International Environmental Security
Introduction
The industrial revolution brought the world into a new age, with new and increasingly complex manufacturing processes which produce by-products of wastes and / or contaminants. These by-products started the process of fouling the land, water and air which all living organisms depend upon for survival. In addition, the resources that are required for the basics of life are rapidly being eroded away. Many resources that are necessary for the survival of the millions of species on this planet, including humans, are falling into short supply. Both renewable and nonrenewable resources are facing the same fate. For example, firewood is used as a source of fuel worldwide, but is in short supply. People are having to search for miles each day in order to gather a tiny ration of wood that will get them through the day. In the meantime, dried cow dung is being used to satisfy the short-term demand for fuel. Oil, silver, and coal, to mention a few, are nonrenewable resources that are also limited in supply. Once the finite supply is depleted, they cannot be regenerated. Rampant deforestation will inevitably destroy many of the habitats for plants, microorganisms, and invertebrates. With this, different governments around the globe are developing actions concerning environmental problems. For instance, the United States of America seriously considered environmental hazards as traditional military threats. Whereas the military forces of the government are helping the victims of environmental disasters (Baldwin & Falk 2006). Aside from this, there are some global treaties like the Kyoto Protocol of United Nations which main objective was to reconstruct the greenhouse national gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would avoid dangerous anthropogenic intervention with the climate system that causes environmental disasters such as typhoons and hurricane (Gardiner, 2004). In some developing countries in Asia, actions concerning environmental securities are also creating significant impact to the inhabitants. In the Philippines for example, heightened the environmental security as Typhoon Ketsana (local name Ondoy) obliterated the major cities and provinces (Ubalde, 2009). Hundreds of people died forcing Philippine government to placed 25 provinces and Metro Manila under state of calamity (Ubalde, 2009). People and governments around the globe knew the significant effect of environmental threats resulting to heightened environmental security. But despite of this, there are some nations in Gulf region specifically Qatar are not developing national environmental plan. From the discussion this paper, will investigate the reasons behind Qatar are not developing national environmental plan considering that other countries like the United States of America regard environmental hazards as national security threat.
Literature Review
In United States of America, Hurricane Katrina left in its wake serious environmental implications, which affected the natural order of the environment that it touched. Consequences of the nation’s dependence on fossil fuels, human-induced global warming, neglect of wetlands, which are natural buffer zones, and use of toxic and hazardous chemicals have been brought out in the open subsequent to the disaster (Kirk 2005). Efforts by the US government to address such threats to the environment have received wide support, especially from the affected regions. The current state of the world’s natural environment was dragged in the spotlight, resulting to various research and studies on the subject of alleviating the present conditions in order to prevent, or at least prepare for worse disasters to come.
The natural disaster left the United States facing perhaps one of the worst environmental catastrophes in history. The more observable effects were: (1) severe air and water pollution that has led to health problems in the affected regions of Louisiana, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Ohio and Kentucky (In a September 14, 2005 post in the CNN site entitled ‘The Latest on Katrina’s aftermath’, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) said air quality samples taken in New Orleans showed high levels of some toxins, including ethylene glycol, used as a coolant, and isobutylene, a byproduct of gasoline and other fuels. Water was polluted mainly from floods brought by the hurricane); (2) oil and toxic chemical spills and leaks (in a statement by Olson (2005), barely one month after the hurricane hit, 575 spills of petroleum or hazardous chemical has been reported to the US Coast Guard and the EPA and; (3) wetland and timber loss, and declines in fisheries and wildlife populations Katrina damaged 16 federal wildlife refuges and altered habitat for at least three endangered or threatened species, including the endangered Alabama beach mouse, Kemp’s ridley sea turtle, and some species of wading birds, according to the US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service ( 2005).
Its national impacts are evidenced by the figures provided by government agencies after the disaster struck. For instance, the Bureau of Labor Statistics provided data on the short and long term economic effects of the hurricane, with emphasis on employment in the affected regions. The ultimate impact of the calamity was foreseen to dampen real gross domestic product (GDP) growth in the second half of the current year (Eakin 2005). In the global level, the impact can be seen on the interest of the world regarding disaster preparedness and environmental awareness. Most neighboring nations extended support to the country, while others were forced to look into their domestic situation, how they would come up in the event that such catastrophe happens to them.
Basically, Hurricane Katrina and other forms of natural disasters emerging in different parts of the globe sparked debates over global warming influences. Some argued that global warming intensity the frequencies of hurricanes. Last year, a number of studies conducted have tried to make a connection between the global warming and hurricanes. At least one prominent study suggests that hurricanes have become significantly stronger in the past few decades during the same period that global average temperatures have increased but some other scientists believe that a natural environmental cycle is responsible rather than any human-induced change (Verrengia, 2005). Findings by Peter Webster of the Georgia Institute of Technology showed that the work of his group is consistent with the concept that there is a relationship between increasing sea surface temperature and hurricane intensity. ‘However, it’s not a simple relationship. In fact, it’s difficult to explain why the total number of hurricanes and their longevity has decreased during the last decade, when sea surface temperatures have risen the most’, Webster stated (‘Did global warming power Katrina?’ 2005). Several recent studies have warned that human-induced climate warming has the potential to increase the number of hurricanes (Leifert 2006). In particular, James Elsner of Florida State University in Tallahassee inferred from an examination of the two occurrences that ‘future hurricane hazard mitigation efforts should reflect that hurricane damage will continue to increase, in part, due to greenhouse warming’ (as cited in Leifert 2006). To date, no specific and hard evidence from the numerous studies have proven the direct relationship of global warming and hurricanes.
In addition, evidences on global warming include melting of polar ice, extinction of biological niches and a beginning of new dreadful diseases. According to Verrengia (2005), “there is substantiation that global warming already caused the average global sea level to rise between four and eight inches during the last 100 years and that the seas are now rising at one tenth of an inch per year.” With this natural occurrence, many countries in the world – both highly industrialized and underdeveloped felt the disruption in all aspects. Developing countries slow down the process of progress because of the various consequences of this nature disturbance. Greatly, poor countries and other Third world nations vastly suffered to its effects that cause serious environmental and human health impacts.
Poor nations are more vulnerable to the effects of global warming both on its scientific and economic perspective. Economically speaking, poor nations have limited resources of revenue. Their economic stratum is distant lower as to compare to richer nations. These poor countries are more centered on the aspect of production of food and industry to maintain the survival of their economy. But due to the effects of this existing phenomenon wherein richer countries contribute greatly to its spreading out, it is no longer important for the developing countries to allocate budget for precautionary measures and standards. Due to lack of capability to spend money for new trends of technology, the acquisition of modern means of technology to help them predict and lessen the effects of the situation is relatively impossible.
In Canada, environmental actions are also considered seriously (Environment Canada, 2007). Since Confederation, federal and provincial legislation has always included at least a minimal core of command-penalty offenses which could be used to protect the environment. Federally, An Act for the Regulation of Fishing and Protection of Fisheries (commonly referred to as the Fisheries Act) of 1868, included offenses prohibiting the deposit of deleterious substances into water (Environment Canada, 2007).
Provincially, the Ontario Public Health Act of 1884, included offenses prohibiting the disposal of garbage, excreta, manure or filth unless approved by provincial sanitation officers (Environment Canada, 2007). The Manitoba Sanitary Act prohibited the deposit of "any stable or barn manure, or any night soil, or any other filthy or impure matter of any kind, along the bank of any river or running stream." By the mid-seventies, virtually all federal and provincial jurisdictions had promulgated control regimes thereby giving administrators the power to require modifications or to close down a polluting operation and to require disclosure of any plans concerning any activity likely to pollute.
Quebec passed its Environmental Quality Act in 1972 thus making it a requirement to obtain a certificate of authorization to operate a polluting activity. New Brunswick's Clean Environment Act was passed in 1973 giving the Minister the power to use control and stop orders to limit, control or curtail pollution (Environment Canada, 2007). In Saskatchewan, the Air Pollution Control Act and associated regulations require a permit to be issued before an industrial operation which emits air pollutants can be put into operation. The Alberta Clean Air Act and the Alberta Clean Water Act replaced by the Environ-mental Protection and Enhancement Act 1992, use licenses, control and stop orders, and permissible effluent discharge regulations (Environment Canada, 2007). Similarly, the Prince Edward Island Environmental Protection Act, the Nova Scotia Environmental Protection Act (formerly the Environmental Pollution Control Act and Environmental Protection Act, and the Newfoundland Department of Environment Act all prohibit discharges without a permit and authorize the Minister to issue orders (Environment Canada, 2007).
From a practical standpoint, the shift from prohibition to control drove pollution abatement decisions underground into the quiet and less visible regulation and license-negotiating processes of government. Over time, and in response to continued public pressure to do so, aspects of these underground bureaucratic processes have since made their way back to the surface to be more public, but progress has been slow.
Considering the significant effect of environmental hazards among the lives of the people and economy, Qatar is not taking this seriously due to different factors. In the paper of Gardiner, (2004) argued that people as well as their governments are not doing environmental plans because of different factors and reasons. As Gardiner, (2004) stressed out because of the debates concerning the global warming, people are not taking actions. If people are confused, people are waiting for the result results. Aside from this, Gardiner (2004) also argued that politics in the government also play significant role for not taking environmental security plans. In the case of the countries in the Saudi Arabia, the countries are not listed in the “World’s Disaster Prone Areas”. As reported, in Center for Research and Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) in Belgium, Asian countries are prone in disasters. Having suffered about half of the world’s major disasters over the past five decades. The prevalence and magnitude of disasters have had serious consequences on human society and the economy. More recently, natural disasters had claimed more than 313,000 lives and affected close to one billion people from 1996 to 2000. The economic loss was estimated at 142 billion dollars. Each year, natural disasters impoverish millions of people in Asia.
In terms of geographic location, Qatar is far away better compared in the Philippines which is considered as the most disaster prone country in the world. In terms of disasters, Philippines suffered from Mount Pinatubo eruption, disastrous typhoons, floods, garbage and landslides in Metro Manila, and for the war in Mindanao. At the end of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (1990-2000), the Philippines was still at the top of the list of countries hit by disasters, as recorded by the Center for Research and Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) in Belgium. These records show that the Philippines was hit by an average of 10 disasters a year since 1991 compared to 8 disasters a year from 1900 to 1991. And now 2009, another disaster brought by Typhoons enormously hit Philippines.
Research Questions
This study aims to find out “Why Qatar did not extend environmental security efforts as part of military actions and set a national environmental security plan although it is a country with non-renewable resources?
This study also attempts to answer the following sub-queries:
1. Do Qatar needs extending environmental security efforts as part of military actions?
2. Is Qatar aware of the advantages and disadvantages of environmental security efforts?
3. What are the factors related in Qatar for not setting national environmental security plan?
4. What are the emerging problems in creating a national environmental security plan?
Hypothesis
The research hypotheses of this paper are:
Methodology
The researcher sees that the most appropriate design for the study is the descriptive approach to research. Because science is empirical, all research are somewhat descriptive. The empirical nature of research means that statements are made only after evidence has been seen to substantiate them. When a report of any scientific investigation is presented, a description of the evidence put forward to substantiate the conclusions is always offered. It is in this sense, then, that all scientific research can be considered descriptive. The aim of descriptive research is to verify formulated hypotheses that refer to the present situation in order to elucidate it. Descriptive research is thus a type of research that is primarily concerned with describing the nature or conditions and degree in detail of the present situation. The emphasis is to describe rather than on judge or interpret.
Descriptive research has as its purpose developing a better understanding of a phenomenon in detail. Descriptive studies usually have as their purpose the first two aims of normal science as described by Kuhn (1970, pp. 25-26): “attempts to increase the accuracy and scope with which…facts…are known” or “determination…of those facts that…can be compared directly with the predictions from…theory”. The aim of descriptive research is to clarify the nature of a phenomenon in a specified, static context while viewed from a specific, fixed perspective.
Research Approach
The multi-methods strategy, or the mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods, will be adopted for this research. On the whole, the multi-methods approach to gathering and analyzing data will be helpful in exploring and examining the reasons why Qatar are not developing environmental security plans. In essence, the quantitative approach pursues facts and is employed when researchers desire to acquire statistical truth. Quantitative research assumes that the social environment has objective reality that is relatively constant across time and settings; on the other hand, qualitative research assumes that individuals construct reality in the form of meanings and interpretations, and that these constructions tend to be transitory and situational (Gall, Gall & Borg, 2003).
While the quantitative research approach provides generalisability, it is difficult in the qualitative research approach to generalize to other research settings mainly because it is limited by the researcher’s unique viewpoint. In other words, theoretical model developed for one research project is difficult to generalize to other research projects. Thus, relying on the qualitative approach alone will weaken the generalizations made regarding the reasons behind Qatar decisions concerning environmental security plans. Along this line, Eisner & Peshkin (1990) ask whether it is possible to present research values with the unique situation of the qualitative research approach and how can research knowledge be accumulated if there are no generalizations on the research. Moreover, the qualitative research approach is limited by its nature that the researcher controls the research.
Considering the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative approaches, the current research employed the principles of both quantitative and qualitative research approaches. Central to the discussion of the rationale behind the mixed methods strategy is the fact that knowledge is accumulated from a variety of sources in a variety of ways, thus, methodological diversity (Fiske & Shweder, 1986) is needed. Basically, the mixed methods approach proposes that traditional scientific approaches and their alternatives have their place and should be valued.
Research Strategies
For the research strategies, this paper will be considering the use of secondary data sources from desk researches and primary data from the interview information to be given by known personalities engaged in developing environmental security plans.
- Desk Research
There are a plethora of secondary data sources. If coming to the topic from the beginning, the researcher will start wide, and will go through the task of identifying and analyzing information that has already been compiled and published in any form. Secondary data is obtained through desk research (Ruskin-Brown, 1999). One of the major strengths of desk research is its practicality – data and information are collected quickly and it is easier to conduct than field research. On the minus side, however, the secondary data may not be recent or accurate. Moreover, secondary data sometimes can be hard to find, depending on the subject. Finally, the data derived by others may not be relevant to the context under study. Nevertheless, the researcher did not encounter the aforementioned problems in desk research. For this study, the secondary sources of data were gathered from articles in journals, magazines, current events news, and books and other materials relating to disasters, global warming, environmental hazards and environmental-related action of Qatar. Secondary sources were also collected using the online library Questia, other online data bases such as ProQuest and ScienceDirect and other legitimate and reliable environment-related websites. These sources provided the researcher a plethora of materials about the topic.
- Interviews
Three environment disasters experts will be approached by the researcher to be interviewed regarding their perceptions towards environmental security plans. One participant was interviewed on a scheduled date she set while the other two were interviewed on the spot. The aim of the interview was to obtain qualitative insights about brand perception. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with the interviewees. Unlike structured interviews which are standardized and do not allow the interviewer to deviate from the questions (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2003), this type of interview does not limit response of the interviewees. Open-ended questions will be also asked to the interviewees.
Difficulties of Research
This research study has a broad range of topics regarding the Qatar consideration concerning environmental security plans. Although the focus is on the investigations concerning decision about environmental security plans of Qatar, other considerations such as the evolution of environmental security actions as part of military actions, effect of global warming on Qatar, and other general information about environmental hazards and disasters are discussed. The outcome of this study is limited only to the data gathered from online materials, books and journals about environmental security, hazards and disasters and from the primary data gathered from the result of interview conducted by the researcher. As the research will be completed in a relatively short period of time and because of difficulty of obtaining classified information from the government of countries like USA and Qatar other factors and variables are not considered. This might have an impact on the results of the study.
References:
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Ubalde, J.H. (2009). Storm 'Ondoy' makes landfall, causes widespread flooding. GMANews.TV. Accessed November 23, 2009 from http://www.gmanews.tv/story/173215/storm-ondoy-makes-landfall-causes-widespread-flooding
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