative and quantitative). Therefore, methodologies are at a more abstract (or general) level than are methods. Apparently, www.encyclopedia.com defined ‘methodology’ as a strategy or plan for achieving some goal. In contrast to this, methods are the tactics that can be used to service the goals of the methodology. In essence, methodologies provide the blueprints that prescribe how the tools should be used. Those prescriptions can be traced to the axioms -- beliefs about how research should be conducted. According to Saunders, Mark; Lewis, Philip & Thornhill, Adrian (2004), all research will possibly involve categorical or numerical data or data that can be use for analysis to help the researcher answer the research questions.  In connection to this, Saunders, Mark; Lewis, Philip & Thornhill, Adrian (2004; p.327) defined quantitative as a type of empirical knowledge. Actually, qualitative data are described in expressions of quality. Qualitative is the converse of quantitative, which more precisely describes data in terms of quantity (that is, using 'formal' numerical measurement).             In connection to this, this chapter will discuss the research design, significance of the study, conceptual framework, participants & the methods course, data sources, historical thinking skills, data collection, data analysis, validation of the data, ethical consideration and summary of the chapter. The Research Design             In order to come up with the most suitable research approaches and strategies for this study, the research process “onion” is undertaken. This is because conducting a research is like peeling the back layers of an onion—in order to come to the central issue of how to collect the necessary data needed to answer the research questions and objectives, important layers should be first peeled away. With the said process, the researcher was able to create an outline on what measures are most appropriate to be applied in the study. Saunders et al (2004) said that while it is not unusual for a researcher to first think of his research undertaking by considering whether one should, for instance, administer a questionnaire or conduct interviews, thoughts on this question should belong to the centre of the research ‘onion’. That is, in order to come to the central issue of how to collect the data needed to answer one’s research questions, there are important layers of the onion that need to be peeled away: the first layer raises the question of the research philosophy to adopt, the second considers the subject of research approach that flows from the research philosophy, the third examines the research strategy most applicable, the fourth layer refers to the time horizon a researcher applies to his research, and the fifth layer is the data collection methods to be used. Figure 1 shows how the researcher conceptualised the research approach to be applied in this study by Saunder, Lewis, and Thornhill (2003), in order to come up with the pertinent data needed to answer the research questions stated in the first chapter, as well as to arrive to the fulfilment of this research undertaking’s objectives. As shown in Figure 1, the research philosophy that is reflected in this study is positivism. With this research philosophy, a researcher prefers to work with an observable social reality in order to come up with law-like generalisations similar to those produced by the physical and natural scientists (Remenyi et al, 1998), and in this tradition, the researcher becomes an objective analyst, coolly making detached interpretations about those data that have been collected in an apparently value-free manner (Saunders et al, 2004). Meanwhile, the second layer shows that this study has undertaken a deductive approach. Accordingly, this approach has five sequential stages: deducing a hypothesis; expressing the hypothesis in operational terms; testing this operational hypothesis; examining the specific outcome of the inquiry to either confirm the theory or indicate the need for its modification; and finally, modifying the theory in the light of the findings (if necessary) (Robson, 1993, p. 19). Significance of the study In recent years, historians and history educators have concluded that historical literacy requires children in grades four through twelve learn and refine historical thinking skills (National Standards for History in School, 1996; National Council for the Social Studies Standards, 1994). Therefore, young people in high school history classes should become increasingly adept at analyzing and interpreting primary sources such as diaries, old photographs, government documents, and other artifacts from the past. Furthermore, students should demonstrate increased historical literacy. They should be able to compose more refined and coherent narratives of what happened and why. To demonstrate historical literacy, students must also be able to properly cite evidence on which they base their historical narratives and interpretations. The requirement of documenting claims about the past, in part, distinguishes historical literacy from other kinds of literacy skills. History teachers could help students improve the above skills by helping students comprehend broad historical themes. They could help them to weave historical materials from various historical sources into coherent historical narratives (Fehn & Koeppen, 1998). This could be done because effective history teachers have a deep understanding of how historians investigate and reconstruct the past and understand that historical knowledge is always open to revision and interpretation (Yeager & Davis, 1994; Wineburg, 1991, 2001). These teachers are comfortable with the ambiguity of conflicting evidence and are aware of the sources of bias in historical documents. History teachers who possessed a deep understanding of history and the historiograghic principles are the ones who will become successful teachers of history (National Standards for History in the Schools 1996).                          This study joined the  lines of research that have investigated the nature of historical thinking skills among professional historians, secondary social studies teachers, elementary school teachers, high school students and elementary school students (Yeager & Wilson, 1997; Fehn & Koeppen 1998; Wunder, 2002; Wineburg, 1991 & 2001.) It explores the historical thinking skills of pre service teachers so far neglected by previous researchers (Wunder, 2002; Seixas, 1998). In order to do so, this study investigated the historical thinking skills exhibited by five would-be history teachers in a, mid western public university in the United States and how they planned their teaching strategies to teach the thinking skills. This study shed some understanding on the similarities and differences between these individuals. This study managed to identify, describe and compare the historical thinking skills of the participants and described and analyzed the instructional strategies that they utilized to teach historical thinking skills. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework The theoretical framework that will be used in the study is the Input-Process-Output Model. In the IPO model, a process is viewed as a series of boxes (processing elements) connected by inputs and outputs. Information or material objects flow through a series of tasks or activities based on a set of rules or decision points. (Harris & Taylor, 1997) Flow charts and process diagrams are often used to represent the process. (Harris & Taylor, 1997) What goes in is the input; what causes the change is the process; what comes out is the output. (Armstrong, 2001) Figure 1.1 illustrates the basic IPO model:                      The IPO model will provide the general structure and guide for the direction of the study. Substituting the variables of this study on the IPO model, the researcher came up with the following: Participants and The Methods Course             The researcher enlisted five would be secondary education social studies teachers in a mid western public university in the United States. The participants were going through the social studies methods course when they were enlisted, and they volunteered to take part in this study. Data Sources The data sources consisted of five historical documents and the lesson plans that were developed by the participants. Historical Thinking Skills             To elicit and detect historical thinking skills, the researcher presented the participants with five different categories of historical documents. They depicted an overarching theme of slavery. Those documents were: a.                  an etching from the 1700s illustrating a coffle of slaves in Africa marching under guard towards the sea, b.                  a painting of the “Amistad” depicting a slave revolt at sea (based upon an actual event), c.                  an excerpt from the 1852 Alabama Slave Code, d.                  a letter from James Henry Hammond, and e.                  a photograph of armed African American in the Union army uniform in front of a barrack.              The documents were selected to simulate a professional historian’s task of weaving together a coherent historical narrative from a mix of historical sources: a painting, an etching, a photograph, a letter, and printed documents. This mix of historical materials offered the participants opportunities to interpret non-written materials as well as written materials. Both type of materials are essential in elucidating historical thinking abilities (Wineburg, 2001 and Levstik & Barton, 2001). The task given to the participants potentially enabled inter-textual comparisons between historical sources. On the back of each source was printed the author of the source and the date it was produced. If the respondents checked the date and source of the document, they would exhibit their historical heuristic skills which is to evaluate the attribution of the source, assess the author’s stance and its truthfulness by examining the date and source of the documents, relate it to the historical background that represents that period, and assess the truth of the author’s biases and intentions (Wineburg, 1991). The five historical sources provided the participants the chance to reconstruct a rich portrait of slavery in the United States. Each of the five selected historical sources for this study was chosen for specific reasons: <ul type="disc" style="MARGIN-TOP: 0in; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0in"><li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Slave coffle (1700). This etching is an indication that slavery was a terrible system of exploitation. Together with the other sources, the etching could suggest an overarching theme of exploitation and oppression that the respondent could narrate in their story. This generalization would cohere with the respondent’s previous understanding about slavery (Fehn, et.al.1997). The etching, through the subtext, also could direct the participant’s attention to the fact that Africans were implicated in the enslavement of other Africans, portraying a complex view of slavery. It shows that slavery happened everywhere and the researcher intends to discern whether the participants will include these notions in their narratives. Furthermore, the researcher wanted to detect if the participants evaluate etching as more or less reliable historical evidence than other types of historical sources, thus displaying their sourcing heuristic skills described above.</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Amistad (1841). The painting was selected to see whether the participants are aware that slaves rebelled violently against their captors. The painting should motivate the participants to explore the theme of slave resistance and detect whether they can weave the theme of resistance into a more complex history of slavery. The Armistad tested the sourcing heuristic skills of the participants by inviting them to ponder its validity since it was painted more than a hundred years after the actual rebellion (Fehn, et. Al. 1997).</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">Alabama Slave Code (1852). The excerpts from the code gave the opportunity to the participants to form diverse possibilities of interpretations and to an overarching theme of a legally sanctioned and rigid system of slave control. The code provided specific evidence portraying restricted lives experienced by the slaves. This document allowed the participants to identify a “subtext” an inference that slaves tended to rebel or flee for their freedom. </li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">James Hammond’s Letter. James Hammond’s Letter provided the participants the opportunity to analyze the thoughts of a slave owner justifying slavery to an English abolitionist staying in England. The researcher could detect whether the participants provided valid interpretations about the thoughts of the slave owner in the context of the period the letter was written, particularly with regards to the other sources that were presented to them. With hope, the participants will evaluated the letter in terms of its reliability as a historical source (Fehn, et.al. 1997).</li> <li class="MsoNormal" style="LINE-HEIGHT: 200%; TEXT-ALIGN: justify">African-American Soldiers (1864).  A photograph of Civil War soldiers will be included to elucidate the theme of resistance in the narrative of the respondents. The researcher wanted to know if the respondents could weave a narration from the photo to include discussions about the slaves’ participation in their own liberation through armed struggle. The researcher also wanted to see if the participants regarded photograph as a reliable historical event. </li></ul>             Lesson Plan. On the other hand, the lesson plan of the participants was chosen to identify the ability of the participants to develop effective lessons for teaching historical thinking skills. Each participant was required to develop a lesson plan using primary sources as part of the course requirement. The teachers’ lesson plans were collected and photocopied as a data source for this study since the purpose of this study is also to describe the instructional strategies that the participants developed. The content of the lesson plans were viewed, analyzed, and coded for characteristics of an effective history lesson.             Furthermore, lesson plans were chosen to analyze effective history teaching strategies because lesson plans revealed information such as teacher activities and how they communicated with the students. Generally an effective lesson plan has an introduction, body, opportunity for questions, and summary. These components are bound together with time cues, media cues and practice (Toney, 1991).             According to Cramer, R. & Schwartz, R., (1989), lesson planning can be divided into three types; content, process, and context. Each type helps to organize classroom activities, and together they establish the ambiance of the learners’ learning process. Content plans focus on information students should know. Instructional strategies designed to introduce or elaborate the content should be included in the plan.             Apparently, process plans help student learn how to perform cognitive skills or procedures. Process skills include procedural knowledge that supports independent learning. Context plans set the larger framework in which content and process lessons occur. Context plan can include decisions about grouping, discipline, and grading. The lesson planner can develop process lesson plans in six steps: a) decide what process would improve student performance, b) help student understand the purpose of the lesson, c) help students connect prior knowledge to process new information, d) break instruction into incremental steps to help students develop their performance theory, e) provide meaningful practice in the process, f) extend the lesson by making applications to other areas (Cramer &Schwartz, 1989).  Well structured content plans and process plans will help insure that all students make progress in acquiring the knowledge and skills set by the lesson objectives (Cramer, & Schwartz, 1989). Data Collection The Interview For the face-to-face interview part, open-ended questions will be used to obtain as much information as possible about how the interviewees feel about the research topic. The researcher will interview 5 purposively selected individuals. The researcher will design a semi-structured interview. Using this type of interview enables the researcher/interviewer probe deeper on the issues of biracial identity development. Unlike structured interviews which are standardised and do not allow the interviewer to deviate from the questions (Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2004), this type of interview does not limit response of the interviewees. Open questioning, in addition, will help me explore the topic and produce a fuller account. In this case, interviewees are encouraged to clarify vague statements and to further elaborate on brief comments. The researcher will not also share her own beliefs and opinions so as not to influence the answer of the interviewee. Importantly, the researcher will avoid leading questions and showing personal bias as these may result to interviewee or response bias (Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill, 2004). In the face-to-face interview, the distribution and collation methods that will be used to manage the process will ensure anonymity. A cover letter will explain to them what the research is all about and how the researcher intends to regard the survey with high confidentiality. The results from the interview will be given in question and answer format. Moreover, content analysis will be drawn from the interviews to identify the development of biracial identity. Actually, the best way to understand a respondent’s past experience, thoughts, and attitudes are through interviews and document analysis (Guba & Lincoln, (1981). Data was gathered and recorded through one 30 minute semi-structured interview session with each participant. Semi-structured interviews allow for flexibility, therefore obtaining optimum information regarding a topic from the participant, and they are more likely than other forms of inquiry to provide a complete picture (Guba and Lincoln, 1981). The recorded interviews were transcribed by the researcher and the content was analyzed for the presence of historical thinking skills. The member check procedure was used to validate the accuracy. The participants were given the transcript to confirm the authenticity of its content. The interview began with a warm up phase to familiarize the participants with the exercise. The participants were shown the photograph of a slave with horrendous whipping scars on his back and were asked questions about this photograph stands out to you? What grabs your attention?” These questions elicited from the respondents what they considered the central elements that provide an overarching theme for the documents or sources. Then they were asked, “What does the photograph convey to you about slavery? What was slavery like?” These questions guided the respondents to initiate reconstruction of historical narratives with regard to slavery. Then the participants’ attention was directed towards the reverse side of the photograph that was printed with the photograph’s title, the person who took it and when it was taken. This procedure encouraged them to exhibit their sourcing heuristic capability. The warm up phase usually lasted about five minutes. After the warm-up session, the participants were presented with the five historical sources mentioned before. The participants were instructed to examine the five sources and were asked the same questions as during the warm-up session. Following that, the participants were asked to tell a narrative that tied all the sources together while emphasizing that there is no right or wrong answers. The participants were encouraged to take notes and make an outline of the narrative. The participants were allowed to refer to their notes while voicing their narratives to the researcher but none of them did. After examining the sources, the participants shared their narratives with the researcher without any interruption. Then, the participants were asked to identify the most important source for their narrative and the reasons they considered the source importance. Subsequently, the participant’s historical heuristic ability was assessed by asking the following questions: “Which documents are the best ones for writing an accurate history of slavery? Which document is the best source of information? Which is the least reliable source of information?”  This phase lasted for about 15 minutes. Throughout each session, the researcher acted as a naïve listener and accepting anything the participants said and declining to interpret any responses. The researcher from time to time however offered clarification or prodded the participants to elaborate on a comment or observation they had made. Lesson Plan The lesson plans that the participants developed were collected over duration of the course and analyzed to detect characteristics of effective history teaching. Data Analysis The qualitative method of data analysis utilized in this study consist of making sense of raw data by identifying sign posts that determine the presence of characteristics of historical thinking skills and effective teaching strategies to teach those skills. The content was analyzed in order to make sense out of a phenomenon. In this study the phenomenon was historical thinking skills and effective teaching strategies to teach these skills. The data allowed the researcher to describe historical thinking skills and effective teaching strategies after analyzing interview transcripts and the lesson plans. These characteristics were explicitly analyzed to detect sign posts of historical thinking skills and of effective teaching strategies. Basically, Mays & Pope, (2000) believes that qualitative research uses explanatory methods in describing the variables wherein the data, situations, or other facts collected will be explained or correlated with other data. According to them qualitative research methods are useful when conducting a study wherein the data are immeasurable, such as feelings, beliefs, thoughts, and others. Moreover, Yin (1984) stated that qualitative methods is important to management analysis, organisation studies and even to business development since it assist the researchers who desire to understand complex social phenomena. They are appropriate when seeking knowledge about the fundamental characteristics of a phenomenon being studied before theorising about it. This knowledge often surfaces through close contact with subjects of a study, allowing the researcher to understand their points of view about and experiences with the phenomenon. Researchers even disagree on the definition of "qualitative." For example, some researchers use terms such as naturalistic and descriptive, as well as field, product, and case study. Perhaps the best way to clear up some of the confusion about qualitative research is to examine some its most accepted methodologies and characteristics. On the other hand, Wolcott (1992) proposes that there are but three general types of data-gathering techniques in qualitative studies: experiencing, enquiring, and examining. These three techniques are used, Wolcott argues, in such diverse qualitative approaches as case studies, non-participant observed studies, interviews, participant observation, phenomenology, ethnomethodology, enography, and ethnology. As Wolcott (1992) notes, most qualitative research is based on a case study that uses one or several of these qualitative techniques, enabling researchers to immerse themselves within a culture or a context and producing questions to pursue for further research and understanding of phenomena. As an extension of the qualitative technique of interviewing, Byers and Wolcott, H. F. (1992) proposed that focus groups offer researchers a rich source in which to gather genuine information about participants' perceptions, experiences, and attitudes which provide a basis from which to build theory. Another variation of interviewing techniques proposed by Martin and Chaney (1992) is the Delphi technique, which can be valuable in gathering data on a subject from a panel of experts. In connection to this, the collected and analyzed data were checked for accuracy by a social studies professor who teaches social studies methods course. He was selected because of his knowledge and familiarity with conducting similar research on a similar topic and similarity in reporting such research. This expertise is necessary so that he is able conduct an informal examination of the data. The expert examined the raw data, transcripts, data that have been coded and analyzed, and reconstructed and synthesized items. For this study, a participant was considered to exhibit interpretive skills if he or she focused on aspects of a historical source in deriving meanings about slavery or slave owners. As part of the analysis, the participants were assessed for whether or not they provided elaborate or circumscribed interpretations of the sources. Numerous possible interpretations and detailed analysis of the sources indicated a higher level of interpretation skill (Wineburg, 1991, 2001; Fehn, 1997).  The researcher also checked the ability of the participants to recognize overarching themes or generalizations to provide a coherent relationship among the sources. The participants’ ability to construct a sophisticated narrative, such as the ability to weave the themes of oppression and resistance in their narrative, was also assessed.  The researcher assessed if and how the participant used all or a few of the sources as authentic evidence in support of his or her generalization or theme. Finally the researcher analyzed interview transcripts to determine the usage of historical heuristic as the participants narrated their stories. Historical heuristic is the ability of the participants to critically evaluate and distinguish between a more reliable source and less reliable source with substantive arguments or reasons (Wineburg, 1991, 2001 ; Fehn, 1997). The researcher compared the similarities and differences between the participants because the individual differences affect an individual teacher’s perception of historical thinking and learning (Larsson, 1998). In identifying effective teaching strategies for teaching historical thinking skills the researcher analyzed and evaluated the lesson plan based on three principles derived from the literature review on chapter three with regard to teaching and learning history. The principles are; (a) history is interpretive and is explained through narratives; (b) learning history is through in depth understanding; (c) history is learned through disciplined inquiry. History is interpretive and is explained through narratives suggested that a single historical account is not entirely objective. The historical events were over and cannot be directly observed. The only way to find out what happened is through using primary sources and artifacts which students can interpret and develop into narratives of what might have happened. In other words, an effective history lesson should utilize historical documents and artifacts that are relevant to the topic and objectives of the lesson. Learning history through in depth understanding means that students should know how to interpret history and write narratives about history. Just knowing historical facts such as dates, events, and people does not mean greater historical understanding. To attain in depth understanding, teachers should use teaching strategies that help students to organize ideas and engage them in sustained activities so they have enough time to understand and reflect on the meaning and significance of what they are studying.  This could be achieved by encouraging students to interrogate the primary sources, collecting data, questioning, interpreting, explaining, developing historical narratives and organizing a community of critical learners History learned through discipline inquiry means that students should learn history through a process of systematic inquiry that is specifically historical.  They should be taught the historian’s craft of interrogating primary sources. They have to learn how to evaluate sources, how to reconcile and explain conflicting accounts, and how to properly narrate their own account of historical events. In conclusion, this chapter provides the explanation on the methodical procedures that the researcher followed to collect, analyze and validate the data for this study.  The findings, conclusions, and recommendations of this study were derived from the guidelines presented in this chapter for the purpose of producing a responsible and thrust worthy research findings. Validation of the Data According to Stewart and Kamins (1993), the use of secondary data is advantageous for a researcher since one can already evaluate the suitability of a data as it is already in existence, thus, much time can be saved. Needless to say, an evaluation of potential secondary data is very important before one incorporates it in his/her study. In this study, the researcher adopted the three-stage process devised by Saunders et al (2004, p. 205): The first stage is assessing the overall suitability of data to research questions and objectives. During this stage, the researcher paid particular attention to measurement validity (measuring / estimating whether the secondary data will result to a valid answer to the research questions and objectives) and coverage (this includes ensuring whether or not the data is wanted and can be included, as well as making sure that sufficient data remain for analyses to be undertaken once unwanted data have been excluded). The second stage is evaluating precisely the suitability of data for analyses needed to answer and meet the research questions and objectives. In this stage, the researcher made sure of the validity and reliability of the secondary data by assessing how it was previously gathered, who are its sources, and the likes. Also, the researcher was cautious not to commit measurement bias (which can occur due to deliberate distortion of data or changes in the way data are collected) had been paid close attention. Finally, the researcher judged whether to use data based on an assessment of costs and benefits in comparison with alternative sources. Ethical Consideration The data generated will be used solely to understand the development of teaching and learning theories. The researcher is solely responsible for conducting the whole research process and shall abide all the policies regarding the organization as well as the university. The data will not be transferable for any means in person or organization. The research is being done according to the guidelines and rules and regulations of the university. The researcher does not belong to any professional bodies to share the outcome of the research results. The four stages of ethics in doing research are followed by the way of a good design, modes of data collection, analysis of data and for proper dissemination. Both confidentiality and anonymity will be maintained of the informants who have participated or shared information in the research. There will be no Coercion or force to take advantage from the informants. Full voluntary guarantee will be taken from the informants. Due consideration and approval will be taken from the organization which is being studied. Prior objectives and motive of the research will be intimated. There shall be no misrepresentation or misuse of the data collected from the organization. Strict confidentiality shall be maintained. Finally, the university for dissemination of academic purposes might take the data collected. Summary             As stated in this chapter, the researcher will undergo stages. In the research design, the researcher will collect secondary data and will formulate and develop an interview. In this stage, this instrument will be subjected to approval and validation. During the data collection, the researcher will collate and summarize the data obtained from the literatures and survey. The researcher will then analyze these data and from these, findings and recommendations will be presented. In summary, the researcher will have taken four major phases to complete the study. Phase 1: Problem Identification for Research             In the first phase, the researcher identifies the specific focus of the problem to be researched. This involves reviewing existing theory, research, and practices from professional literature. This process helps me integrate theoretical perspectives and empirical findings with my own understanding of the problem, and discern the aspect of the problem the researcher want to research and learn more about. Phase 2: Administration of the Instrument             After reviewing literature, the researcher formulates questions for the survey and makes a set of guide questionnaires for the interview. These are then presented to the advisor for validation purposes. Phase 3: Data Collection and Analysis             In the third phase, the researcher will collect and analyse data for the purposes of identifying critical variables specific to their setting. These data will enable me to achieve a specific understanding of the problem. Phase 4: Data Synthesis and Generation of Recommendations             In the fourth phase, the researcher will synthesise findings from the previous phases and relevant previous research. The focus of this stage is to synthesise these data to modify existing hypotheses and account for different factors, as well as generating recommendations based on new understandings. During this phase, research-based, culture-specific recommendations for action will be generated.

A Sample Theoretical Framework : Input-Process-Output Model

Chapter 3 Methodology Methodologies are outlooks on research; they set out an image for what research is...

Reflections From The Epic of Gilgamesh

Introduction             Dominance and subordination is synonymous to leader-follower scheme wherein the relationship is ideal to obtain the performance of one another’s societal functions in an effective and efficient manner.  The dominant imparts its decision-making and problem solving capabilities to uphold the welfare of people.  In return, subordinates serve the former and follow its conquest that precipitate to loyalty and respect.  The president who is widely respected by the citizenry, a husband who is loved and cared by his wife, and professors who are idolized by students are few of some dominance-subordination design in the society.             To determine such relationship is one thing, to verify the cause and extent of its existence is another.  On top of these is its purpose and implications to social order.  By analyzing the characters, their actions and their aspirations from “The Epic of Gilgamesh”, resolutions to the phenomenon can be settled and questions will be answered. Pillars of Social Order                   Because Gilgamesh has a “one-third man, two-third God” identity that resulted to super-natural strength, courage and “beauty”, he was basically known as a hero, and ultimately a king of.  For his part, he should maintain his dominance and show his capability to rule on a regular basis to retain the status quo.  This is exemplified through his stand against, challenge to demon-like and brawl against Bull of Heaven (50) that was all proclaimed victory across his name.  Every triumph was regarded a signal of competence and enduring dominance.  However, being a king who possess of powers, ill-effects of abusing it (xix) was inevitable.  But the extent of the abuse did not outweigh the extent of dominance, and so, continuing the order.  Distant from the tendencies to abuse power, Gilgamesh has a number of virtues like self-discipline (scoring marriage from Ishtar) (50) and camaraderie  which strengthened his right to rule.             The features of the main character in the epic are compatible to run a city which was regulated by deities.  The people are at peace that their kingdom will not be easily penetrated by warfare or profoundly cursed by gods.  They can rely to Gilgamesh to do the fighting to outsiders or negotiating to gods as the need arise.  They can focus more on household requirements like livelihood, raising children and develop the local economy.  With this, social order was met.  Thinking of the reverse, when people are equal in power and homogenous in status without the guide of a ruler and an established kingdom, they are highly vulnerable to threats from the outside and the gods would curse without mercy.  Civilization could be slowly attained because people are limited in their aspirations of development knowing that instability and lack of direction could annihilate their efforts in an instant.             This drive to subordination as determinant of social order, however, was partially shaken by Enkindu who hated the abusive side of Gilgamesh that ignited a collision.  Even Enkindu was lost in the confrontation, the conflict emphasized that dominance should be directed strictly to good purpose alone.  This showed that even a human from the wild is bounded to guard the acts of the ruler to assure that a certain social order does not result to ill-effects like the abusive tendencies of the dominant.  It also exemplified that the dominant-subordinate system would tend to adjust when roles of one another go beyond the rationale behind the creation of the system and deprived the other of substantial power or freedom.  Being the goddess of love, Ishtar retaliated against the refused marriage (50) she initiated partly because it is a deviation from the norm opposite her known status.  Also, the wife of Utanapishtim demonstrated this friction when she urged her husband and succeeded to reward the hardship of Gilgamesh (96) --- apart from the inherent subordination of women.                 The extent and implications of subordination was also enormous in the story.  The decision of the Council of Gods to impose a death verdict to, who had less initiative and participation to the conquest relative to Gilgamesh, illustrated that subordination can justify sacrifice on the part of a subordinate, even its life, to sustain the relative crucial role of the king in the society.  On the other hand, loyal (Utanapishtim) and valuable (Gilgamesh) subordinates in relation to its dominant ruler (Gods) would reward the former by sparing its life and renewing its glory (like Shamash intervention (40) in favor of Gilgamesh against Humbaba) or even bestow eternal life (96) (like Utanapishtim and his wife).                       Further, the subordination of women to sexual needs of men in the epic evidenced that such could be also used to achieve an end aside from the peripheral goal of obtaining the system, as in the case of the trapper’s use of harlot (2) to expel from the endowments of the wild.  In the stance of ferry-based servant, subordination meant less security in terms of tenure particularly means of living. The epic is largely immersed to the dominance of partly-god stature of Gilgamesh.  However, his crown was regulated by the full-blooded gods specifically the Council of Gods.  He had lost bargaining capacity and tamed as a subordinate when his first-ever close friend, as on the verge of death (68) and he had nothing to do to prevent it.    His dominance was eclipsed by the gods who provided guidance and protection to him to continue his reign, and ultimately, the order in the kingdom. In every chapter of the epic, the dominance of gods over men and non-pure gods seemed to be the greatest impediment for Gilgamesh to optimally celebrate the fruits of his dominance over people.  However, the revealing fact of mortality and death seemed to be an overlapping factor behind his vulnerability.  He took much pain and sacrifice to seek the key to immortality.  In the process, he submitted himself to some extent of subordination to eternal life (82, 96).  Although he utilized his status and dominance through self-proclamation to Siduri and Urshanabi , the motive was aimed to immortality and his submission to it.  Due to the blazing desire to end personal subordination of a mortal to death, he underwent the test of Utanapishtim  without doubting of possible deception.  Frustrated, the failed quest confined him back to dominating stance again.  However, this move took away the consolation prize of achieving youth rejuvenation.  The suspicion in the effectiveness of the consolation ended him going home empty-handed.  Chapter 11 of the epic implied that such was an unwise thinking coming from an experienced warrior, celebrated hero and notable king.                                                .  Conclusion              The social order in the epic was achieved through establishing levels of hierarchy in the society.  Subordination, in the likes of Enkindu and his kind including the rest of the people, resulted to ordinary people’s submission of some of their practices under the rule, decision and scrutiny of Gilgamesh because of his domineering attributes.  On the other hand, his rule is neither absolute nor universal as deities are on top of the social system.  This dominance was enforced and permitted to happen, albeit of his partly god status, primarily because of immortality demarcation.  It limits the scope of dominance not only of Gilgamesh but also all mortals when speaking of their subordination.  Dominant and subordinate individuals alike have similar bottom-line, which is death.  This provides disincentive to the ruler to abuse his power aside from good cause and remind him that such wrong doing would not last for a long time because of limitation in life.  On the other hand, people would tend to respect the ruler’s decision and abide the kingdom’s development projects to maximize their existence in the world and help improve the status of civilization keeping in mind that time ticks away from every crime or rebellion they would ensue against a fair dominant and elite.  Social order is thus seen thorough the mutual understanding and accepted vulnerability of the actors in the society giving rise to peace, and ultimately, prosperity.                    Before ending, it is fitting to quote a character in the Asian movie “Hero” which stated, “All under heaven.”  According to the story, these three words transformed the then vicious imperial army to exercise non-violent and non-fatal way of conquering lands, and eventually, meeting the kingdom’s endeavor and achieving its ends.  Finally, being dominant, subordinate and mortal keeps everyone in social order and live each lives to fullest enjoyment.  However, to install abusive and rebellious acts to power or solicited inferiority will lead to disorder and doom of a society.

Reflections From The Epic of Gilgamesh

Introduction Dominance and subordination is synonymous to leader-follower scheme wherein the relationship is...

Brief Resume of the Alpha to Omega Programme

The said programme was a one hour weekly lesson. It is said to be a multi-sensory method of teaching. It incorporates reading, writing, and spelling as an integrated programme.             At the start of stage one, children like Jo would benefit from the lessons of sequencing, short vowels hard and soft ‘c’ and ‘g’ and wall words, along with the revision of more complex patterns such as consonant blends, vowel digraphs and homophones. Over learning and repetition dealing with grammatical structures are also included in the programme. To establish rapid recognition of words of sounds, letters, and spelling patterns, dictation is used in isolation and in context. Other activities are included to backed-up the core activities, such as games, worksheets, flashcards, and others.             The need of visual discrimination exercises are addressed to solved the difficulty with regards to the b/d directionality. An example is the cut-out letters of ‘b’ and ‘d’ out of sandpaper. This will help in the improvement of the child’s skill in rapid and accurate visual discrimination, including the correct recognition of words when reading, and to recall while spelling.             Dr. Strydorn’s colour blocks are also utilized to assist in the development of visual sequential memory. This is to answer the child’s weakness in recalling words. The exercises expand to cover auditory sequential memory in the latter part of the programme.             Another aim of the said programme is to develop the child’s short-term auditory sequential memory. This will be beneficial for the child in remembering longer spellings, writing words he had just heard, and writing from dictation. One game fitted for this is the ‘list game’.             Aside from the needs addressed above, concrete application of the segmentation procedure of the sounds in a word in its correct order is needed to complete the learning process. Games can also help in achieving this such as cutting of a written word (in cards) in its syllable components.  The task is to arrange it properly and read it. And for the final task, the child is required to make a ‘funny’ new word out of it. This teaches him the essential skills needed, not only for reading but as well as spelling.             For the improvement of the fluency of his penmanship, some handwriting techniques will be included in the program. The encouragement of the child to write longer sentences instead of rows of single letters is also advised. This will aid the child’s letter formation, fine manipulative control, neatness and speed of writing. And for the problem regarding the difficulty in remembering and retrieving from memory common sequences, alphabet wooden letters are used.  Automaticity is expected to be achieved in the ability to lay them out properly and in correct order. This presents a natural progression to over learn letter sounds to aid sound blending particularly the vowel sounds.  Also incorporating the days of the week and the months of the year is also advisable to be included since it addresses one of the difficulties of the child.  Assessment of the Difficulties Encountered             From the assessments results, it was found out that Jo has difficulties in different aspects of learning. This includes reading, writing, and spelling. This simply shows that he lacks the ability to carry-out literacy-related tasks. This was due to his limited working memory, which in turn slows down and limits his performance.             In answer to the said problems, the Alpha to Omega Programme was chosen to be the foundation of his lessons. At the start of the program, basic lessons in alphabetic activities were introduced so as to cope with the learning capacity of the child. The sequence then leads to more complex letter patterns as the programme progresses.             Over learning and repetition, which deals with grammatical structures, are also included in the programme. To keep hold of the child’s limited concentration span, a variety of short activities are devised to address the said issue.             The child’s b/d directionality was also improved as the lessons progressed. The difficulty of the correct formation of the letter ‘r’, as well as the other difficulties of the child, needs to be in a continued remediation level throughout the entire programme.                   On the early part of the programme, it was also found out that Jo had fine manipulation difficulties. In response to this, different writing tools were introduced, for him to find one that is most suitable and the one that produces the best cursive script.                In addition to the said difficulties, Jo also made a complaint regarding the color of the paper he is using. According to him, the brightness of the color white causes inconvenience during reading and writing. Again, in response to this, the idea of overlaying was presented to him. To dull the effects of the white image, the overlay is being laid over the print. And as a result, he has chosen the color blue, as he feels a lot more comfortable using the said color. The Eye Science blue lined writing paper, in particular, was his personal choice for his writing purposes. Progress Achieved as Shown on the Assessment Scores             For Jo’s writing skills, there are certain improvements on it. However, considerable attention on it is still needed. This was due to the assessment that his handwriting was still regarded as illegible. Simple things such as the proper seating position during writing should also be ensured for him to find ease during writing. A variety of writing tools are also utilized for his comfort. Basics on letter formation were commenced with a mixture of activities such as clay moulding and tracing of cut-out letters from sandpaper. This was used as an aid to the improvement process of letter formation. For the writing activities, it was improved from short sentences to dictation work. In the end, free writing exercises are introduced to demonstrate how well they progressed in terms of their writing legibility.             In terms of writing speed, Jo had manifested no improvement at all. According to the R. Hedderly Writing Single Speed, for the last three years, he got a raw score of 52. In its percentage equivalent, it is in the bottom 10%, which means a lot of effort is still needed since the programme seems to be not effective to him, as there is no foreseeable progress on his record.             In terms of spelling, his scores are still inadequate for his age. As the records show it, his latest raw score in the WRAT 3 Spelling Test of 30 is still far beyond the normal score for children his age. It can be seen on his age discrepancy result of 1.7-2 yrs. Therefore, a lot of improvement is still needed for him to catch up with his batch mates.              On the other hand, the results for his reading activities are as follows: for the M. Turner One Minute Reading Test – raw score of 101 with an increase of 8 pts. as of the previous one, discrepancy of 0.7 months from the previous result of 0.11 months; for the M. Turner Non-word Reading Test – raw score of 24 from a score of 22 last year, age discrepancy of 0.9 months from a previous result of 1.1-1.3 yrs; and for the WRAT 3 Reading Ability Test – a raw score of 39 (same as of last year), and reading age discrepancy of 0.5 months + from a previous result of 1.1-2 yrs. As a conclusion, although the figures show progress on his reading ability, it is still advisable for him to finish the programme. The results proved that the programme is effective on him and must continue until he can now read side by side with normal kids his age.             In terms of Jo’s reading comprehension, the weekly reading sessions of the said programme improved his word bank of sight vocabulary. The phonic material, which is also included in the programme, enables him to engage in word families’ recognition. The paired reading activity gave way for his improvement in terms of reading speed and confidence. Future Intervention Recommendations             With relation to the said improvements, it is therefore recommended for Jo to continue the said programme. This was to further improve and build his relative strengths on certain skills which show considerable improvements. A writing programme such as Text Help on his PC is also encouraged to assist him in writing short stories without concentrating on handwriting, spelling, punctuation, and that what he says make sense. The said PC programme will eliminate some of his difficulties, in the same way as it encourages him on putting down his thoughts on paper.             A Dictaphone is also another great help for him. In here, he could use it to dictate his story first, and then type it out afterwards. This will help him focus on his story line without worrying about the spelling, writing, and keeping hold of his thoughts, all at once.             In the reading part, Jo had improved enough to make him now enjoy reading short story thriller books. It is therefore advised for him to continue his paired reading scheme to continue building up his reading skills. This will in turn improve his comprehension, automaticity, as well as his confidence and self-esteem.              For him to progress on his phonological awareness on learning further rules and patterns on spelling, he should proceed with the stage 2 of the structured lessons of the said programme. Also, the introduced RAWS strategy should be applied continually in order for him to have a strategy to use. PC games are also recommended for him to have fun while learning.

Brief Resume of the Alpha to Omega Programme

The said programme was a one hour weekly lesson. It is said to be a multi-sensory method of teaching. It inco...

Poverty

Social Issue: POVERTY   Introduction The world has undergone several changes. A number of new technologies and innovations have been introduced, making work and living seem easier for some. However, in spite of these changes and developments, problems still arise. In the economic aspect, perhaps, one of the major and omnipresent problems of the world is poverty. People may be aware about it, what it is and why there is such a problem. Nonetheless, people are less knowledgeable or active in understanding how this problem can be resolved. Indeed it is ironic that in spite of the worsening status of poverty worldwide, a solution is still left undefined.             People understand poverty in various ways. Some aspects of these definitions are measurable, while some are not. Typically, people define and understand poverty as the inability to provide for ones needs. This condition or state is often termed as “moneylessness”. In a broader yet less concrete perspective, poverty is also considered as an aspect of social pathology, which includes not only the state of moneylessness but also the conditions of helplessness, lack of political influence, dependency and other similar situations. In this case, poverty is also a state of powerlessness. This type of poverty is less easily measured.              In the sense of moneylessness, poverty is defined as a problem of not having enough basic medium of exchange in order to satisfy the basic human needs as well as to function socially and economically. Within any society or part of the world, basic human needs always exist. Although the standards of living tend to vary from place to place, elementary human needs are basically the same. These include nutritious food, shelter, clothing, sanitation, medical attention, and for some affluent societies, recreation and entertainment. People who are suffering from poverty lack the financial resources, or money to acquire these basic needs. Accordingly, poverty is the point where the total earnings are inadequate to acquire the minimum necessities of life for mere physical efficiency.             Several other studies have given similar definitions of poverty. For instance, poverty may also be defined as the point wherein resources are seriously below the average family or individual. As the resources of an individual or family continue to diminish, the poor tends to withdraw themselves from participating in activities and customs sanctioned by the culture. This tendency to withdraw is also recognized as poverty line or threshold. More specifically, poverty can be defined in this way: Persons, families or groups are considered to be in poverty when they have insufficient resources to acquire the types of diet, participate in activities, and obtain the living conditions that are usual or at least widely approved or encouraged within the societies where they belong. The size of a person’s income is not only factor that makes poor people different from others. Many are dependent economically as well as psychologically. People in poverty have higher than average rates of suicide, criminality, physical and mental illness, alcoholism and narcotics addiction. Poor people are likely to live within unhealthy environments and in physically unsafe structures. Moreover, social and family disorganizations are highly prevalent among poor people. These observations and problems of poverty encompass the feeling of powerlessness. Majority of the poor people lead lives that appear to be regulated outside their control. Most likely, evil forces or those in positions of authority are then ones monitoring people in poverty. This point is further emphasized by the concept of relative deprivation. As argued by  (1979), the market generates certain levels of deprivation that systematically hinders the poor from participating in economic and social activities of the society.   Poverty and Health of Individual Because of poverty, there are many other social issues and concerns that emerge. One of these is in accordance with the health status of people. According to the United Nations Development, poverty has a direct effect on the people’s health status, and in fact, causes the growing number of sick people worldwide. This makes health a sound indicator of economic development. Thus, when a society is prosperous, the health status of the population is highly promoted. From this perspective, the UNDP noted that a two-way relationship is existent between economic development and health and suggested that reducing poverty rate should serve as a prerequisite for the success of various health reforms.             Indeed, among others, people suffering from poverty often experience poorer health status in all aspects. This is primarily because poor people are most likely to be unemployed or working in low-paying jobs, have low levels of education, live within unsanitary or damp physical environments and have less access to health services. Poor people are likely to smoke or drink excessive alcohol, have inadequate or poor food intake as well as less exercise. Moreover, being in the poverty line makes it difficult for people to access health care. This in turn reduces their motivation and opportunity to adopt a healthier lifestyle.             While poverty is considered as one of the main indicators of health status, poor health also serves as a cause and indicator of poverty. In a study conducted in 2001, about two-thirds of the households headed by a disabled or ill person fell below the sixty percent poverty line. Apparently, people suffering from serious disabilities or illnesses render them unable to work. As a result, most of them had been dependent on welfare payments. The medical costs, combined with the financial burden of their unemployment and other expenses usually turn into a family issue, contributing to intergenerational poverty. Their status is further worsened by the insufficient financial resources, inadequate capabilities to improve their current situation as well as the inaccessible and insufficient services.   Conclusion             Poverty is a broad term which can be defined and understood in many ways. While people would normally relate poverty as a state of having insufficient resources to provide for daily need, various authors have also given their own definitions. In general, poverty is defined as the situation wherein resources are depleted, making the person unable to interact or participate socially. At varying levels, poverty has been a condition observed in all parts of the world.             Indeed, poverty has been a growing problem worldwide. Yet, in spite of the problem’s worsening status, a solution is yet to be identified. Meanwhile, a growing number of people under the poverty line suffer from this economic and social problem. While poverty has led to several difficulties and challenges, the health status of the poor have been recognized as among the major concerns.         Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

Poverty

Social Issue: POVERTY Introduction The world has undergone several changes. A number of new technologies and innovations have been ...

The concept of poverty

WORD COUNT: 2001 words Introduction             Poverty evolves. What we are not aware of is that the changes in the concept of poverty allow a societal disparity that is rooted long before the concept is documented. Poverty was recorded at its worst during the 1500’s into the 1700s wherein the situation was forced interests groups to take unnecessary conditions like coercibly accepting a status as independent laborers, paupers or well-offs, worse as beggars, vagrants and tramps.             Social problems always pose solutions, alternatives and strategies that require the role of the government and some concern groups. Poverty, often than not, is commonly placed at the middle of the laboring class and the State. Although, the role of poverty in the prevailing condition of this class is at maximum, the role of the State is always inevitably at its greatest in combating and administering the phenomenon known as poverty. The concept of poverty             A)        During the 15th – 17th centuries             During industrialization in the 16th century, the feudal system, a set of social and political alliances between the workers and landowners, was the dominant social and political order. Since peasants were tied to the lands and its owners, work was the only way to survive. Few incentives were to accumulate wealth; hence, poverty meant to starve and threatened everyone in time of duress. But poverty held little stigma and remained separated from judgments regarding morality. Some programs available were designed to help the genuinely destitute and were commonly funded by private donations and are managed by the church (CSWE Millennium Project). .               In the early 1500s, the Western Europeans converged into mercantilism wherein trade materialized, which, subsequently created more wealth (1917). Enlightenment followed mercantilism. This order took the form of value change and encouraged accumulation of wealth and private property while changing the attitudes towards poverty. The value shift introduced the concept of individualism and personal responsibility (CSWE Millennium Project).               The influential thinkers emphasized hardwork, individual initiative, liberty and the power of reason. Arguably, poverty suggested that the root cause of poverty purports those who are lazy, sexually loose and generally immoral. The correlation of the economic status and the (im)morality serves as the basis of development of welfare programs. Poignantly, the system reflects dependency, laziness and personal irresponsibility (CSWE Millennium Project).             Economic instability placed a great pressure on the society during the Enclosure Movement. As a result tramps, vagrants and beggars grew in number. The attempt to restore the social order led to the passing of poor laws. The English Poor Law (1601-1834) echoed the voice of the less well-offs. The law reflected attitudes and values regarding poverty and it serve as an instrument of social control. The elements of the EPL were the local administration, less eligibility, classification of the poor, relative responsibility and residence requirements (CSWE Millennium Project).             The concept of local administrations reflected general suspicion towards the poor. Less eligibility stated that relief should not be more than the available lowest wages. Furthermore, poor are classified based on two kinds of relief, indoor and outdoor. The relative responsibility focused on the role of the family. Public relief will only be available if the family cannot provide for the person. The context of residence requirement was responsible for those who are legitimate members of the local community (CSWE Millennium Project).             B)        During the 18th century onwards The modern concept of poverty was coined by  (2003). According to Franco, ‘poverty has multiple dimensions and policy-makers must consider such dimensions in effectively assessing poverty’ (). Franco defined poverty based on four domains: monetary, capability, social exclusion and participatory. Monetary poverty deals with the imbalance between the socio-economic characteristics of individuals and households. Capability poverty considers the measure of literacy including the completion for primary and secondary educations. Health poverty is indicated by individuals:  who are suffering from illness, who are affected by an illness and whose illness was so severe that s/he can no longer work. In connection, some individuals may and may not report regarding their health conditions. Moreover, employment, insurance, pension, credit, savings, social programmes and land ownership are the indicators of social exclusion poverty (). These constructs might overlap and combine. The degree of overlap may further be regarded due to dependency ratio and the education and employment of the household heads (). The concept of independent laborers             Civil society was a concept of natural and self-regulating order of independent laborers. However, the concept was increasingly damaged by the inequality and domination (1998). The condition of the pauper class is elevated above the condition of the laboring class, thus, the condition of the independent laborers is depressed, their industry is impaired and their employment becomes unstable and their remuneration in wages is diminished (1834).               Hence, independent laborers are subjected to extensive inducements to quit the less eligible class and enter a more eligible class of paupers. The standard regarding those who are to be maintained by the public, therefore, refers to the condition of those who can be maintained by their own exertions. Meaning, the poverty invokes people to accept a pauper life or else they must strive in order to survive (  1834).             This circumstance depicts a loose and imperfect situation the independent laborer has been forced into. Evidences also show that those who award and distribute relief knew very little or nothing at all about the conditions of the independent laborers. Other conditions which prevail during this period proved that their situation limits the supply of commodities, the diet of the workhouses exceeded that of the cottage and the diet of the goal is more profuse than that of the workhouses (Poor Law Report, 1834).             Such standard seemingly referred to the exaction of labor wherein the work required from the paupers proves inferior to that performed by the laborers. These defects I the existing system led to different actions by both the paupers and the independent laborers (, 1834). Given the situation, poor relief and the establishment of workhouses was set as the primary anti-poverty strategy of the government. The concept of State intervention in welfare             The evolution of welfare is a dynamic process which adjusts in theory and practice towards historical changes in political, social and individuals constructs. The exercise of power to promote welfare depended on the attitudes regarding the extent of intervention, the areas to intervene and State’s definition of “welfare”. Nonetheless, the State intervention on welfare was founded on the philosophies of ultimate goals, the degree of intervention and the elements of coercion or restriction of the rights of the individual (1989). Evidently, as believed, there is a great continuity.             Social welfare in the 20th century depict romanticism – “sentimental melancholy towards dignity and rights of the individual”, humanism – “ultimate ethical premise of the greatest happiness for the greatest number” and functionalism – “assurance of society’s survival, stability and well-being” ( 2002, ). These elements were used to justify State’s intervention efforts.                       Conversely, state intervention should also promote social cohesion, integration and inclusion by virtue of equality, freedom and security. Pensions and insurance programs flooded the period along with workmen wages and compensation. The following years contributed to the re-conceptualization of social welfare programs due to massive destruction and high cost of human life lost brought by the First World War (opere citato).   Explanation: The correlation of poverty and independent laborers             Poverty evolves as new social, political and economic changes arise. Dominant political and social orders within a specific period connote different treatment towards the laboring class. Whether regarded as laborers, workers or peasants, the attitudes and judgments of the elites and the well-offs regarding this individuals dictates the condition of the society somehow which lead in the formulation and implementation of poor laws.             The fear of losing wealth and social position made the situation even worse. The punitive measures are manifested in the creation of poor reliefs, workhouses, alms-houses and other institutions. For these laborers, the only way to survive, get away with paupers and elevate themselves from poverty is to work.             Such poverty strategies mirrored the concept that poverty is an moral virtue. Impliedly, this concept triggered needs to be realized including social inclusion. The independent laborers thrive towards social acceptance through obeying the rules which they later found that certain loopholes are in the system. Essentially, having a good grasp of what poverty is from the independent laborers’ point of view can lead to the understanding of independent laborers’ whereabouts, sentiments, concerns and issues.             As  (2002) puts it, the patterns of greater (inequality in income and wealth pursued a range of policies which “effectively took money from the poor and gave it to the rich” ). Such increase in the social gap strengthened human costs causing them to live an unhealthy life and the society became a more divided society. The United Kingdom was in its wealthiest status during the 1980s and the early 1980s but this fact did not compensate that there remain people who suffered from unemployment, low income, ill health and difficulties in reading and writing ( 2002).             Evidently, the reactions of the independent class or laborers per se largely depend on the amount of poverty they are immersed in. The laws proved also that in appropriate conditions will not and never be perfect more specially for those who experienced deprivation in whichever way. The condition of the independent laborers from the 15th to 17th centuries was triggering them to exert extra effort to elevate their social status and position. Assessment: The importance of concept change in understanding the State intervention in welfare               Social, political and economic changes drive welfare changes and State intervention. These can be elaborated through the manner and measures of state intervention, the degree of intervention and center of intervention.  specified that when the environment is changing, the authorities initiate radical changes in public policy. The primary role of the government is to build consensus among different interest groups and factions  and depict not only economic but also political processes. The motivation is, perhaps, the protectionism through social programs (1997.             As believed by , social programs should contribute to the economic development. The modern social programs are more concern on remedial and maintenance activities (1997) where, in fact, the purpose of these social interventions is to provide and sustain individual and communal development. He even stated that programs should generate rates of return to government social expenditures. Productivist programs have been introduced as a coherent approach in social welfare.             The four elements of poverty (, 2003) does not fully satisfy the economic development of the people instead human development also covers the standard of living and low income which are indices of deprivation (see diagram below). Such aspect of standard living also includes the measures: personal, physical and mental conditions, local and environmental facilities, social activities and customs ( 2002).                 The degree and levels of state intervention largely depend on the perception of certain areas regarding poverty. And the amount/levels of intervention will also depend on the domain which a specific group of people is considered poor in one aspect but rather not in another. To wit, we cannot consider a jobless man poor if he is in a good state of health. There are also social programs applicable in certain geographic areas like the productivity program in Third World countries but will prove to be insufficient to the developed countries. Conclusion             A review of literature proves that the concept of poverty, understanding the concept of independent laborers, the changes in concept and the relationship of the two concepts are directly correlated to the degree of State intervention in welfare. However, the social problems experiences from the past are still the social problems haunting the governments, agencies, states, federals and authorities of today. Continuously, the disparity between the rich and the poor widens and, thus, consistency in poor laws and social welfare initiatives must be also widened.   Bibliography Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com

The concept of poverty

WORD COUNT: 2001 words Introduction Poverty evolves. What we are not aware of is that the changes in the concept of povert...