INTRODUCTION
Since the dawn of time, human had always had this thirst for knowledge. No one knows for sure, but to my opinion, because this is our only advantage in the animal world.
We don’t have claws, bony plates for shield, nor abilities as speed and strength that can outmatch other creatures in the animal kingdom. That’s why we developed our brains, to learn and have an advantage over other creatures, even over our own kind.
Learning is a continuous process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values, through study, experience, or teaching, that causes a change of behavior that is persistent, measurable, and specified or allows an individual to formulate a new mental construct or revise a prior mental construct. (cited in )
This process depends on experience and leads to long-term changes in behavior potential. Behavior potential describes the possible behavior of an individual and not his actual behavior in a given situation in order to achieve a goal. But potential is not enough. If individual learning is not periodically reinforced, it becomes shallower and shallower, and eventually is lost in that individual. (cited in )
Often, learning is synonymous with education. Education is the conscious attempt to promote learning in others. The primary function of "teaching" is to create a safe, practical, and productive learning environment. Teaching is managing of the total learning environment to promote, enhance and motivate learning. (cited in )
Learning environment is the place, which is usually physical, where teaching and learning occurs. The learning environment can have both positive and negative effects on the mentor’s ability to teach and the student’s ability to focus on the learning task. A constructive learning environment is a place where social interaction is encouraged (, 1972), provide spaces for student privacy ( 1986), and facilitate and maintain suitable degree of sensory stimulation.
And as our technologies develop, so does our learning environment. And with the development of the hypertext, hypermedia, Multimedia, thought the Internet and the World Wide Web, a new kind of learning environment developed, the Virtual Learning Environment.
The Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) is a software system designed to facilitate teachers in the management of educational courses for their students, by helping teachers and learners with the course administration.
The system can track the learners' progress, which is monitored by both teachers and learners.
These systems usually run on servers, using one or more databases and a programming or scripting language such as PHP to serve the course to students as internet pages. (cited in )
Components of these systems usually include templates for content pages, discussion forums, chat, quizzes and exercises such as multiple-choice, true/false and one-word-answer. Teachers fill in these templates and then release them for learners to use. New features in these systems include blogs and RSS. Services generally provided include access control, provision of e-learning content, communication tools, and administration of the user groups. (cited in )
This computer program facilitates computerized learning or e-learning for distance learning, this is commonly used in face-to-face classrooms too. These e-learning systems are also called: Learning Management Systems (LMS); Course Management System (CMS); Managed Learning Environments (MLE); and education via Computer-mediated Communication (CMC) or Online Education. (cited in )
HYPERTEXT, HYPERMEDIA, MEDIA, AND MULITMEDIA
Media
Media are the tools we use to store, process, and communicate information. Media imply physical devices, formats about how to write and read the information exactly and not to forget the organizations around these media enabling us to function in society. ( 1996)
Hypertext
Hypertext is a method to create and access nonlinear text. Texts in hypermedia are small, self-containing paragraphs. Essential words or groups of words called hot spots in a paragraph refer to other paragraphs or to other words or groups of words in other paragraphs.
The user is free to decide whether to create a link or not: Any semantic relation or mental association may be an argument for defining or tracing a link. After clicking on a highlighted term, the user jumps via the link and will immediately see the requested explanation. (. 1996)
The idea of hypertext appeared first in 1945, when there was an ever-growing problem of investigators shocked by the enormous quantities of available information created by colleagues, which costs researchers years and years to search for relevant ideas.
Instead of card boxes with records indexed by a limited set of key words. thought about a personalized information base, called a memex, which stores all books, records, journals, annotations and communications of a person.
Too many words obscure the meaningful links between text fragments and also introduce ambiguity: The same word usually has quite different meanings in different contexts. Creating only a few links simplifies the preparation of a hypertext system, but is not helpful for those users who ask for subtle semantic relations.
Multimedia
Multimedia are those computer-based applications that allow the user to see and hear different types of information via one screen with audio support. The combination of more than one modality of information such as text, pictures, video, animation, and sound fragments on one screen with simultaneous control of one software application brings the user a bigger variety in information and realizes important elements for virtual reality. ( 1996)
A video, a slide projector, an audio tape recorder, and computer screens or teletype keyboard printers could be considered as multimedia.
Media combinations or multi media is quite complex. It needs one integrated computer device that has the facilities to capture, store, and display video sequences from different sources and synchronize them. That’s why traditional hybrid multimedia configurations were too complex to build up, debug and maintain even for instructional designers who has high skills in technology and instrumentation. (. 1996)
This is also the reason why multimedia players which are strictly for CD - ROM or Compact Disc - Read Only Memory, and CD - I or CD - Interactive uses the standard way and has very little innovation, though they are widely used.
Now a days, CD - ROM are being integrated in computer environments such as the Macintosh and MS - Windows. While, CD - I are fitted into normal television sets of the low - end consumer market such as academic institutions.
Hypermedia
Hypermedia are computer-based applications for consulting multimedia information resources. The access of new information is equivalent to the previously described hypermedia method, clicking on relevant areas such as texts, pictures, and video, animation, and sound fragments. The hot spots in time-based fragments can be situated on a time scale, an oscillogram, or a scenario line. (. 1996)
Hypermedia gives a better concept on how to utilize multimedia resources. Hypermedia implicitly supports how to access information elements and how to crisscross in information space.
This figurative space is typical for the complexity that arises in creating and using hypermedia. Orientation and navigation are the costs that emerge from the desire to interconnect information elements and from the ambition to browse freely between semantic elements that you would normally find at different locations in books, different books, different libraries, and the like.
HYPERMEDIA AND CONSTRUCTIVISM
According to (1993), "The concept of Computer programmed instruction has continued to be an effective and enjoyable method to motivate and reinforce student for learning". Programmed instructions usually involve breaking the contents down into many small pieces of information. (1997) say that programmed instruction was more effective than traditional teaching methods for three reasons: first was because it has immediate knowledge of results; second, it is an individualized learning; and third, it is an expert’s instruction.
But also, pointed out the behavioral models of computer programmed instruction’s weaknesses: first, it has isolating factual information; second, the learning is in isolation; third, it has a linear structure that does not match some learning activities; and fourth, its lack of flexibility and user-friendliness
The human mind is unlike some particular computer that needs to be programmed in a particular way in order to operate systematically or efficiently. Information systems can not cover the complicated, vague, and perspective -sensitive processes of meaning making of the human mind. Therefore, even well programmed instruction can not process human learning appropriately.
Based on human cognition, the innovative educational computer programs, like hypermedia, are developed on constructivist learning theory. Constructivist models of computer programs have emerged from the work of developmental theorists such as .
One side is called cognitive constructivist, which states that learners construct their own knowledge of the world through assimilation and accommodation. While another side, called social constructivist places more emphasis on the social context of learning ( 1997).
Environmental experience is the key concept in 's cognitive theory and 's learning principles. 's theory has three processes that form the basis of environmental and experiential theories, and these are: assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration (, 1983).
Assimilation is the incorporation of new experiences into existing experiences. Meaning, accommodation develops new cognitive structures with the same subject or content with the existing structures. This means, the child's existing cognitive structures are modified and adapted in response to her/his environment. Equilibration is the process of achieving balance between things that were understood and those yet to be understood. This refers to the dual process of assimilation and accommodation of one's personal environment.
Meanwhile, according to (1938), the three learning experiences are situation, interaction, and continuity.
Situation represents experiences of an environment affecting the child, which is similar to ’s assimilation. While interaction is concerned with the current transactions taking place between the person and their environment. This is similar to ’s accommodation. And last, continuity refers to the longitudinal learning or to situations and interactions that follow, similar to ’s equilibration.
While the cognitive constructivist approach focuses on problem solving, thinking skills and learning strategies, the theory of social constructivism emphasizes the student's ability to solve real-life practical problems.
In general, constructivist learning environments have these following six characteristics: 1) These environments provide multiple representations of reality; 2) These environments emphasize knowledge construction instead of knowledge reproduction; 3) These environments emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context; 4) These environments encourage thoughtful reflection on experience; 5) These environments enable context-dependent and content-dependent knowledge construction. And 6) these environments support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation.
Since these viewpoints, computer technology in a constructivist learning environment should attempt to match human learning processes. Computer technologies, such as hypermedia, multimedia, and simulation, should be developed in a constructivist approach (, 1997). The learning environment should basically have the following characteristics: 1) Users should be more actively involved; 2) Users should have more controllable opportunities; 3) Users should have a great deal of control of the interaction between users and machines; And 4) users should aim at accomplishing more creative tasks, such as problem solving and critical thinking skills.
THE HYPERMEDIA-BASED LEARNING THEORIES
The concept of the hypermedia-based learning environment can be examined from four different learning theory’s perspective, and these include: 's three-form theory; dual coding theory; the theory of multiple representations; and cognitive flexibility theory.
(1996) posits that there are three ways in which individuals can represent the real world, and these are through forms of action, icons and symbols. People can convert these realities into their own unique perception of reality.
Action would include enactment and demonstration, icons include images and pictures, and symbols include words and numbers. The active form, which is based on stimulus-response theory, is the state of doing. The summary image or a mental picture of a path or pattern is the iconic form. The symbolic form, mainly consists of language, is an abstract form since the word is a disconnection from the reality it represents. These three forms of representation are based on the argument that development must be connected to a theory of knowledge and to an effective theory of instruction (, 1997).
As had pointed out, it is possible to modify instruction according to the nature of the subject and to the nature of the learner when instructors lean more heavily toward the abstract, symbolic form for advanced students. While (1997) suggested that it is possible to develop more creative and efficient ways to help students to better represent computer-reality using action, images and language.
stated that, "Teaching by telling is out of context of action.” It is clear that learning by doing is a powerful way of learning. In addition to this, (1995) also pointed out that hypertext and hyperlinks are too complex unless the three forms of representation are used in the instruction.
Indeed, the hypermedia tool can create an integrating environment that combines enactment, icons, and symbols. But still, it is still in the hands of the educators how they will put the curriculum into hypermedia, and create a positive learning environment for acquiring knowledge.
Meanwhile, from the point of view of the dual coding theory, it emphasizes that two separate systems can work independently or together for verbal and imagery processing ( 1996). The dual coding theory suggests that pictures are easier to remember than words. And also, when information coding in both systems, information is easier to be remembered than information coded only in the verbal system.
For example, it was found that text materials that are lacking of pictures are more difficult to understand and recall than the same text materials presented with a presentation of an organizing image (, 1995). Another study by (1990), the results indicated that iconic representation could not replace the symbolic ones, but however, it has adequately shown that words and images together make a powerful team in an effective learning.
This theory consists of verbal and imagery subsystems. The verbal subsystem specializes in presenting and processing language-based events and information. This subsystem includes verbal codes for concrete objects and events, such as books or computers. This subsystem also includes representation for abstract, non-concrete information, such as ethical issues.
Meanwhile, the imagery subsystem specializes in representing and processing information related to nonverbal objects and events. This subsystem includes images for shapes, sounds, actions, emotional responses and other nonverbal objects and events.
Another theory that supports hypermedia-based learning is multiple representations. According to the knowledge processing approach from learning and cognitive theories, a monolithic depiction of a subject matter from one perspective may not be adequate for ill-structured domains and may not be sufficient for inducing learners to construct a mental representation of subject matter content ( 1991).
Multiple representations indicate different conceptual views. Cognitive processing of multiple external representations is assumed to: 1) Enhance the likelihood that a particular mental representation may be adequate for solving a particular problem; 3) Support the construction of context-indexed mental representations; 4) Enable situated learning experiences for enhancing memory performance and usability of knowledge; 5) Improve the construction of mental representations of different views of subject matters with multiple representational modes; And 6) enhance cognitive flexibility and knowledge transfer ( 1997).
Cognitive flexibility theory, like multiple representations theory also emphasizes the complexity and ill – structure of many knowledge domains of the real world (, 1991). From an ill-structured aspect of knowledge, advancing knowledge acquisition, such as attaining an understanding of important elements of conceptual complexity, the ability to use acquired concepts for reasoning and inference, and the ability to flexibly apply conceptual knowledge to novel situations, can be facilitated by the principles of this theory. This cognitive flexibility theory is systematically applied to an instructional theory. In general, this theory has the following characteristics: 1) Random access; 2) the major learning activity is a nonlinear exploration of the learning environment; And 3) multiple representations of the content are presented (, 1997).
Cognitive flexibility theory points out those traditional instructional designs, like textbooks, lectures, computer-based drill, are inadequate for implementation within ill-structured domains because they depend on organized and linear techniques. This theory suggest that instructional designs should be easily accessible in amanner that it closely mimics non – linear nature of domain for it to fully comprehend the complexcity and unpredictable variability of information (1995).
DESIGNING A HYPERMEDIA LEARNING MATERIAL
Designing a hypermedia-based learing material consists of the following phases: Preparation; Development; and Evaluation.
Phase 1: Preparation
Determining the users' characteristics. Learner characteristics is one of the most important factors effecting the design of hypermedia learning material. Specifically, it is necessary to examine the level of prior knowledge that the learners have on the subject. If the learner has prior knowledge, it is easier to integrate the new knowledge into the existing knowledge structure and decide on meaningful learning steps in the instructional tool. In addition to this, the age and maturity of the users are other important aspects to be considered.
Identifying the objectives of the units. Before one develops a hypermedia learning material, one should identify the objectives of the units. In other words, what he learners should ought to achieve after taking these units.
Conducting content analysis. Content analysis should be conducted and concepts, interrelated concepts, and procedures should be determined on the basis of the objectives of the units determined. Systematic relationships between the concepts should be organized. A subject-matter expert should be called to evaluate the semantic relationships of the concepts determined.
Determining the learning strategies. According to (1996), meaningful learning involves gaining ideas, concepts, and principles, and then relating new knowledge to existing knowledge.
This means one should first provide general and simple knowledge, then detailed and specific knowledge. At the beginning of each unit, a short video episodes that explains the units overall can be used as advance organizers to help users relate new knowledge to the existing knowledge in their memory.
Identifying the knowledge organization approaches that best suit the learning strategies. One should manage the issues of knowledge organization and linking nodes to each other at this point. One is suggested to use hierarchical links in the material, by first presenting the basic concepts, and then subordinate concepts related to the basic concepts. In addition to this hierarchical links, one should elaborate to explain the concepts from simple to complex and from general to specific.
Phase 2: Development
Concept mapping. To ascertain interrelations between concepts determined in content analysis, one should construct concept maps of the units. This stage is important because this shows each node and links between the nodes.
Story boarding. Story boarding is the last step before the programming stage. Story boarding involves showing each navigation window on a page. This includes active keys, the names of linked windows, links, text, visuals, video, sound, and graphics of the page.
Programming. One can use any hypermedia program available in the market, such as Microsoft FrontPage 2.0, an HTML editor. It is advised to seek help to a computer software technician or computer software engineer to what kind of program is suitable to you.
Phase 3: Evaluation
After the material is developed, seek an instructional technology specialist, a subject-area expert, and three subject-area teachers for evaluation. Then revise and improved the material according to the feedback received from those experts.
AVANTAGES AND DISADVATAGES OF HYPERMEDIA-BASED LEARNING
Advantages
In the building hypermedia-based learning instruction, four advantages of this learning environment can emerge: 1) multiple perspectives, 2) collaborative learning, 3) learner-orientation, and 4) interdisciplinary learning.
Multiple perspectives
Hypermedia-based learning instruction offers multiple linkages and contextual learning environments. Owing to its having multiple perspectives, hypermedia provides an environment that goes beyond the traditional instructional approach rather than settling for a single dimension ( 1996).
From a constructivist point of view, individuals using their experiences as a foundation can construct knowledge personally from internal representations. In this kind of learning activities, knowledge is based on individual constructions that are not tied to any external reality, but rather to the learner's interactions with the external world (, 1993).
Collaborative learning
Hypermedia learning instruction offers interactive communication and creates a potentially collaborative learning environment. In this system, learners can engage in side-by-side and online discussion, debate, or negotiation. In addition to this, this simultaneously synchronous and asynchronous nature provides a productive environment for group problem-solving activities for the generation and testing of new ideas. Moreover, this feature of the networking process for collaborative learning is a democratic environment where all learners have an equal opportunity to share their views.
Learner-orientation
Hypermedia provides a "high learner control" environment. These learner control systems enable learners to make decisions about which paths to follow through instructional materials, the scope and extent of inquiry into different domains and contents that will be followed. In fact, increasing learner control can aid learning by individualizing the instruction and making it more motivating (, 1989). The Web system, based on hypermedia and hypertext linking, facilitates student-centered instructional settings and creates a motivating and active learning environment (, 1994).
Interdisciplinary learning
The characteristics of hypermedia facilitate interdisciplinary learning through its massive information database, multiplicity, multiple linkages, multiple mixed media, and responsive interactive navigation tools (1996). The hypermedia learning environment, based on non-linear and interactive communication, encourages learners to explore related knowledge and information to promote interdisciplinary learning activities. When hypermedia are integrated with the Internet, this web-based hypermedia system allows all individuals with a browser to transfer files and information from thousands of possible real-life sources to themselves ( 1998).
Disadvantages or Limitations
Also, there are four limitations of hypermedia-based learning, and these are: Learner's background discrepancy, Disorientation, Over-rich information, and Ineffective user-interface.
Learner's background discrepancy
Unlike structural computer-assisted instruction (CAI), hypermedia provides loose structure and more interactive learning circumstances. Many users of hypermedia systems have found that they could not take advantages of this medium if they lacked the required computer skills (1998). Making learners lacking the necessary basic skills and self-discipline may do better in a traditional delivery mode of learning.
Although a hypermedia learning environment provides a transformable relationship among the learners themselves, their collaborators, their teachers, and the information base, learners' self-regulated skills are still a crucial factor to build a successful implementation and integration of hypermedia learning instruction into the curriculum ( 1996). Before engaging in a hypermedia learning environment, one should ask what the teacher and the student’s attitudes towards hypermedia.
Disorientation
Although the characteristics of hypermedia of providing nonlinear and learner-controlled instructional environment match human metacognitive skills and assist users to understand what needs to be done in a particular situation and to navigate and process information (1995), one drawback of this structure is the potential for users to become disoriented or "lost" in hyperspace ( 1990).
To avoid losing learners in hyperspace, a potential approach might be developed using the "big picture" at first ( 1996). This means that learners first focus the majority of their attention on the structural aspects of the instructional lesson. Once learners have a grasp of the main structure, then they could be instructed to focus more attention on the details of important concepts and ideas. Another approach would be is to create more user-friendly interfaces to assist learners to control their directions, and this is beginning to happen in the field.
Over-rich information
The problem of over-rich information is one of the typical issues with hypermedia instruction in Internet systems. This situation presents users with cognitive overload. Typically, in a hypermedia environment, users are no longer merely consumers of information; they are also expected to create and add their own knowledge to this instructional system. So the information sources become increasingly varied (1998).
From a sociocultural viewpoint, knowledge can not be divorced from learners' historical and cultural backgrounds ( 1992). This means that learning is the interpretation of knowledge by learners, and learning best occurs in the context that it will be used (, 1995). When information overloading occurs, learners find it more difficult to select and interpret information into their own knowledge. Moreover, they may become frustrated searching endlessly in cyberspace.
Ineffective user-interface
User-interface, or the information landscape, refers to the way information is organized and the interface through which the users have access to the information. Today, the problem is not so much in finding information but sifting through the huge amount that is readily available and locating the particular pieces that are of most interest at the moment. So the quality of user interfaces has a great deal to do with whether a new media program is easy to use and helpful or frustrating and irritating ( 1997).
User interface design is a crucial role in hypermedia systems. Commonly, tools like browsers, search engines, concept maps, guide tours, and metaphors are all user interfaces in hypermedia instruction. Owing to individual differences, educators should pay more attentions in users' attitudes while designing hypermedia learning environments. An effective user-interface is a key factor to provide users with an ability to arrange the information in nonlinear ways.
CONCLUSION
Hypermedia learning environment may help students learn course-related knowledge in several ways. This environment should be used not only for distance learning but also an instructional aid in traditional learning to help students enhance their learning, and provide an interactive rich environment.
But still, further studies should be made for the future of hypermedia learning, such as combining it with other type of software. In addition, different cognitive styles might also affect knowledge acquisition and retention in hypermedia learning environments and this should also be studied.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
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