1.1. Structure
Education is recognized to be one of the foremost concerns of 21 century and one of the fundamental domains in the political, economic, and social sectors. “The Republic of Tajikistan being a part of the global community and a member of Commonwealth Independent States signed a number of important state documents in order to create educational space, which requires changes and improvement of the context of education.” (National Concept on Education, 2002). This essay will look at the education development plan proposed by the Government of Tajikistan to improve primary schools. The national plan for education development was elaborated for the year 2005-2015 with aim to reach MDG as goal to attain universal primary education for all. Starting from the context background of the situation in Tajikistan through the poverty context and the necessity of reaching quality primary education this essay will scrutinize the different approaches of academic writers towards development plan, will exemplify its significance in education planning. Further, this work will illustrate the actual development plan put forward by the government along with its targets towards improvement of primary schools. The main argument of this work is to demonstrate the constraints in development plan with suggested improvement in the primary schools based on the academic literature and best practices in this sector reviewed by the author of this study. Here will be presented different ideas of education practitioners to develop, back up, and justify the arguments of this work.
This essay was (will be) mainly done by using secondary resources due to hampers the author encounters to obtain the information from her country. The main problem, which chiefly constrains the collecting of the physical information or primary data, is poor communication infrastructure, which exists in the country. What is more, the professionals who work in the sector of education development are those from the Ministry of Education and those from schools who have no access to internet and other mean of communication. However this study will be used for sharing the knowledge in any of development projects related to education development and improvement of primary schools.
The main research questions articulated in this piece of work are as follows:
1. What is the situation with primary education in Tajikistan?
2. What education development plan is proposed by the Government of Tajikistan?
3. How the development plan aims to improve the primary schools?
4. What are the constraints in the development plan?
5. How the development plan may be improved?
The main ideas and arguments are concluded and summarized along with the recommendations presented.
1.2. Methodology:
This work is mostly done by using the secondary sources. However the aurthor used the experinece gained working in International non-governmental development NGO Save the Children where the Development Assistance program has been implemnting different activities and interventions in the primary schools. The souces such as: ineternet sources, library research, which include differnent encyclopedias, textbooks, and books and articles that interpret or review research works. The aurthor vison and experinece as well as views are expressed in this piece of work by using the secondary sources as supporting arguments and providng ideas of diffrent academicians which are relevent to this work.
As different book indicate some secondary sources often attempt to describe or explain primary not only analyze primary sources, but use them to argue a contention or to persuade the reader to hold the certain idea which he belives in.
Ideal secondary sources are usually characterized as both reporting events in the past as well as performing the function of generalization, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, and/or evaluation of the events.
The distinction between a primary and a secondary source can often be one of usage. For example, biographies are generally considered to be secondary sources, but if a historian were writing a scholarly account of the history of biographical writing itself during in a certain location or period of time, they would become the primary sources for the study—the biographies themselves would become the documents to be analyzed as products of their time. Many secondary sources use other secondary sources as primary sources, in part because all secondary sources are themselves written "in their time" and within a given scholarly and cultural context, a characteristic which is usually more obvious in primary sources.
1. 3. Context Background
Tajikistan is a country with a low per capita income and wide spread poverty. (National Strategy for Educational Dvelopement, 2005). Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the newly independent Central Asian Republic - Tajikistan encountered the challenging tasks of building nation states and the need to establish democarcy, civil society, and the market economies.
After getting independence in 1991, a civil war broke out in the country and lasted for 5 years (1992-97) which brought to profound economic crisis and political instability, large losses of human lives, and serious physical destruction. The majority of population in particular qualified specialists migrated to other countries. Stability followed after the peace agreemnet was signed in 1997.
The post-independence period Tajikstan as the most poor counrty in the Central Asian region has experienced severe econimic decline caused by loss of traditional Soviet markets and the end budgetary subsidies from Moscow, which declined the living standards of the population and lowered down the employment level, and increased the inequality of income distribution in the country. The principlal welfare indicators – such as life expectancy, infant mortality, and general life standrards – worsened (OSI, 2002).
Today Tajikistan is one of the poorest countries in the world with per capita income of about US$200 in 2002 (PRSP, 2004). According to UNDP’s Human Development Report 2003 the country ranks 113th among 175 countries. The same reports showed that Tajikistan’s human developemnt index was among the lowest in the republics of the former Soviet Union as well.
As State Statistical Agency suggested, about 83 percent of the population is considerd to be poor, and 33 perent to be extremely poor.
According to World Bank's 2004, Poverty Assessment Update Tajikistan has experienced steady economic growth over the last five years which has led to a decline in poverty levels 64% of the population lived below the poverty line of $2.15 per day in 2004, compared to 83% in 1999. However, Tajikistan still faces huge challenges. Large numbers of people still suffer from hunger, and Tajikistan has the worst chronic child malnutrition rates in Central Asia. One in five children may not be attending primary school.
The Poverty Assesment Report documenteed that the children are the most vulnarable group and it further stated that the higher number of children in a houshold, the greater is the poverty incidence. The different research as well as a research conducted by Open Society Institute (OSI) in 2002 showed that education sector was severely affected by these dire conditions. It became imposible to sustain some of the success that state-funded education achieved during the Soviet Period.
Over half of Tajikistan’s population is under 19 years of age. Tajikistan’s youth of today will determine the success of the country tomorrow. Children of this generation make up the majority of populations in Tajikistan. “This is not a problem that can be simply ignored”. (Baur, 1998 cited in OSI report, 2002). The Tajikistan Government and the United States agree that the improvement of educational systems beginning with the primary education level is necessary for the economic and civil development of Tajikistan. “While we often talk about children being the future of a country, they are also the present, and deserve support now”. (USAID Report, 2005). The Academy for Educational Development (AED) and the Aga Khan Foundation (AKF), through United States Agency for International Development (USAID) funding, continue to work with communities, teachers, school directors, teacher trainers, and Ministry of Education officials to improve the quality of basic education in Tajikistan.
However the access to qualitative education is falling down due to the lack of state budget, shortage of teacher and their low salary, poverty and malnutrition. According to World Bank Report (2005), the enrolment ratios have been dropped in primary school since the declaration of independence in the country. In case of Tajikistan where the extreme poverty persists children contribute to family income. For poor family, education may not represent a priority due to the basic survival they strive for. Many of children who are not able to attend the school are those from poor family for whom the school fee represents a big burden. The education fee is costly for poor Tajik parents. Cost which include tuition fee, teachers fee, clothes and shoes to go to school. This cost effects on whether and which children are educated. The deisions to send children to school are weighted againts labour contributions, girls are often the last to be sent to schools and the first to be withdrawn. (DFID, 2001).
Another reason of why children might drop off the school is that infrastructure of school in rural areas has been deteriorated harshly. Most of the schools are lack of heating system, safe water, and toilets, which is another reason for low attendance in school. This also negatively affects on teaching and learning process. Moreover schools still use the curricular adopted in the Soviet times, and there have not being made lots of efforts to re-orient the system primarily due to the lack of funds.
A recent research study conducted by IOM showed that more than 72% of children took part in the cotton harvesting in 2003, working from 30 to 60 days a year. (IOM,…). The transport is another issue of low attendance in rural schools. The schools are located so far, that parents are afraid to send their children to schools especially daughters.
It has to be noted that there are many donor and bilateral organizations have been implementing their education development programs in the country. Significant strengths are being provided by the Government as well in elaboration of development plans in education. However the budget for education is very small, is comprises only 2.6% from the total government budget. (National Development Plan, 2005). The UN has contributed to the development of a National Plan of Action on Education for All, aiming to guarantee full access compulsory primary education, improve quality teaching and learning. (UN Assessment Report, 2003). As many authors argue good quality education is essential for enabling developing countries to achieve the level of economic growth needed to reduce poverty and make sustainable development a reality. It has to be the country commitment to put forward the development plan for education to achieve the economic growth in its country.
2. What is the situation in primary education in Tajikistan?
“Education is a cornerstone of economic and social development; primary education is its foundation”. (Marline, et al, 1991:1). As Marline further states primary education helps alleviate poverty and advance economic and social development. “Primary education completion is crucial for national economic and social advancement”. (Bruns, 2005:20).
As many authors studies primary education has a significant positive effect on the economic growth of 110 developed and developing countries. The different literature demonstrates that educated parents especially mothers are more likely send their children to schools, which indicates the aspect of development.
“Primary education is a right and should be available to everyone”, as it is stated in the Convention on Child Rights. The article 26 of the Convention of Rights calls for state to the primary education compulsory and free for all. However DFID indicates that about 77 million children of primary school age are not enrolled in school and many are forced dropped out before completing a full course of primary schooling.
There is little dispute that basic education – often characterized as the reading, math, and other skills and knowledge taught in the first four years of primary school – is critical to economic and social development. Without basic skills, according to definition provided by Moulton (2001) a person cannot comprehend the instructions on a bottle of medicine or a bag of fertilizer or read a government notice. Neither can a person compute a bill or write a letter. Without basic skills, it is impossible to develop ones or to contribute in anything more that a rudimentary manner to society.
During a more than a decade nearly every low-income country promote an endeavour to get more children into school. Primary education was neglected for many years by different bilateral and donor aid programs. Most focus was given to secondary and to tertiary education, 95% of the assistance was directed to these sectors. (Marlaine, et al, 1991). It might why the primary education is now a second millennium goal proposed by most of developing countries. The development countries, including Tajikistan committed to achieve by 2015 universal primary completion. They can be achieved by good education policies to faster the progress. The current challenges may better describe the situation in primary education in Tajikistan; they also give an overall picture of a whole education underdevelopment in the country.
2.1 Main challenges in the primary education system in Tajikistan:
· Lack of school buildings and structures. According to the data collected by World Bank for 2003-2004 academic year 75% of schools work in two shifts due to the lack of more than 600 thousand places for children which also lead to decrease in school attendance. The WB Survey shows that gender gap in school attendance has increased and in 2003 the number of girls who dropped out of school two time outnumbered the number of boys in rural areas; and in urban areas this indicator increased by three times.
· Poor learning conditions. According to IMF and WS surveys in Tajikistan, about 20% of schools were ruined during the civil war; more than 130 school buildings need rehabilitation and full provision of equipment. There are no adequate sanitary facilities in 87% of schools in rural areas; there are no appropriate desks and boards for children to learn.
· Lack of textbooks, teaching materials, scientific methodological materials, updated methodology. According to WB, only 30% of school students obtain the full set of textbook, and only 10% of students have textbooks on several subjects. According to the Ministry of Education there is the severe need in textbooks at present, besides the large amount of activities on the revision and reviewing of old textbooks, development of new textbooks, teaching – learning materials and their publishing, improvement of the overloaded curriculum have not been implemented yet.
· Lack of qualified pedagogical and managerial staff. Low salary is the main reason of qualified pedagogical staff drop out of the education system. According to the State statistic Agency of RT the average monthly salary in the education sector for January- August 2005 was 76,4 somoni, which corresponds to USD 24,4.
3. What development plan is proposed by the Government of Tajikistan for primary education?
According to many authors the contemporary practice of education planning in the context of development dates back to the end of World War 1 with the publication of the first Soviet plan of socio-economic development, including development of education. The approach of education development was put forward along with implementation of extensive programmes for the promotion of literacy and professional training. Farojalla (1993) argues that “certain elements of fairy systematic planning were applied to the development of education in some of the outstanding civilization of the past, such as Plato’s Republic in Ancient Greece, Ancient China during the Han Dynasty and Peru under Inca Rule under Unca rule ”. This shows how ancient the concept of developing plan is. These all conceptions might not match the planning in the modern world, particular because they world needs changed and in the contemporary world the development planning combine the related sectors to reach the objective.
The notion of development is bound with education and planning, as nowadays no sound development can occur without a proper planning system and decent and equally education system (Forajalla, 1993). Compared to other socio-economic sectors, educational development involves more difficult and multidimensional problems. Faced with financial constraints, governments in many countries are not able to meet the broad social demands without adopting restrictive measures within the education sector, while rationalising the use of allocated resources. In the dynamics of educational management of student flows, as well as that of public finance, they have to make difficult decisions to regulate the utilisation of resources, without leading to serious disruptions and dysfunctions. Because there are too many actors, variables and the interrelations between these, it is necessary to have not only a reliable information system but also many other technical tools to facilitate policy consultations and policy-making.
To implement the reform programs needed for primary school development requires substansial change in almost all settings. Education ministers are often the main actors in the nation; counting students, the primary education system engages more individual in coordinated, pupursfully activity that any other institution (Marline, et al, 1991). Marline furrther argues that changing education istitutions is a slow, complex process that is difficult to predict, and, therefore, difficult to plan in detal. The changing system is a complex task which requirs a long time and significan amount of resources. Likewise, developping countries seek for outside funding to implement the palns they design to make changes or reforms proposed by their governments. Government around the world place great importance on the development of education. As DFID Report (2001) claims the countries which have made the greates progress in reducing poverty are those which invested and effectively implemented the education development plan. Accepted as bacis human rights and is vital for democractic citizenship as well as being the key ingine for economic development in the advanced and complex world (Bray, 1991).
Central government of Tajikistan as well as its local and regional branches are taking increasing role in the development of education sector. During the last five years, the Government of Tajikistan has adopted 10 State programs, 5 National plans and a number of projects in the education sphere which are to be implemented in the coming 5 to 10 years. Several Concept papers, plans of actions and laws have been developed demonstrating Government commitment to the education development in Tajikistan, such as Low on Education (1993); National Education for all, the year 2005; National Concept on Education in the Republic of Tajikistan (2002); National educational Sector Development for 2003-2010; Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (2002), which make 43 specific recommendation fro the education sector development. (MDG, Tajikistan, 2003). The main objective of all Tajikistan education development plan papers is improving the quality of education; improve the process of teaching and fulfilment of MDG and PRSP goals. According to National plan for Education development, Tajikistan identified primary education (1-4 grades) as one of the aspects to address to achieve MDGs. Government of Tajikistan considers education as one of its national priorities and wishes to a stable, functioning education system that is able achieve standards of access and quality in conformity with the international norms. (National Strategy, 2005). The same report states the vision for the development of the education system for Tajikistan which is to establish a system for education for citizens of the country that provides universal access to quality education to all children and young people of the country. Tajikistan put forward the following development plan that has to be achieved by 2015 along with the Millennium development goal on primary education.
1) Establishment of the relevant education system, appropriate to the current needs of the
country and changing global context.
2) Reform of the governance and management of education sector to move from exclusively
centralized state system to decentralized system engaging parents and community to
participate in education for their children.
3) Mobilization of resources (human, material, financial, and social) towards development of
the education system
4) Ensuring equal opportunities and access to education for children with special needs as from
5) Rural areas and ensuing gender equality at all level of education.
The priority of the Government of Tajikistan in education continues to be on secondary school education that provides access to basic education for all children. The government budget is being allocated funds towards achieving the development plan with the aim to improve the education in schools.
4. How the development plan proposes school improvement?
School improvement is on the agenda of most countries’ educational policies which are trying to elecit how schools can change in order to improve.
As Van Velzen (1985:48) defined school improvement as “a systematic, sustained effort aimed at change in learning conditions and other related conditions in one or more schools, with the ultimate aim of accomplishing educational goals more effectively.” According to Hopkins et al (1994:3) it is a distinct approach to educational change that enhances student outcomes as well as strengthening the school capacity for managing change . He also states that “school improvement elates to general efforts to make schools better places for pupils and students to learn in”. According to Leask et al (1997) school improvement transform schools in challenging circumstances; prevent school failure; where necessary tackle failing and underperforming schools; and promote improvements in pupil attainment to narrow attainment gaps. As he further states successful approaches to school improvement focus on strengthening school leadership, improving teaching standards, working in collaboration with other schools, and engaging parents and the community. These principles are underpined in school improvement programmes in the development plan set forward by Tajikistan Ministry of Education aiming to fulfill the following tasks to improve school:
1. Improve the management and performance of the education system for the delivery of quality education system.
The development proposes streamline the organizational structure and decision making of the Ministry of education and regional management. Mobilize financial and resources for programs targeted at improvement of the quality of education at all levels.
2. Improve the effectiveness of the system of education by consolidating decentralization, community participation and institution and human capacity building.
This goal has an objective to initiate program of staff capacity building in the Ministry of education and regional management bodies.
3. Ensure Quality of the educational services delivered at all levels. The development plan proposes to upgrade curriculum, textbooks and training materials.
4. Ensure the equitable access to basic education. Under this task Ministry of Education supports children, who have limited access to education and ensures the gender equality in the school.
5. What can be done to improve the educational development plan?
As it was outlined earlier the development and improvement process is a hard and long process. Educational improvement is local process and can vary from country to country. (Dalin, et al 1994). As Hopkins et al (1994) argues the improvement must come from sources outside the school. The Ministry of Education in this case plays a role of facilitator in the process of improvement; it supports schools in their endeavours. Moreover Ministry of Education has to encourage, empower the school, identify the needs of the school and support the development of the schools. Teachers have to be able be creative and committed to develop the school. As many authors argue if the teachers are encouraged and empowered it builds “emotional as well as administrative and problem –solving capacity”.
Another task that the Government comes across is to supply the school with the required materials. Good materials are indispensable but not adequate if the teachers do not pay have vital impact on student and develop skills such as analytical and communication skills, which are fundamental in undertaking education.
“Parents and community participation contributes to success” (Dalin et al, 1994:28). As he further argues parent and community participation lead to commitment and have an effect on the outcomes. However to achieve it the relations have to be established with community and parents to gain their active and full involvement in the process of education for their children.
The role of government is essential in order to provide required mobilization, finding of resources, and providing with legitimacy to promote reforms. The development plan proposes the school staff development. It might be very core approach. However it can be suggested that Ministry of Education invest in staff development with the aim to build in the staff the capability to develop the curriculum and materials development.
The equitable access is also very important factor to improve education. It usually happens in country with low per capita. “There is a strong relationship between low primary enrolment and under-enrolment of girls” (Allsop et al, 1993).
“Decentralization is a part of decision making as part of school improvement. (Hopkins, 1994). It is a commitment which is transferred to the teachers and other school staff. As many authors argue the decentralization is week without central authorities. They can play a role of external evaluators for the school; can adopt the overall curricula for education system of proposed by the trained education staff. The decentralization process is underway in Tajikistan. There were selected two regions for implementation of this new idea for the country, where the school get their autonomy in terms of their financial and governance side. However as experience of many country suggest the decentralization can be reached successfully if the “financial resources and reflect educational plans, and if the resources are allocated to support the priorities that a school has set itself” (Hopkins, 1994:16). It may be suggested that leadership has to be in place to make policy in school, budgeting, implementation and evaluation with the help of external authorities. It suggests school restructuring which requires new advance skills for the teacher. This goal might be essential for development and improvement of education sector. However the skills the decentralization process requires are to be encouraged and promoted for teachers in school, the skills such as leadership and management that fit into the concept of decentralization. Taking into account that the concept of decentralization is rather new, the staff involved into the process and implementations has to be trained before the actual process take place.
Conclusion and recommendations
Tajikistan made and an endeavour to decentralize education governance allocating responsibilities to the head of schools, local authorities and community. The problem Tajikistan faces today with delegating the responsibilities is that the stakeholders namely schools are not enough prepared to get advantage from the decentralization process in particular to make decision independently. It is more evident when it comes to the financial part of. Schools are having lack of financial skills to allocate the budget and increase investment for the school from other private and public sources. There also lack of knowledge how make the community fully participate in the decentralization process. The community and school of are not aware of participatory techniques, how to involve the community and make them contribute to the process of decentralization. Moreover the schools are yet prepare to make their own development plan and change or update the curriculum.
As it was noted earlier there were made some curriculum modification. Mainly there were added different subjects. However mainly the whole system retain the same of Soviet system era which is old dated and is unnoticeably being upgraded since that time. The knowledge and training the teachers have are also those adopted during Soviet time. On the whole, the skill and knowledge are not being developed and enhanced due to the financial constrains the country and in particular schools encounter.
The curriculum still does not pay attention at the skills of students as well. It does not suggest building children social skills, like skills they need in their everyday life, such as communication skills, problem solving skills, analytical skills and etc. These skills children need to better undertake their study as well as to run their own social life, In particular, it concerns primary school children, who require special attention from the teachers, parents and community. The curriculum has to suggest developing the necessary skills from the early age in child through different activities, such as games, examples, group works. The children of this age demand individual attention. To develop the skills in school children can not be real until teachers themselves are encouraged developing them in students. This is not part of curriculum and teachers can not do beyond the suggested curriculum or norms established in the school. They are not used to be creative, because they are not independent in their thought.
This system of education Tajikistan adopted from Soviet Union, and has been using since it collapses. The new opportunities have to be created for teachers involving them more in school improvement. As Southworth and Conner (1999) suggest that school have to have policies to encourage it through different procedures such as meetings of different stakeholders. Furthermore, teachers need professional development opportunities, to be able to express their ideas and get new knowledge on how to develop new curriculum that fits into the 21 century. However this problem can not be solved if the teachers still are very low paid which bring to another issue of shortages in number of qualified teachers. There are some subjects that school missing due to the scarce number of teachers in certain subjects. There has to be made Government effort to seek for investment to enhance potential of teachers and increase the number of teachers in the school.
Above all, the problems with the textbook make the teaching and learning process more complicated, therefore. The learning materials are available but not affordable nowadays. The salary of parents is so low that the cost of books is even higher then the salary itself. The issue of textbook is so challenging that many different international NGOs are donating books or financing the development of educational materials. It is a substantial help from the international agencies, however the projects they have been implementing are either short-term or piloting. The international aid for education is not necessarily sustainable and even sometimes challenging. The projects start and end on the half way of implementation. It can be suggested that the schools being decentralised would be able to make their own decisions seek for funding appropriate for the school improvement, staff development, learning materials and etc.
The main suggestions that can be made in this context is that school can become vehicle to economic growth if they the school principals and teachers are equipped with skills required for elaborating the school development plan, self-evaluation, leadership and management skills. They need these skills to improve the culture of schools, adopt changes and monitor and evaluate the progress of student. Teachers have to be aware of main principals of cooperation, strategic planning, and project management. As Southworth and Conner (1999:12) argue that “school will not improve unless teachers, individually and collectively developed” He also states that “teachers professional growth lies at the heart of school improvement”. These all skills for teacher’s development are crucial in improvement of schools and have to be proposed in the education development plan. The development plan has also propose the idea of having joint debate with different school leaders and teachers to have an opportunity to express their view, exchange experience and share ideas and therefore be able to put across their own suggestions and feedback to the development plan and ongoing reforms. As many authors argue that improvement process has contextual concept “the pressure to improve” and if strongly set in the educational context of a country. It is country commitment to put the educational goal in line with the overall educational goals that are agreed on within the specific context of a country. Some schools require external pressure to develop plans for improvement. Such pressure can be very much match in the context of Tajikistan where people are lacking autonomy and decision-making.
It can be also recommended that school establish market mechanism. Competition may play a crucial role in improving the schools. This approach may be well introduced as the development plan suggests the autonomy of school and their decentralization.
External evaluation of the school might be suggested to introduce into the development plan as well. External and internal evaluation of the learning and teaching process can better lead to school improvement and flourish the school. Information collected for the school and analysed afterwards may suggest the weaknesses and priorities for the school which help the school principals and teachers to concentrate on the issue that needs change or improvement. This work is suggested to be done in group where the priorities are identified by the staff of the school.
Finally it can be suggested that there has to be increased awareness of importance of primary education among parents and community. Primary education has to be free as it is suggested by MDG and this reform has been implementing in Tajikistan. Parents especially in rural areas have to know that the basic knowledge is crucial for their children and that the education is free for their children and they have their rights to should be available to every child.
School improvement is a central concern of governments around the world. The development plan has to promote school improvement that lead to educational change that enhances student learning outcomes and their capacity to undertake the study. Tajikistan needs to continue its endeavour to struggle with the poverty, and one of their areas that need solemn attention is education in particular primary education. It is a long and challenging process which requires intensive efforts to improve the primary education in Tajikistan.
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