THE PRACTICE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS IN LEBANON
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A Thesis
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Master of Arts
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Communications
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ABSTRACT
This study described and analyzed the perceptions and practices of public relations in Lebanon. It focused specifically on media relations and was based on Grunig’s (1984) theoretical framework of four models of public relations: press agentry, public information, two-way asymmetrical, and two-way symmetrical. A review of the literature was conducted that revealed a debate about whether public relations can be practiced the same way all over the world or if certain localized practices should be considered for each nation.
The research design was a triangulated method. Data were collected using a written survey questionnaire and telephone interviews with Lebanese public relations practitioners. The results showed that all four of the Grunig models were practiced in Lebanon, with the two-way symmetrical model the most popular. Evidence collected from this research supported the hypothesis of this study that public relations can be globalized despite cultural differences.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Introduction
The Problem
Background of the Problem
Lebanon: General Overview
Communication Styles and Cultural Differences
Research Questions
Scope of the Study
Definition of Terms
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Theoretical Perspective
Globalization versus Localization
Advocates for Globalization
Advocates for Localization
Conclusion
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Research Approach
Sample Population
Instrumentation24
Survey 24
Qualitative
Qualitative Data Analysis
Summary
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS OF THE STUDY
Introduction
Quantitative Results
Qualitative Results
Answers to Research Questions
Chapter Summary
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION
Introduction
Public Relations Principles
Summary
Limitations
Suggestions for Further Research
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A: MODEL STATEMENT FREQUENCY CHARTS51
APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE COVER LETTER59
APPENDIX C: QUESTIONNAIRE60
LIST OF TABLES
Average Score ……………………………………………………………………32
Average Score ……………………………………………………………………33
Average Score ……………………………………………………………………34
Average Score ……………………………………………………………………35
Average Score ……………………………………………………………………37
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Average Survey Statement Scores by Individual Gruning Models …………………31
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Introduction
Mucchielli, Buckley, and Cordell (1998) observed that people around the globe are more connected to each other than ever before. Information and money flow more quickly than ever. Goods and services produced in one part of the world are increasingly available in all parts of the world. International travel is more frequent. International communication is commonplace. This phenomenon has been titled "globalization."
According to Rao (1998), globalization, privatization and liberalization have become dominant forces shaping societies and economies the world over. Communication technologies have played a pivotal role in hastening the globalization process. Communication technologies like satellite broadcasting have made it possible for a tiny incident that took place in any part of the world to reach the entire world instantly and at the same time. The concept of “local news” no longer exists (McDowell, 1997; Rao, 1998).
As the world has grown smaller, the field of public relations has grown larger. More than 60 national and regional public relations associations emerged before 1989 (Kruckeberg, 1995). In the United States alone in 1989, there were 600 university departments offering graduate and undergraduate courses in public relations (Neff, 1989). In a telephone survey conducted by the Delahaye Group in 1996 of 100 randomly selected United States public relations executives, 87 percent of the respondents thought that international public relations would be most important during the next three to five years (Paine, 1996). Turk and Scanlon (1999) noted that “Public relations in one country is not necessarily public relations in another” (p. 7) and presented 15 case studies that illustrate the evolution of public relations in different countries and describes how public relations can be practiced in other social, political, and economic systems.
At the end of 2001, membership in the International Public Relations Association was over 900 members in more than 90 countries, representing a 20% growth from the previous year, according to IPRA President Jacques Dinan (2001 a year of sustained growth for IPRA, 2003).
Because of the increasing prominence of globalization and public relations in contemporary life, public relations practitioners and researchers are debating whether public relations can be practiced the same way allover the world (D’Jaen, 1998; Gruban, 1995; Grunig, Sriramesh, Huang, & Lyra, 1995; Hiebert, 1992; Hirsch, 1992; McCluhan & Powers, 1989; Murphy, 1996; Roth, Hunt, Stavropoulos, & Babik, 1996; Sharpe, 1992; Wilson, 1990) or if certain localized practices should be considered for each nation (Botan, 1992; Clancy, 2000; Dwek, 1995; Epley, 1992; Sriramesh, 1992; Taylor, 2000; Taylor & Kent, 1999; Waisbord, 1998; Wheeler, 1998).
The goal of this study is to enrich the body of knowledge in public relations and to augment the existing literature pertinent to whether public relations can be practiced the same all over the world by examining how public relations is practiced in Lebanon. The problem statement of the study follows in addition to background information, purpose statement, research questions, scope, and definition of terms.
The Problem
As noted previously, the existing research on international public relations falls into two categories: research that argues for practicing public relations the same way all over the world and research that argues for localized public relations practices. However, there appears to be no empirical research that addresses how public relations is practiced in Lebanon. The problem of the study was to explore whether public relations in Lebanon was practiced as it is practiced in other parts of the world or whether its practices are more localized to fit Lebanon’s culture.
Background of the Problem
The International Monetary Fund (2000) noted that the term "globalization" came into common usage in the 1980s, reflecting technological advances that have made it easier and quicker to complete international trade and financial transactions. Unprecedented changes in communications, transportation, and computer technology have given a new force to the globalization advocates, creating unity out of diversity, with companies such as Coca Cola, Disneyland, and MacDonald’s, whose products are known and consumed all over the world, symbolizing the process.
According to Mucchielli et al. (1998), the world economy is becoming increasingly “globalized” with a touch of regionalism. Leontiades (1985) pointed to a number of factors that have contributed to globalization, the most important of which has been the impact of technology. Leontiades (1985) argued that dramatic improvement in the means of communication and transportation has reduced the barriers of distance between countries.
Perhaps the most profound observation is that of Friedman’s (1999), who noted that the forces of globalization and informatization have already redefined industries, politics, cultures, and the underlying rules of social order. As a result, societies and communities have no choice but to participate in this “new international information order”, but the character of their participation is shaped by specific social, cultural, economic and political conditions. This complex multi-level process of mediation between the global and the local promises to change not only the context, but also the nature of communication.
Since public relations is a form of communication, there is a relationship between public relations and globalization. Anderson (1989) used the terms global public relations to define public relations practiced in the same way throughout the world, and international public relations to define public relations customized for each culture:
Global public relations superimpose an overall perspective on a program executed in two or more national markets, recognizing the similarities among audiences while necessarily adapting to regional differences. International public relations practitioners often implement distinctive programs in multiple markets, with each program tailored to meet the often-acute distinctions of the individual geographic market (p. 413).
Taylor and Kent (1999) observed that public relations is mediated communication activities that emerged only a little over a decade ago and is used to teach multiple publics.
In order to better understand the practice of public relations in Lebanon, one of the objectives of this study, it is important to have an understanding of the country. The following section provides a general overview of Lebanon and its religious and cultural background.
Lebanon: General Overview
The Republic of Lebanon is located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, surrounded by Israel from the south, Syria from the east and the north, and the Mediterranean Sea from the west. Lebanon is one of the smallest sovereign countries in the world. The length of the whole country is 220 kilometers (135 miles) from South to North and varies between 20-55 miles from East to West. The area is 10,425 square kilometers (3,950 square miles) (Embassy of Lebanon, 2002). Lebanon is a democracy based on a parliamentary democratic political regime. Similar to Western democracies, the government consists of three branches: an executive, a legislative, and an independent judiciary. The economy is a liberal capitalist one.
Lebanon’s population of four million is divided between Muslims and Christians (CIA, 2002). Thus, the country falls in the heart of the Middle East and the Arab world. Despite cultural differences between Christians and Muslims, the country is still considered an Arab culture. Zaharna (1995) noted that the country is moving towards the Western culture and style of life, yet cultural differences still exist. As Daniel (1974) observed, when these differences are not perceived as differences, they are perceived as right or wrong.
Though the official language is Arabic and Lebanon is one of the founders of the Arab league, the Lebanese have been fighting for years for their identity (Library of Congress, 2002). While the majority of the Muslims believe they are Arabs, the majority of the Christians claim that they are Phoenicians, a 3000-year-old civilization credited with inventing the alphabet. In addition, Muslims are inclined toward a close association with Greater Syria and the Arab world. Christians opted for linking Lebanon culturally and politically to the Western world. This contradiction in the search for identity was one of the reasons behind the civil war that destroyed the whole country for almost 20 years (Saad-Ghorayeb, 2002). In recent history, the Muslim inclination to unite with the Arab world was well portrayed in 1958 after the merger between Egypt and Syria formed the United Arab Republic led by the Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser. Muslims in Lebanon looked to Abdul Nasser as their leader (Saad-Ghorayeb, 2002). As a result, Lebanese authorities, most of which were Christians, insisted on maintaining the country's autonomy and cooperating with the West. Christians considered their friendly relations with the West their only guarantee of Lebanon's independence.
Though these differences were very harsh, neither party in Lebanon wanted to change the political regime in any way that might jeopardize freedom in Lebanon, especially freedom of the press. Before the civil war in Lebanon, the Lebanese press was one of the few free presses in the region (Hakim, 1996). Later, the conflicting parties dominated the press, which was biased and forced to portray a certain image.
The situation is changing since the end of the war over 10 years ago. The country is rebuilding itself slowly by reclaiming its supreme position in the Arab world. Lebanon has now one of the highest levels of Internet users among Arab countries. The entire country is being modernized and moving towards the Western culture and style of life, even in the Muslim culture (Library of Congress, 2002).
Communication Styles and Cultural Differences
There has been an increasing need for public relations practitioners to develop an understanding of not only how cultures differ, but also how cultural differences impact public relations practices. Western practitioners and scholars of Western audiences in Western settings have primarily introduced many of the modern public relations techniques. Unfortunately, the more refined a practice is for one culture, the more likely it is to produce different or even adverse effects in another culture (Zaharna, 1995). Just as multicultural groupings in the U.S. each have their own communication style, in Arab countries as well each country has its own communication style. Zaharna (1995) claimed that most intercultural researchers tend to view the Arab and American cultures as opposite. These researchers have proposed several theoretical frameworks to distinguish the two cultures. Some of these frameworks are the High-Context and Low-Context (Hall, 1976), Indirect and Direct, (Levine, 1985), Being and Doing (Okabe, 1983; Stewart, 1972), Oral and Literate (Gold, 1988; Henle, 1962; Ong, 1980), and Linear and Non-linear (Dodd, 1992).
Hall’s (1976) high context-low context framework is the most well known. Low-context cultures, such as the American culture, tend to place more meaning in the language code and very little meaning in the context. For this reason, communication tends to be specific, explicit, and analytical (Ting-Toomey, 1985). In high-context cultures, meaning is embedded more in the context rather than the code. Thus, the audience must understand the contextual cues in order to grasp the full meaning of the message.
Levine’s (1985) framework introduced the cultural variations of directness versus indirectness and clear (univocal) versus ambiguity in communication patterns. He pointed out that the American cultural preference is for clear and direct communication, as evidenced by their many common expressions: "Say what you mean," "Don't beat around the bush," and "Get to the point." Levine's description of univocal and ambiguous communication further highlights the differences: Univocal verbal communication aims for the precise representation of fact, technique, or expectation. Univocality works to strip language of its expressive overtones and suggestive allusions. Ambiguous communication, by contrast, can provide a superb means for conveying affect. By alluding to shared experiences and sentiments, verbal associations can express and evoke a wealth of affective responses (Levine, 1985, p. 32).
Another dominant cultural divide stems from value orientations. One orientation focuses on activity, the other on being and becoming. Stewart (1972) called the activity orientation "doing." He noted that such features of "doing" cultures are characteristic of the American culture's emphasis on the importance of achievement, visible accomplishments, and measurement of achievement. Opposite of the "doing" cultures are the "being" cultures such as the Japanese or Arab cultures. Okabe (1983) contrasted the American "doing" culture to the Japanese "being" culture. He noticed that achievement and development are not as important in a traditional vertical society such as Japan where an individual's birth, family background, age and rank are much more important. For an individual of the "being" culture, "what he is" carries greater significance than "what he does." In the Arabic culture, both "being" and "doing" carry similar weight with primacy given to "being" because the identity of the communicator is very important and significantly affects the way the message is perceived.
In the Oral and Literate framework, the print or literate dominant society relies far more on the factual accuracy of a message than its emotional resonance (Ong, 1980). Gold (1988) identified numerous features of the oral tradition, including repetition as a means for keeping attention as well as making the speech "agreeable to the ear.” In terms of message comprehension, Henle (1962) noted that auditors will "go to considerable lengths to make sense of an oral message" (p. 370). Thus, listeners play an integral part in constructing meaning within an oral exchange.
Dodd’s (1982) Linear versus Non-linear framework is similar to the oral/literate framework. According to Dodd, the linear orientation stresses unitary themes, beginnings, and ends of events. It is object- rather than people- or event-oriented. The non-linear orientation has multiple themes, is expressed in oral terms, and is heightened by nonverbal communication. The American culture is more representative of a linear thought framework, and the Arab culture is non-linear.
In addition to studying cultural differences from the perspective of communication styles, cultural differences have been studied from the viewpoint of two contradicting views of the nature of human beings, collectivism and individualism (Angie et al., 1997; Briggs, 1998; Buda & Elkhouly, 1998; Hofstede, 1980, 1991; Ithator, 2000). The collectivism view holds that groups shape societies; the individualism view holds that societies are a collection of individuals. In collectivism, achievement is the product of society; in individualism, individuals are the unit of achievement.
After examining cross-cultural differences between the West and the East, Angie et al. (1997) observed that the Western culture is an individualistic culture, whereas the Eastern culture is a collective one. Badawy (1980) classified all Middle Easterners as collectivists. Corroborating Badawy’s findings, Hofstede (1980) classified the United States as an individualistic culture, whereas the Arab countries were classified as collectivistic cultures. The implication for this study is that having a general understanding of the far-reaching influence of culture on communication and communication styles is necessary for public relations practitioners to determine whether models of global public relations can be relevant to all cultures. This study examines whether Grunig’s public relations theory can be universally applied to a non-Western collectivist culture such as Lebanon.
Research Questions
To achieve the purpose of the study and resolve the study problem, the following research questions were posed:
RQ1: To what extent does public relations in Lebanon reflect globalization or localization?
RQ2: How is media relations practiced in Lebanon?
RQ3: What model of communication exists in Lebanon?
For the purposes of analysis, the research questions were combined and translated into a null hypothesis: The practice of public relations in Lebanon fails to illustrate that public relations can be practiced the same way all over the world. According to statistical authorities, the null hypothesis states that all the means are equal (Babbie, 1990). If statistical computations provide values that are significantly different, then the null form of the hypothesis is rejected and its alternative form is accepted (Zikmund, 1991).
Scope of the Study
Participants in this study were Lebanese public relations practitioners working in local public relations firms, departments, or as consultants. No multinational companies were included to eliminate the any outside foreign influences on conducting public relations in Lebanon.
Definition of Terms
Globalization — refers primarily to the ways in which economic and industrial institutions (such as industries or corporations) interact in various locations throughout the world, with primacy given to no specific geographic location (Mucchielli et al., 1998).
Informatization — the process primarily by which information technologies, such as the worldwide web and other communication technologies, have transformed economic and social relations to such an extent that cultural and economic barriers are minimized (Wang, 1994).
Public relations —the distinctive management function which helps establish and maintain mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on whom its success or failure depends (Culbertson & Chen, 1996).
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
The study is divided into six chapters. The first chapter defined the problem and its background. Chapter two reviews the literature pertinent to globalization and localization of public relations. The methodology is discussed in chapter three. Chapter four discusses the results of the study. Chapter five closes the study with the conclusion, limitations, and recommendations for future research.
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The previous chapter introduced the study’s problem and purpose. The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature pertinent to the major variables of the study as expressed in the research questions. The first section reviews the literature related to the theoretical basis of the study. The next section examines the debate between those who believe in the globalization of public relations practices and those who believe that a localized approach is more appropriate.
Theoretical Perspective
In searching for an appropriate theoretical perspective upon which to base this study, the researcher determined that Grunig & Hunt’s (1984) four models of communication is the most appropriate. Heibert (1992) asserted that the only theory that describes reality now is the pragmatic theory. The "who says what to whom with what effect" model that started with Harold Lasswell in the 1940s is a simple model compared to today’s communication models, which are more sophisticated. However, according to Heibert (1992), communication is not successful unless the message is effective. Today’s communication models, though still calling for a circular process starting from a source through a medium to a receiver, include feedback as essential for the success of the communication process. Heibert further provided support for pragmatic communication theory by quoting public relations practitioners stating that public relations is a "two-way street", or a "two-way symmetric" process.
Grunig and Hunt (1984) identified four typica1 models of public relations practice in North America. These models are press agentry, public information, two-way asymmetrical, and two-way symmetrical. Press agentry and public information are one-way models. They form a continuum of craft public relations, which ranges from propaganda (press agentry) on one end to journalism (public information) on the other. The two-way models make up a continuum of professional public relations, which ranges from persuasion on one end (two-way asymmetrical) to conflict management (two-way symmetrical) on the other.
Craft public relations Professional public relations
Press agentry (propaganda) two-way asymmetrical (persuasion)
Public information (journalism) two-way symmetrical (conflict management)
Press agentry and public information are not based on research and strategic planning.
The press agentry model can be summarized as public relations programs aimed to get favorable publicity for an organization in the mass media, such as in publicity for sports, movie stars, products, politicians or even managers. The public information model is the dissemination of information through the mass media and controlled media such as newsletters, brochures and direct mail.
The other two models are more professional, sophisticated and effective. The two-way asymmetrical model uses social science research to identify attitudes and to develop messages that appeal to those attitudes. This model works when there is no conflict between the organization and the public. When conflict arises, the two-way symmetrical model appears to be the most efficient model, because it assumes that both the organization and practitioner may change their behavior as a result of a communication program. Grunig and Hunt’s research shows that the professional continuum, with emphasis on the symmetrical model, is the most effective practice for organizational public relations.
It should be noted that in addition to these four models, another model was found in some countries that was not used in the United States. Public relations firms operate on behalf of international clients in the United States by the personal influence model. It is formed from former government officials who use their personal contacts to solicit good connections for the company. Some of the disadvantages of this model are the unethical practices that are connected with manipulating personal contacts (Botan, 1992). This model will not be considered in this study.
Globalization versus Localization
The Grunig and Hunt (1984) models appear to represent Northern American public relations. These models have proven to be a realistic approach to study the practice of public relations. They are also used and applied by researchers who study international public relations. Reagan, Summer and Hill (1992) tested the models in the state of Washington in the United States. Ekachai and Komolsevin (1996) researched public relations in Thailand in relation to these models. Grunig et al. (1995) used these models to study public relations in India, Greece and Taiwan.
Vercic, Grunig, and Grunig (1996) argued that a normative model of global public relations could be relevant to not only Western cultures but also too non-Western cultures. Some other public relations scholars suggested, however, that public relations should be culturally relevant (Banks, 1995; Botan, 1992; Epley, 1992; Reed, 1989). In the following sections, viewpoints advocating a global perspective versus a local perspective of public relations practice will be examined.
Advocates for Globalization
Proponents of globalization believed in the ability to create a "global village". According to a 1985 study, most U.S. companies are either doing business in a foreign market or are examining the possibility of establishing a presence in a location outside the United States. Similarly, a survey of Chief Executive Officers revealed that global competition and globalization of operations were the greatest challenges facing firms in the 1990s (Fitzpatrick & Whillock, 1993). Murphy (1996) stated that telecommunications are the major supporting factor in paving the way for globalization by building the global information infrastructure.
In the area of public relations, Hiebert (1992) deemed old communication theories based on political ideologies “ridiculous” after the fall of the Soviet Union and advocated a global theory. Hiebert believed that because of new communication technologies the public could not be forced to one point of view. As noted previously, Hiebert believed in a pragmatic theory. Unfortunately, Hiebert did not take a strong stand in supporting his theory. This uncertainty led to the notion that this might be more a personal opinion more than an idea based on scholarly research (Bender & Druckrey, 1994).
For decades, the U.S. dominated the practice of public relations. However, Hirsch (1992) described how Turow and Carveth mapped out the change in institutional and economic environments since the explosion of domestic and international media acquisitions in the late 1980s. Major changes in the goals and strategies of the largest media corporations were made. The first change was to define the audience more globally than locally. Second, corporations sought projects with more public relations potential, for example, contracting with book authors for possible movies and a sound track.
Carveth traced the decline of American media's dominance through the lens of economics and business strategy. The Australian publisher Rupert Murdoch dominated newspapers and television. Polygram from Holland and Sony from Japan became two of the three largest American rock music-recording companies.
Not only were other countries becoming involved in public relations to a greater degree, but also it appeared that principles of the practice of public relations were the same worldwide despite country-by-country differences in public relations focus. Based on his personal travels to South America, Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and North America, Sharpe (1992) concluded that conflict shapes the face of public relations differently country by country, even though the principles as to what public relations is and can do remain the same worldwide. Sharpe observed, "public relations can be practiced in a wide variety of cultures, not only in an American type of democracy" (p.103). His strongest case was Nigeria, where he found that though Nigeria is very different from the United States, public relations practice was one of the most impressive. However, it must be noted that the British colonial background of Nigeria and the democracy that exists there is similar to American democracy. Thus, the conclusion that public relations can be practiced the same worldwide based on Sharpe’s observations of Nigeria may be an erroneous one.
A common characteristic of research on public relations and globalization is the dominance of qualitative research. Another characteristic is the various perspectives of globalization. Several researchers focused on public relations roles. Wilson (1990) focused on issue management, noting that there are universal images and reputations that destroy an organization no matter where the company is located in the world. Wilson asserted that the nature of the international operations and public relations efforts of multinational corporations made it too expensive for such organizations to be only concerned with local or national image within the U.S. or only the economically developed Western nations. According to Wilson, “A multinational chemical company must be concerned with issues of pollution in all locales of operation and on a global level, not just from the perspective of dealing with political activists near its U.S. headquarters or using headquarters personnel to implement issues management in locations around the world" (p.50).
D'Jaen (1998) was concerned with factors that help companies establish a strong corporate reputation and found that these factors are consistent across international borders. As an illustration of the global nature of corporate reputations, she described a trip to Vietnam, where she noticed an old episode of the U.S. Oprah Winfrey television show being broadcast that featured a fast food chain controversy that had been resolved a year ago. However, in Asia it was new information that was as damaging to the company's reputation as it had been in the U.S. a year before.
Roth et al. (1996) examined the existence of ethical values that are shared all over the world during their search for a universal code of ethics for the practice of international public relations. The researchers argued that while not all public relations practitioners may agree to a specific code of ethics there might be agreement to a set of principles that contain enough ambiguity to allow for differing interpretations and practices. Hunt and Tirpok proposed "to put forth a general code and let its interpretation and use suggest further refinements that will help adopt it to the nuances of the global community". Kruckeberg (1996) observed that "cultural relativism is not problematic for a universal ethics code" and that "globally . . . there is a plentitude of shared ethical values, and those which are within differing areas of moral taste can be discussed, universally accepted or negotiated” (p. 182).
Gruban (1995) believed in the existence of generic principles in public relations that have been proven global and are therefore applicable to most cultures and political systems. If these principles were employed with caution, he added, they could facilitate the transformation of political systems and social culture. As noted previously, Sharpe (1992) contended public relations principles and roles are the same worldwide and, therefore, public relations can be globalized.
Three major themes regarding the globalization perspective of public relations emerge in the literature. First, the research purports that certain public relations principles are the same all over the world, particularly since the fall of the former Soviet Union (Hiebert, 1992). Second, ethical values that organize the practice of public relations are shared even in different cultures (Hunt & Tirpok, Kruckeberg, 1996; Roth et al., 1996). Third, globalization advocates agree that the world is heading towards becoming a “global village”. Corporations are implementing issue management that is globally accepted and not just related to their national identity (Hirsh 1992; Wilson, 1990).
There are, however, a number of researchers who are convinced that globalization in public relations can never succeed due to cultural differences and beliefs, not just with the West and the rest of the world but within countries (Banks, 1995; Botan, 1992; Taylor & Kent, 1999; Waisbord, 1998). These proponents of localization believe that public relations should reflect cultural practices. In the next section, the viewpoints of advocates of localization are discussed.
Advocates for Localization
Taylor and Kent (1999) found that many of the assumptions that guide Western theories of public relations and public relations practices are not applicable in other regions of the world. Based on their case study on the practice of public relations in Malaysia, they found the Western assumption that the practice of public relations targets a variety of organizational publics was not true because in many developing nations government officials are more important than the general public in making public relations more effective. Taylor and Kent (1999) maintained that to create theories and practices that can be followed on an international level, scholars should examine how theories developed. For instance, American public relations theories have their roots in democracy and capitalism (Pearson, 1990). European theories started with the social critic Max Weber (Nessmann, 1995). In Asia, eastern theology and hierarchic relationships formed public relations.
Taylor (2000) conducted a case study of the reaction towards the Coca-Cola scare in Europe when children became ill from drinking Coca-Cola. She found that national culture affects the behavior of the public toward threat and that countries with close cultures reacted in the same manner to the threat. Waisbord (1998) analyzed national and regional cultures in Latin America and concluded that, "the existence of a globally mediated public sphere is not synonymous with shared concerns, cultures, and identities. While technology lessens distance and fuels new consciousness, identity-shaping entails a more complex process by which mass populations are mobilized and integrated and identities are created and maintained" (p. 396).
During fieldwork in Kuwait and the Gulf area, Wheeler (1998) discovered that "local cultural frameworks play an important and underrecognized role in the kinds of practices that are enabled by networked communications and adaptations to the global economy" (p. 360). Wheeler noted that the big difference between the West and the rest of the world is that the West monopolizes technology. He posed the question, What about the countries that do not have satellites or complete free Internet without censorship. Western culture is rejected as imperialistic morally bankrupt and harmful to local identity.” (p. 361).
Sriramesh (1992) hypothesized that public relations variable that are currently known may not explain Indian public relations practice and thus emphasized the use of the ethnographic research methodology. Though it has been over a decade since this research was conducted, Sriramesh’s findings are still relevant today for two reasons. First, because very little information was available regarding public relations in India, this research paved the way for further studies. Second, the finding on how societal culture affected public relations was well elaborated.
Dwek (1995) found that European public relations style is different from the United States style. European public relations style does not have a universal approach to conducting press conferences. Their press conferences take longer time than U.S. conferences because they demand more details and information to make their decisions. Because of their lack of a universal language, European countries must print their press material in the national language and its local dialects.
After a multi-year project of comparing approaches to public relations from around the world, Botan (1992) concluded that an international public relations is also intercultural public relations. Botan discussed the need to understand the assumptions that shape public relations through the world. Botan, citing Sattler (1981) noted that public relations in the U.S. originated from the media, especially journalism. He also noted that while many African countries, for example, also trace their public relations practice to journalism and the media, their practices are not similar to those of the U.S. Thus, Botan advocated localized rather than globalized public relations.
After consulting with 30 senior practitioners in international public relations, Epley (1992) concluded, "no matter how small the globe shrinks, it is still made up of many tiny segments each with its own unique culture, language, politics, and idiosyncrasies. Global public relations are local public relations" (p. 112). Epley’s study is relatively old and one has to be cautious in generalizing about such a small sample. However, the findings have been cited in many newer studies and have applicability.
As with research supporting globalization, research-supporting localization is also characterized by qualitative approaches. Another characteristic of the localization approach is that it is more current. Today’s public relations researchers are less interested in international public relations than they were in 1992 (Hiebert, 1992).
In addition to being more current, localization research seems more focused and more integrated. As evidenced in this review, a number of researchers have focused on cultural differences and case studies done all over the world, with two themes emerging. The first is the tendency towards localization. Clancy (2000) conducted qualitative interviews with senior executives, in which one executive, a vice president of a national e-commerce services company, stated, “localization is a large issue" (p. 28). Another executive of another multimillion international e-commerce American company told Clancy that the company was receiving many orders from Japan. As a result, the company had to launch a localized version of its website because of cultural differences between the American and Japanese credit card purchases over the Internet. The executive noted, "While many U.S. consumers are comfortable using credit cards, this is not the case in Japan" (p. 28). Although Clancy's findings cannot be generalized because of the small sample of interviewees, they can be considered a good starting point for research on international marketing and consumers’ purchasing habits.
As discussed previously, Dwek (1995) found differences in the practice of public relations even within similar cultures such as the United States and Europe. Taylor’s (2000) case study concluded that national cultures affect the behavior of the public to threats. The existence of a globally mediated public sphere does not mean shared concerns, according to Waisbord (1998). Botan (1992) observed that the uneven growth between nations is an obstacle in the way of globalizing the practice of public relations, further, even in countries where public relations had the same origin; different practices were detected (Botan, 1992).
Conclusion
In reviewing the literature on the practice of public relations in undeveloped countries that are similar to Lebanon in culture and economy, it appears public relations is practiced in these countries based on the press agentry and public information models rather than the two-way models. The literature shows a lack of focus on the elements necessary to create a global practice for public relations, such as same language, same culture, same economic structure, or same religion. For example, clear answers to the questions Can public relations can be practiced the same way in Western countries with democratic capitalist regimes. Moreover, can public relations be practiced the same way in all countries that live by the Islamic religion? Remain unanswered.
In Chapter three the details of the study's methodology will be presented. An explanation of the settings and participants, the test instrument, and method of data collection will be included.
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Previous chapters introduced the problem and purpose and reviewed the literature pertinent to models of public relations practices and the globalization versus localization of public relations practices debate. The purpose of this chapter is to present and discuss the research methodology that was used to achieve the study’s objectives. The first section presents the research approach. Subsequent sections explain the sample population, data collection procedures, and method of data analysis.
Research ApproachResearchers, in designing and preparing their investigations can use both quantitative and qualitative methods to carry out their respective studies. Qualitative research is primarily concerned with collecting and analyzing information (Leedy, 1997). It tends to focus on finding and exploring as many details as possible. As explained by Blaxter, Huges, and Tight (1996) and Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998), the objective of qualitative research is to achieve depth rather than breadth. Quantitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with the collection and analysis of data in numeric form. This type of empirical methodology tends to emphasize relatively large-scale data collection to examine or prove social reality by employing statistical analysis (Rea & Parker, 1997).
According to Bogdan and Biklen (1992), Eisner (1991) and Merriam (1988), qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, where the researcher is a key instrument in data collection. Data is collected as words or pictures and the outcome is generated as a process rather than a product. Data should be analyzed inductively with attention to particulars. In addition, qualitative research focuses on the participants’ perspectives and their meaning. In other words, a key difference between qualitative and quantitative methods is that quantitative researchers work with few variables and many cases, whereas qualitative researchers rely on a few cases and many variables (Ragin, 1987).
The goal of this study was to create a comprehensive image of how public relations is practiced in Lebanon by analyzing in-depth why public relations are practiced the way they are in Lebanon. Therefore, a triangulated approach using both quantitative and qualitative research methods was used. Triangulated methods helped test and ensure research reliability and validity (Kirk & Miller, 1986).
Sample Population
The sample population for this study consisted of Lebanese public relations practitioners working in local public relations firms, departments, or as consultants. Both samples for the written questionnaire and the interviews were selected randomly and differed from each other. The rationale of simple random sampling was that using random samples rather than convenience or availability samples allows researchers to gather information from a variety of participants rather than from those who may share similar attitudes, opinions and lifestyles. In addition, most procedures used to ensure external validity relate to sample selection (Wimmer & Dominick, 1997).
To obtain the sample, the researcher first contacted the Labor Ministry in Lebanon and the Chamber of Commerce and asked for a list of PR, advertising, or marketing companies, but this was unsuccessful. However, the researcher was directed to a website (mbnetwork.net) that had an extensive list of companies in all categories. These companies were contacted and participants were selected based on the IRB recommendations.
Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis Instrumentation
In order to collect information pertinent to the purpose and objectives of the study, a structured questionnaire (see Appendix A) was used to gather quantitative data about participants’ practice of a particular model of public relations and the number of models practiced. One hundred public relations practitioners were invited to complete a questionnaire that was mailed to them by regular mail.
The questionnaire consisted of 16 statements based on the Lyra and Huang model presented by Grunig et al. (1995), in which the model was used to measure the practice of public relations in Greece and Taiwan (see Appendix A?). Each Grunig model was given four statements. The statements addressed the purpose of public relations, public relation activities, perceptions of management toward public relations objectives, and audience research activities.
The statements were developed using a Likert scaling technique. According to Wimmer and Dominick (1997), the Likert scale is one of the most commonly used in mass media research. The questionnaire asked participants to rank, on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = strongly disagree, 5= strongly agree) their degree of agreement with the statements.
The 16 questions were divided into four categories. Each category represented one model of the four Grunig models. Questions 3, 5, 11, and 13 represented the press agentry model. Questions 1, 8, 10, and 14 represented the public information model. Questions 2, 7, 12, and 16 represented the two way-asymmetrical model. Questions 4, 6, 9, and 15 represented the two-way symmetrical model.
Data Collection
The questionnaire was mailed in July 2002, to 100 public relation practitioners working in local public relations firms, departments, or as consultants in Lebanon. One month later, a reminder letter was sent along with a second questionnaire to be completed if prospective participants had not already done so. The responses were returned by regular mail to the researcher in the United States in postage-paid envelopes. Twenty-five surveys were returned, providing a 25 percent response rate. ***Move this last sentence to results.***
Quantitative
Data Analysis
Point scores from the 16 statements in the four categories—the press agentry model, the public information model, the two way-asymmetrical model, and the two-way symmetrical model—were averaged to provide a numerical index. Statement score averages were measured in two ways: arithmetic mean and percentage frequency distribution. The arithmetic mean shows the central tendency of the level of agreement within each statement (Blaxter et al., 1996). This information was contrasted with a percentage frequency distribution to show a curve of congruity, or lack of, in a particular statement’s response results.
The point scores from the questionnaire (see Appendix A) were designed to indicate trends. For example, if the majority of the responses indicated strong agreement for question 3, “We determine how successful a program is from the number of people who attend the event or use products and services,” question 5, “In public relations, we mostly attempt to get favorable publicity into the media and to keep unfavorable publicity out, question 11, “For this organization, public relations and publicity mean essentially the same thing,” and question 13, “The purpose of public relations is quite simply to get publicity for the organization,” it could be concluded that public relations in Lebanon is practiced according to the press agentry model. Or, if the majority of the responses indicated that every model was practiced in Lebanon, the researcher could conclude that public relations in Lebanon is practiced the same way as it is practiced in Western culture and thus can be globalized. After the questionnaire data were collected and analyzed, interviews based on themes, significant trends, and issues that emerged from the questionnaire responses were conducted.
Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis InstrumentationQualitative data were obtained through interviews of participants to gain a better understanding of why certain public relations models were used and how they were used. Qualitative data were obtained through interviews of participants to gain a better understanding of why certain public relations models were used and how they were used. Approximately 50 practitioners were asked by phone or email to voluntarily participate in the interviews. The interview questions (see Appendix D) numbered 10 and were all open ended. The first set of questions began with nonthreatening questions, such as "How did you become interested in public relations?" to create an atmosphere of trust. The second set focused on general questions about the organization; for example, "Would you define public relations from your personal every day practice?" The purpose was to create a picture of public relations practice in Lebanon and to compare these findings to the Grunig models. The third set of questions were probing questions concerning the relationship between the public relations practitioners and the media, whether PR professionals believed public relations can be practiced the same way all over the world, and why. For example, participants were asked, "Can public relations be practiced the same way all over the world? The following section describes the data collection procedures for the interviews.
Data Collection
Approximately 50 practitioners were asked by phone or email to voluntarily participate in the interviews. Practitioners at Lebanese public relations firms were asked by phone or email to voluntarily participate in the interviews. Participants were asked to sign a statement of informed consent return it to the researcher. All participants were promised a copy of the study after it was completed and approved.
Those who agreed to participate were interviewed by phone. The interviews lasted from 15 minutes to one hour, with an average of a half hour for each interview. Ten practitioners were interviewed. Each interview started with a general description of the study. Interviewees were assured that there were no right or wrong answers to the questions. It was explained to all participants that the goal of the interview was for the researcher to establish an accurate presentation of how the participants practice public relations and their philosophy of how it should be practiced.
As the interviews proceeded, more probing questions were asked. For example, when a participant indicated that the two-way symmetrical model was used in the practice of public relations, more questions relating to that statement were asked, since, according to Grunig and Hunt (1984), that model is considered the highest professional model in the practice of public relations. Questions about the use of research or audience feedback as a public relation tools were also addressed. After the interview was completed, any participant concerns were addressed and further questions were allowed.
When all the data have been collected, the researcher will use statistics to analyse all the data.
The statistical formulae to be used in the survey questionnaire will be the following:
1. Percentage – to determine the magnitude of the responses to the questionnaire.
n
% = -------- x 100 ; n – number of responses
N N – total number of respondents
2. Weighted Mean
f1x1 + f2x2 + f3x3 + f4x4 + f5x5
x = --------------------------------------------- ;
xt
where: f – weight given to each response
x – number of responses
xt – total number of responses
Data Analysis
The interview findings were analyzed using a thematic analysis approach. According to Aronson (1994), thematic analysis is used to analyze data gathered from interviews. It is based on identifiable themes and patterns of life and/or behavior. This approach was determined to be appropriate for this research because Grunig’s four models of public relations were used as bases for classifying the themes. After collecting the interview data, certain patterns were set and all data relating to the patterns were collected together. The data were then combined and the related patterns were catalogued into sub-themes or units. The author of this thesis was the sole analyst of the interview data.
Name of the interviewee, the company, and the date of the interview coded the interview data. The data were then organized into a preliminary category system. The categories were derived from Grunig and Hunt’s four models of public relations. The constant comparative technique was used. After the data were prepared for analysis, each unit of analysis was grouped into the appropriate models. As each unit was examined, it was compared to other units previously assigned to that category to determine if they fit together. Some categories had only one or no incidents assigned to them while others had larger numbers. If some units did not fit any model, new categories were created. The next step was to search for relationships and common patterns across the categories and thus generate assertions that can explain and clarify the practice of public relations in Lebanon.
Summary
This chapter described the research design and methodology of the study to achieve its objectives and answer the key questions of the study posed in the first chapter. To best meet the goals of the study, a triangulated approach that incorporated both quantitative and qualitative research methods was used. Quantitative data were gathered from the administration of a survey questionnaire. Qualitative data were gathered through telephone interviews of participants. The next chapter analyzes and discusses the findings of the study. A discussion of responses will be provided and results noted.
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS OF THE STUDY
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to present and analyze the data collected through administration of a questionnaire to determine whether public relations can be practiced the same all over the world by examining how public relations is practiced in Lebanon. Analyzing the questionnaires and interview results from the sample of study participants derived the answers to the following research questions:
RQ1: To what extent does public relations in Lebanon reflect globalization or localization?
RQ2: How is media relations practiced in Lebanon?
RQ3: What model of communication exists in Lebanon?
Quantitative Results
A total of 25 questionnaires were completed and returned. The questionnaire consisted of 16 statements that asked participants to rank, on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = strongly disagree, 5= strongly agree) their degree of agreement with the statements. Due to the limited number of survey participants, the questionnaire results did not provide statistical significance.
The average scores for all questions ranged from a high score of 3.79 to a low score of 3.05. As indicated in Figure 1, the two-way symmetric model (Questions 4, 6, 9, and 15) was the most practiced in Lebanon, followed by the two-way asymmetric (Questions 2, 7, 12, and 16), press agentry (Questions 3, 5, 11, and 13), and the public information model (Questions 1, 8, 10, and 14).
Figure 1
Average Survey Statements Scores by Individual Grunig Models
The two-way symmetric model had the highest average score of 3.79. This model was ranked number one in use and was most favored among public relations practitioners in Lebanon. Average scores for statements relating to this model ranged from a high of 4.20 to a low 3.44. The highest score was for question 4, “The purpose of public relations is to develop mutual understanding between the management of the organization and the publics the organization affects.” The lowest score 3.44 was for question 15, “The purpose of public relations is to change attitudes and behavior of management as much as it is to change the attitudes and behaviors of publics.” The two-way symmetrical models’ average score results are shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Practice of the Two-Way Symmetrical Model
Statement
Average score
4. The purpose of public relations is to develop mutual understanding between the management of the organization and the publics the organization affects.
6. This organization believes public relations should provide mediation for the organization to help management and publics negotiate conflicts.
9. Before starting a new program, we do surveys or informal research to find out how much management and our publics understand each other.
3.56
15. The purpose of public relations is to change attitudes and behavior of management as much as it is to change the attitudes and behaviors of publics.
3.44
Average Model Score
3.79
The second highest average score was for the two-way asymmetrical model. The average score for this model, shown in Table 2, was 3.45. Question 7, “Before beginning a program, we do research to determine public attitudes toward the organization and how they might change” had the highest average score (3.52), as did question 12, “Before starting a public relations program we look at attitude surveys to make sure we describe the organization in ways our publics would most likely accept.” The lowest average score (3.32) was for question 2, “In public relations, our broad goal is to persuade publics to behave as the organization wants them to behave.”
Table 2
Practice of the Two-Way Asymmetrical Model
Statement
Average Score
2. In public relations, our broad goal is to persuade publics to behave as the organization wants them to behave.
3.32
7. Before beginning a program, we do research to determine public attitudes toward the organization and how they might change.
3.52
12. Before starting a public relations program, we look at attitude surveys to make sure we describe the organization in ways our publics would most likely accept.
3.52
16. After completing a public relations program, we do research to determine how effective the program has been in changing people’s attitudes.
3.44
Average Model Score
3.45
Surprisingly, the press agentry model ranked number three; with an average score of 3.19 (see Table 3). The highest score was 3.92 for question 5, “In public relations we mostly attempt to get favorable publicity into the media and to keep unfavorable publicity out.” Question 11, “For this organization, public relations and publicity mean essentially the same thing,” had the lowest score (2.36).
Table 3
Practice of the Public Information Model
Statement
Average Score
1. In public relations, we disseminate accurate information but we do not volunteer unfavorable information.
3.08
8. In this organization, public relations is more of a neutral disseminator of information than an advocate for the organization or a mediator between the management and publics.
3.56
10. Keeping a clipping file is about the only way we have to determine the success of a program.
3.16
14. In public relations, nearly everyone is so busy writing news stories or producing publication that there is no time to do research.
2.40
Average Model Score
3.05
The public information model, which was anticipated to rank higher than the press agentry model, received the lowest ranking (3.09) and was the least favored or used model. The average scores ranged from 3.56 for question 8, “In this organization, public relations is more of a neutral disseminator of information than an advocate for the organization or a mediator between the management and publics” to 2.4 for question 14, “In public relations, nearly everyone is so busy writing news stories or producing publication that there is no time to do research” (see Table 4).
Table 4
Practice of the Press Agentry Model
Statement
Average score
3. We determine how successful a program is from the number of people who attend the event or use products and services.
3.52
5. In public relations, we mostly attempt to get favorable publicity into the media and to keep unfavorable publicity out.
3.92
11. For this organization, public relations and publicity mean essentially the same thing.
2.36
13. The purpose of public relations is quite simply to get publicity for the organization.
2.96
Average Model Score
3.19
Though the two-way symmetric model received the highest average score (3.79), the results showed a distinct interest in certain aspects of the remaining models (see Table 5). Certain statements in the two-way asymmetric, public information, and press agentry models received high scores as well. In the two-way asymmetrical model, the statements “Before beginning a program, we do research to determine public attitudes toward the organization and how they might change” and “Before starting a public relations program, we look at attitude surveys to make sure we describe the organization in ways our publics would most likely accept” received high scores (3.52). The same is true with the press agentry model. The statement “In public relations, we mostly attempt to get favorable publicity into the media and to keep unfavorable publicity out” received a score of 3.92. For the public information model, the statement “In this organization, public relations are more of a neutral disseminator of information than an advocate for the organization or a mediator between the management and publics” scored 3.56.
Table 5
Ranking of Top Five Survey Statements
Statement
Average score
Two-way Symmetrical
4. The purpose of public relations is to develop mutual understanding between the management of the organization and the publics the organization affects.
4.20
Press Agentry
5. In public relations, we mostly attempt to get favorable publicity into the media and to keep unfavorable publicity out.
3.92
Public Information
8. In this organization, public relations are more of a neutral disseminator of information than an advocate for the organization or a mediator between the management and publics.
3.56
Two-way Asymmetrical
7. Before beginning a program, we do research to determine public attitudes toward the organization and how they might change.
12. Before starting a public relations program, we look at attitude surveys to make sure we describe the organization in ways our publics would most likely accept.
3.52
3.52
Qualitative Results
The set of questionnaire that the author has been used as a tool for gathering data comprised of underlying implications respective to the existing models used on public relations. In the context of the study, those used include the two-way symmetrical, press agentry, public information and the two-way asymmetrical models. The questions used to gauge the responses of the respondents regarding their position and preference on certain models is summarized in the table above. Table five provides a visual digest of the respondents’ top five responses. The highest rated entry is the fourth inquiry in regarding the development of reciprocated understanding between the top level management of the organization and the public that it directly influences. The entry garnered an average score of 4.2 from the respondents. The question reflects a two-way symmetrical model. The second highest entry is the question that suggests a major influence of the press agentry model. The entry indicated the preference of acquisition of positive publicity and to maintain unfavorable publicity in an arms length. The entry obtained an average score of 3.92. On the other hand, the entry on the Public Information model placed third on the top five responses of the population. According to the entry, public relations in the context of the study, is more of an independent tool that provides information to the public unconstrained by the biases of the organization. And lastly, the two-way asymmetrical model placed two entries from the questionnaire. The last two earned a similar average score of 3.52 and insinuate a slightly similar virtue of looking into the trends of the attitudes and behavior of the public prior to the development of a program.
Answers to Research Questions
RQ1: To what extent does public relations in Lebanon reflect globalization or localization?
Both the quantitative and qualitative data collected showed consistent results. Responses to questions about whether public relations can be globalized varied. Some practitioners believed that public relations could be practiced the same way all over the world. Others stated that this is not yet possible due to the cultural differences between nations. However, an interesting theme emerged whereby some practitioners believed that globalization depended on the situation; that is, some issues can be globalized and others cannot. For example, according to this group of practitioners, today’s communication technology allows the practice of public relations to be globalized, but cultural differences still prevent total globalization. However, a number of respondents speculated that with the way the world is heading one day these cultural differences will be eliminated.
RQ2: How is media relations practiced in Lebanon?
The interviews also affirmed that in practicing public relations, a wide gap existed between what the client wants to do and can afford to do and between what the public relations practitioner wants to do, mainly because of monetary constraints. While big organizations with huge budgets were the only organizations that implemented research before and after launching a public relations program, smaller organizations with lower budgets were cutting down on research after launching a program or even before beginning a program depending on how much research they could afford. Thus, based on the responses, research was considered important, and the only obstacle was money.
RQ3: What model of communication exists in Lebanon?
The results of the survey questionnaire and the interviews indicated that the two-way symmetric model was the most predominant public relations model practiced in Lebanon. However, the results showed a distinct interest in certain aspects of the remaining models and indicated that all four models of public relations were being practiced in Lebanon, though not to the same degree. Accordingly, the null hypotheses, the practice of public relations in Lebanon fails to illustrate that public relations can be practiced the same way all over the world, is rejected and its alternative accepted.
Chapter Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to provide a presentation and analyze the data amassed through administration of a questionnaire to ascertain whether public relations can be practiced the same all over the world by examining how public relations is practiced in Lebanon. The discussion evolved around the five models indicated in the earlier parts of the study: the two-way symmetrical, press agentry, public information and the two-way asymmetrical models. The chapter also provided tables in order to provide a visual summary of the data that has been collected after it has been statistically treated. Moreover, these tables helped in providing clarity on addressing the problem statements stated in the first chapter of this study.
The goal of this research was to explore how public relations in Lebanon were practiced in relation to Grunig’s four models of public relations. The majority of the responses to the survey questionnaire and the interviews suggested that the two-way symmetrical model is the predominant model of public relations practice in Lebanon. However, responses showed that more attention was given to changing the attitude of publics rather than changing the attitude of the organization’s management. Though public relations in Lebanon is not practiced the same way as in the Western world, there are indications that the practice is heading this direction. As Lebanon prepares to become part of the European Union, it appears that the profession of public relations will follow suit. The applicable principles that emerged from this study are discussed below.
Public Relations Principles
Both the quantitative and qualitative data collected in this research indicated that Grunig and Hunt’s (1984) four models of public relations are being practiced in Lebanon as of early 2002. Although the results were close, each measure reflected a certain aspect. The quantitative measure reflected more of an ideal model, and the qualitative measure was more descriptive and explained the actual practice.
The quantitative data were objective, whereas the qualitative data were more subjective in showing that research was not always done by all organizations. Companies with large budgets conducted a lot of research, whereas companies with smaller or no budgets were less research oriented. These findings appear to be contradictory and reflect a problem that exists in Lebanon of conflicting forces in Lebanese business society between what businesspeople aspire to be and do and the reality of the business world. However, the qualitative data clarified a measure that may be appeared to be contradictory.
Lebanese public relations practitioners and the business community in Lebanon understand the importance of research and science in today’s contemporary society, particularly as they prepare to become part of the European Union. This puts pressure on Lebanese businesses to compete with the rest of the advanced Western world. At the same time, Lebanon is laboring under a huge burden of financial trouble left over from more than 20 years of civil wars that drove the country to the edge of bankruptcy. Research is expensive, and many Lebanese organizations, unable to afford such expenses, are forced to sacrifice research despite its importance.
Summary
This thesis fulfilled its goal by adding to the existing research and body of knowledge in public relations regarding whether public relations can be practiced the same all over the world. The study provided additional evidence that the four models of public relations are being practiced in a culture that differs from the American culture, that of the Lebanese culture. This evidence is important to the field of public relations for two reasons. First, research about public relations in Lebanon is scarce; this study shed some light on this profession in that part of the world. Second, proving that Grunig’s four models of public relations are being practiced in Lebanon has significant meaning. If a culture that is different from the Western culture is practicing public relations in the same way as the Western culture, this suggests that public relations could be practiced the same way all over the world to a certain extent and within certain limits.
Another significant finding from this research is the fact that the two-way symmetrical model is the most preferred model among practitioners in Lebanon. However, as discussed previously, this model may not be the most implemented because of financial restrictions. Nevertheless, Lebanese public relations practitioners and their clients both understand the importance and value of research. This indicates that the practice is mature and in the right circumstances will evolve to a respectful stage.
Limitations
The lack of research on the practice of public relations in Lebanon hindered this study and required the author of this study to build from zero. In addition, the researcher has been away from Lebanon for the last ten years and has little idea of what the practice of public relations looks like there.
Another hindrance was the geographic remoteness of the participants. The researcher resides in the United States while the participants reside in Beirut, Lebanon. Therefore, the personal interviews that were intended to be face-to-face interviews became telephone interviews. This disadvantage caused the researcher to lose the flexibility of the face-to-face interview and the ability to detect facial expressions and body language of the interviewees. In addition, soliciting and recruiting interviewees over the phone was difficult. Fewer were willing to participate and none were willing to sign the consent form. Those who did participate did not sign the consent form.
There was also a limitation in the interpretation of the interviews. The author of this thesis conducted all coding and analysis. No professional help was provided. Multiple coders and analyzers might have had different perceptions and might have detected different themes and patterns.
Finally, the biggest limitation to the study was the “demand effect”, described by Grunig et al. (1995) as the tendency for respondents to answer the question the way they think it should be answered rather than give their true response. Wimmer and Dominick (1997) defined this limitation as “the premise that participants’ awareness of the experimental condition may affect their performance in the experiment” (p. 474). This might have been the case for the survey results.
Suggestions for Further Research
Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, the following suggestions for further research are made:
1. More research is needed on public relations practice in Lebanon and other countries that share relatively the same social and cultural characteristics so that there is more potential to generalize research beyond the results of this study. It is necessary for further studies to be conducted so that the results can be compared and generalizations made.
2. Personal interviews, rather than telephone interviews, should be conducted with questionnaire participants to probe the true reason behind certain answers. This method will also help eliminate or lessen the “demand effect”.
3. More research is needed about the clients of the public relations practitioners that participated in this study to collect more evidence on the truthfulness of the practitioners and to make sure that they understand their clients’ needs and aspirations.
4. In general, more international public relations research is needed. Comparison between different cultures and the way they practice public relations is highly recommended. Comparing the practices of public relations within similar cultures would also be greatly beneficial.
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APPENDIX A: MODEL STATEMENT FREQUENCY CHARTS
Press Agentry Model
3. We determine how successful a program is from the number of people who attend the event or use products and services.
5. In public relations, we mostly attempt to get favorable publicity into the media and to keep unfavorable publicity out.
APPENDIX A (continued)
11. For this organization, public relations and publicity mean essentially the same thing.
13. The purpose of public relations is quite simply to get publicity for the organization.
APPENDIX A (continued)
Public Information Model
1. In public relations, we disseminate accurate information but we do not volunteer unfavorable information.
8. In this organization, public relations are more of a neutral disseminator of information than an advocate for the organization or a mediator between the management and publics.
APPENDIX A (continued)
10. Keeping a clipping file is about the only way we have to determine the success of a program.
14. In public relations, nearly everyone is so busy writing news stories or producing publication that there is no time to do research.
APPENDIX A (continued)
Two-way Asymmetrical Model
2. In public relations, our broad goal is to persuade publics to behave as the organization wants them to behave.
7. Before beginning a program, we do research to determine public attitudes toward the organization and how they might change.
APPENDIX A (continued)
12. Before starting a public relations program, we look at attitude surveys to make sure we describe the organization in ways our publics would most likely accept.
16. After completing a public relations program, we do research to determine how effective the program has been in changing people's attitudes.
APPENDIX A (continued)
Two-way Symmetrical Model
4. The purpose of public relations is to develop mutual understanding between the management of the organization and the publics the organization affects.
6. This organization believes public relations should provide mediation for the organization, to help management and publics negotiate conflicts.
APPENDIX A (continued)
9. Before starting a new program, we do surveys or informal research to find out how much management and our publics understand each other.
15. The purpose of public relations is to change attitudes and behavior of management as much as it is to change the attitudes and behaviors of publics.
APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE COVER LETTER
Dear Public Relations Practitioner,
Hello, I am a graduate student from California State University, Fullerton Department of Communication. I am conducting a study for my thesis in public relations.
Enclosed is a brief survey regarding the practice of public relations in Lebanon. It will not take to fill it out more than few minutes of your time. After you are done with it please mail it back to the address on the stamped envelope enclosed.
There is no write and wrong answers, just respond to the best of your knowledge. Your prompt respond is essential and your cooperation his highly appreciated in this matter.
Thank you
Sincerely
APPENDIX C: QUESTIONNAIRE
Survey
Public Relations Practices
On a scale of 1 to 5, please rate the following statements by circling the number. Marking one indicates the lowest agreement and marking five indicates the highest level of agreement. Your answers should represent your personal practice of public relations in Lebanon.
1. In public relations, we disseminate accurate information but we do not volunteer unfavorable information.
1 2 3 4 5
2. In public relations, our broad goal is to persuade publics to behave as the organization wants them to behave.
1 2 3 4 5
3. We determine how successful a program is from the number of people who attend the event or use products and services.
1 2 3 4 5
4. The purpose of public relations is to develop mutual understanding between the management of the organization and the publics the organization affects.
1 2 3 4 5
5. In public relations we mostly attempt to get favorable publicity into the media and to keep unfavorable publicity out.
1 2 3 4 5
6. This organization believes public relations should provide mediation for the organization, to help management and publics negotiate conflicts.
1 2 3 4 5
7. Before beginning a program, we do research to determine public attitudes toward the organization and how they might change.
1 2 3 4 5
APPENDIX C (continued)
8. In this organization, public relations are more of a neutral disseminator of information than an advocate for the organization or a mediator between the management and publics.
1 2 3 4 5
9. Before starting a new program, we do surveys or informal research to find out how much management and our publics understand each other.
1 2 3 4 5
10. Keeping a clipping file is about the only way we have to determine the success of a program.
1 2 3 4 5
11. For this organization, public relations and publicity mean essentially the same thing.
1 2 3 4 5
12. Before starting a public relations program we look at attitude surveys to make sure we describe the organization in ways our publics would most likely accept.
1 2 3 4 5
13. The purpose of public relations is quite simply, to get publicity for the organization.
1 2 3 4 5
14. In public relations, nearly everyone is so busy writing news stories or producing publication that there is no time to do research.
1 2 3 4 5
15. The purpose of public relations is to change attitudes and behavior of management as much as it is to change the attitudes and behaviors of publics.
1 2 3 4 5
16. After completing a public relations program we do research to determine how effective the program has been in changing people's attitudes.
1 2 3 4 5
APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
1. How did you become interested in public relations?
2. Can you define public relations?
3. Can you define public relations as seen by journalists?
4. Would you define public relations from your personal every day practice?
5. Do you think the way you practice public relations is the right way? Or there has to be a better way.
6. Is research or audience feedback, being used as a public relation tool in your work?
7. Do you think culture has an effect on the practice of public relations based on your personal experience with the profession?
8. What are the barriers and challenges that face the profession in Lebanon?
9. Can public relations be practiced the same way all over the world?
10. What is the emerging trend that is affecting the present practice of public relations in Lebanon and might be shaping the future practice?
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