Expectancy Theory of Motivation
The expectancy theory explores motivation through rewards. (1964) indicated three concepts in this model of motivation namely: expectancy, instrumentability and valence. The formula for motivation to work hard is basically the summation of the products of these three concepts:
Σ ( E x I x V )
where E = expectancy; I = instrumentability; V = valence
In essence, the expectancy theory suggests that individuals feel motivated as the three concepts are perceived. The first concept is expectancy, meaning, the personal expenditure of effort will result in an acceptable level of performance. The second is instrumentability --- the performance level will result in a specific outcome for the person. And finally, the third is valence --- the outcome attained is personally valued ( 2001).
(2005) say that the choices made by people regarding their course of action depend on their beliefs of their own capabilities, whether their guiding principles will lead to fruitful rewards, and how worthy the rewards will be. Meaning, when employees are capable to do their and complete their job, aware of the positive consequences of excellent performance, at the same time, need the money, employees are likely to develop and enhance work performance. (1964) suggested that people consciously opt certain courses of action that is based on their perceptions, attitudes and beliefs and as a consequence of their desires to enhance pleasure and likewise avoid pain. Building upon the original concepts formulated by (1968) later developed a theoretical model which suggests that the expenditure of a person’s effort will be determined by expectations that an outcome will be achieved and the degree of value placed on an outcome in the person’s mind ( 1984). This model is generally known as the expectancy theory, also referred to as VIE (valence, instrumentability and expectancy) theory ( 1999).
Expectancy theory is classified as a process theory of motivation (1999) since it stresses individual perceptions of the environment and subsequent interactions occurring as a consequence of personal expectations. In particular, expectancy theory depends on intrinsic motivators to explain causes of behaviors revealed in the workplace (1999). (1990) states that motivational theories based upon the concept of extrinsic motivation (external rewards as inducing motivational states that fuel behaviors) assume that employees make conscious choices to maximize their self-interests.
Discussion
To start, (2001) suggest that the expectancy theory in essence provides a vehicle for individuals to recognize their leadership goals as it equips them with tools to influence the psychological processes resident in their employees or followers as the employees continuously create expectations based from their individual perceptions. Accordingly, (2001) noted that by presenting rewards in an appropriate fashion, the leader will be able to adopt a “pulling” or influence strategy which will enhance levels of motivation of employees who wish to maximize their self-interests.
Expectancy theory assumes that motivation is not at all equivalent to job performance. To be more specific, expectancy theory assumes that personally, skills and abilities also add to a person’s job performance. According to (1999), some people are better suited to perform their jobs compared to others by virtue of the unique characteristics, special skills and abilities that they bring to their respective works. As mentioned earlier, the expectancy theory realizes that job performance is influenced by an individual’s role perception --- what they believe is expected from them. (1999) adds that poor performance poor performance does not necessarily result from poor motivation, but rather from misunderstandings regarding the role that one is expected to play in the organization.
Furthermore, the expectancy theory also realizes the role of opportunities to perform an individual’s job. (1999) states that there is a high possibility that even the best employees will perform at low levels if their opportunities are limited. In example, even the most highly motivated sales person will have poor performance if opportunities are restricted like when the available inventory is very low or if the customers are unable to afford the product.
The theory of expectancy basically says that people are motivated by some kind of behavior. (2003) notes that this kind of incentive theory has been applied to the study of work to show that people are motivated by greed and money. (2003) adds that the primary problem of this theory is that it claims that the only incentive a person has to perform well is because of the want for some kind of reward. The theory works on the idea that people are motivated by extrinsic rewards (i.e. money or incentives). Some authors have argued that people can also be motivated by other intrinsic factors such as sense of accomplishment ( 1954).
Yet it is important that one must recognize that expectancy theory quite realistically views motivation as just one of the several factors of job performance. Motivation, along with individual skills, personality traits, abilities, role perceptions and opportunities, all constitute job performance. Also, expectancy theory has produced a significant number of researches and has been applied successfully to the comprehension in many different organizational situations. Yet, some specific aspects of the theory have been supported while others have not. Nevertheless, it has become a dominant approach in the field of determining organizational behavior due to the important implications of the said theory in organizational practice.
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