Literature Review
The following articles and studies feature the effectiveness of computer-based training.
Higgins, Gerry. (2002) Simulation for Skills Training in Medicine. The Journal of the Federation of American Scientists. Volume 55, Number 4. July / August 2002.
The work of Higgins (2002) dwells on the simulation of skills training in medicine with the use of computer technologies. Computer-based simulation has been used extensively in the airline industry and in the military for effective training of cognitive, perceptual and motor skills. Medical simulators may include both three-dimensional (3D) models of human anatomy displayed on a computer monitor coupled with a "haptics" device that conveys a sense of touch to the user. Advances in computer technology now permit realistic modeling of human anatomy and physiology. Computer-based simulations are now regularly used for training military medics in emergency and trauma skills. The American College of Surgeons and other accreditation organizations are now encouraging the use of virtual reality simulation trainers for assessment of technical proficiency in medicine.
According to the author, many studies have found simulation to be an extremely effective training instrument. (Higgins, 2002) These include studies in which a meta-analysis of the simulation literature has been performed to provide a more sensitive measure of the benefits of this type of training, using "field effects analysis" and other statistical methods. Moreover, there are several ways in which simulation-training efficacy can be measured. The measure most commonly used in aviation and the military for determination of simulation-based training efficacy is "transfer," that is, how much student performance can be transferred from the simulator to actual, real world procedures. The performance of a student trained only on a simulator can be compared to a control student trained with conventional methods by testing both students on the same criterion task. These data are evaluated using statistical tests designed specifically to compare simulation performance with actual performance in the real world. The results determine transference.
The author concluded that computer-based medical simulators would not replace traditional training methods. (Higgins, 2002) Hands on experience with real patients with the supervision of an experienced instructor cannot be replaced but advanced medical simulators can provide an ideal environment to try new techniques and procedures (and refresh one's skills) without risk to a patient.
Dutton, J., Dutton, M., & Perry, J. (1999) Do Online Students Perform As Well As Traditional Students? North Carolina State University.
The collective study of the authors intended to investigate the effectiveness of student performance with comparison to the traditional mode of training. The results of their study demonstrate that online students can perform at least as well as traditional students. They do not show that any student, randomly selected, can do as well in an online class. Undoubtedly self-selection means that students with greater computer skills and/or greater maturity are more likely to opt for an online course. However we have reduced the effects of those factors in this study. The subject matter of the course reduces variability in computer skills in this case. And in the empirical work we have controlled for maturity differences to the extent we could. So our results provide support for further development of online course delivery.
Goldberg, M. W. (1997) CALOS: First Results From an Experiment in Computer-Aided Learning. Proceedings of the ACM's 28th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education.
The work of Goldberg (1997) examined the results of the experiment undertaken to gauge the effectivity of a selected population. The results of the study provide that students in the WWW-only offering achieved roughly the same level of academic performance, as did the group of students in the lecture-only offering. As one might expect, students with access to both sources on information achieved a higher level of performance.
Green, R. & Gentemann, K. (2001) Technology in the Curriculum: An Assessment of the Impact of On-Line Courses. Available: http://assessment.gmu.edu/reports/Eng302. [Accessed 03/05/03]
Another study is made by Green and Gentemann (2001) assessing the impact of online courses. The study uncovered that there were no significant pre- and post-course differences on the items related to students expectations and perceived benefits for Online Course against teacher instructed courses. Furthermore, the study asserted that there were no significant differences between students in the Online Courses compared to students in the teacher instructed courses for course retention or course grade. Nonetheless there were increases in the amount of time and the purposes for which students used computers.
Jones, G. R. (1997) Cyberschools: An Education Renaissance. Jones Digital Century, Inc. pp. 58 & 128.
In a similar study made by Jones (1997) describes the current conditions of cyberschools and their respective effects to the learnings acquired by the students. According to the study, all mediums of communications have their advantages and disadvantages. But the research really does show there is no significant difference in the student's ability to learn using technology-based education tools. And not just for computer-aided teaching. Long ago research into whether television was an inferior learning tool proved there is no real difference between learning from TV and learning from the traditional classroom it was reported time and again in research on how we learn at all levels that electronic instruction--either via teleconference or computer conference-- can be as effective as traditional classroom-based lectures and face-to-face discussion. On-line students have test scores equal to those in conventional classrooms.
Smeaton, A. & Keogh, G. (1999) An Analysis of the Use of Virtual Delivery of Undergraduate Lectures. Computers and Education - Vol. 32 pp. 83-94
The work of Smeaton and Keogh (1999), they analyzed the use of the virtual methodology of delivering undergraduate lectures. The study uncovered that when virtual lectures are used in place of traditional delivery methods there is no significant difference in attainment level as measured by end of year examination marks.
Swann, LaDon, Floyd Branson, and Allen Talbert. (2003) Educators Beliefs Regarding Computer-Based Instruction. Journal of Extension Volume 41 Number 1. February.
The study of Swann et al (2003) intended to measure the educators’ beliefs regarding computer-based instruction. According to the study, the "one-size fits all" approach may not be the most effective way of delivering instruction to Purdue Extension educators. They prefer a variety of delivery systems when receiving in-service training. A combination of Computer Based Instruction (CBI), the Web, electronic mail, Internet chat software, Internet discussion groups, satellite teleconference, phone conferencing, small group interactions, hands-on activities, and face-to-face lecture would be preferred to the use of only one or two delivery methods. Based on the participants' comments from the pre-training questionnaire, pure lecture alone, without other activities such as field experiences, was the least preferred method of acquiring new technical information by educators.
In addition, they recommended that Purdue Extension would benefit by creating an assessment team composed of educators and specialists to compile a list of in-service training programs currently conducted by Purdue Extension. (Swann et al, 2003) A prioritized list based on audience size, frequency of occurrence, funding sources, and multi-departmental involvement will aid in concentrating efforts and resources toward the development of high-priority CBI training modules useful in conjunction with traditional lecture formats or as stand-alone training modules for educators.
In addition, they added that any CBI should include some form of interaction with the instructor and other participants. (Swann et al, 2003) Ideally, the interaction would be a shortened face-to-face session to assist in processing the information from the CBI module through clarification of difficult concepts. Alternative methods of interaction between instructor and participants could include the use of conference phone calls, two-way video conferencing, and Internet chat rooms and discussion groups.
Ryder, Martin. (1996) Affordances and Constraints of the Internet for Learning and Instruction. Presented to a joint session of the Association for Educational Communications Technology. Brent Wilson University of Colorado at Denver. February. According to Ryder (1996) the Internet promises dramatic changes in the way we learn and teach, the way we interact as a society. The changes of a coming epoch are already taking shape. In higher education, most students have access to Internet resources. But many who have access have shown reluctance to make use of those resources. An attempt to understand this reluctance has led to an analysis using James Gibson's model of affordances. This paper contrasts the Internet with other fundamental educational infrastructures throughout history. It offers an analysis of literacy, printing and electronic publishing in terms of human affordances along with the constraints associated with each medium. He used the term affordance to describe a potential for action, the perceived capacity of an object to enable the assertive will of the actor. (Ryder, 1996) The term was coined by psychologist James Gibson to describe the action possibilities posed by objects in the real world. According to the author, certain objects afford opportunities for action. An affordance is a value-rich ecological object that is understood by direct perception. Perception informs the individual of affordances. Action transforms affordances into effectivities that extend human capabilities. He added that when one speaks of affordances in the study of media, one should be cautioned as designers to resist the assumption that a given medium affords a specific set of learning outcomes. (Ryder, 1996) In reality, learning is distributed between the medium, the learner and the context. There is nothing inherent in the Internet that guarantees learning. But in a specific context involving learning activities, such as research, collaboration, self expression, and reflection, the Internet offers multiple affordances, so numerous that it may be a mistake for us to treat it as a medium. It is really an infrastructure that brings together media, tools, people, places and information, expanding the range of human capabilities. He added that in contemplating what the future might hold for education it is sometimes useful to gaze into the past. (Ryder, 1996) Knowledge in the modern period followed logocentric patterns with one-to-many relationships. The postmodern period promises yet greater dissemination marked by a many-to-many relationships. The developments brought about by technology allow for new possibilities. He noted that the public is seeing trends in education toward distributed, collaborative models of learning. Agency is shifting from center to periphery, from teacher to learner, from author to reader, from librarian to researcher, from curriculum to context. The affordances of public expression have exploded, allowing any school child to represent herself before a worldwide community of learners. The affordances of information retrieval have advanced to the point where a simple query can yield a flood of information.
He asserted that this is where the modern and postmodern minds collide. (Ryder, 1996) To the modern mind, there is too much information. The world is exploding with ideas and perspectives that cannot possibly be consumed. One must control what people read so that truth might prevail over misinformation, so that quality might prevail over mediocrity, so that correct ideas might prevail over anarchy. But to the postmodern mind, attempts to control information are futile and naive. What control exists in the postmodern world will emerge -- not from the center, but from the periphery. The genie is out of the bottle. There is no chance of forcing him back.
Modern educators have learned how to utilize constraints of the environment as a means of scaffolding in the instructional process. Constraints can limit a field of information, making it more manageable for learners. Constraints of grammar and syntax are necessary for language acquisition. General social behavior is learned from constraints involving etiquette and protocol. It has been shown that the Internet overcomes many of the constraints imposed by traditional educational infrastructures. But the freedoms that suddenly emerge are frightening. The modern educator might be tempted to impose artificial constraints on the medium in order to control and manage the educational environment. Software is available at this moment that allows a teacher or parent to filter information and restrict access to objectionable sources on the net. We acknowledge that such artificially imposed constraints may be necessary in the short run to mitigate controversial dilemmas and situations that challenge traditional thinking. But we are persuaded that the real challenge for education is to discover the natural constraints associated with a highly connected and deeply fragmented world. A set of rules or policy guidebook for the postmodern will not be found. But out of distributed knowledge, we are seeing the emergence of a new ethic with an entailing structure of distributed control. The challenge for the postmodern educator is to discover the capabilities and natural constraints associated with distributed pedagogy for scaffolding learners in the age of information.
Sources:
Higgins, Gerry. (2002) Simulation for Skills Training in Medicine. The Journal of the Federation of American Scientists. Volume 55, Number 4. July / August 2002.
Dutton, J., Dutton, M., & Perry, J. (1999) Do Online Students Perform As Well As Traditional Students? North Carolina State University.
Goldberg, M. W. (1997) CALOS: First Results From an Experiment in Computer-Aided Learning. Proceedings of the ACM's 28th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education.
Green, R. & Gentemann, K. (2001) Technology in the Curriculum: An Assessment of the Impact of On-Line Courses. Available: http://assessment.gmu.edu/reports/Eng302. [Accessed 03/05/03]
Jones, G. R. (1997) Cyberschools: An Education Renaissance. Jones Digital Century, Inc. pp. 58 & 128.
Smeaton, A. & Keogh, G. (1999) An Analysis of the Use of Virtual Delivery of Undergraduate Lectures. Computers and Education - Vol. 32 pp. 83-94
Swann, LaDon, Floyd Branson, and Allen Talbert. (2003) Educators Beliefs Regarding Computer-Based Instruction. Journal of Extension Volume 41 Number 1. February.
Ryder, Martin. (1996) Affordances and Constraints of the Internet for Learning and Instruction. Presented to a joint session of the Association for Educational Communications Technology. Brent Wilson University of Colorado at Denver. February.
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