Reinforcing college students' risk-taking in some English classes

 

Chapter One

Introduction

 

1.1.         Status of English Teaching in Alhassa Community College

           For many college students, there is nothing more frightening than being called upon in class. The mere mention of English classes in particular is enough to instil panic in these students because of the amount of verbal and written participation involved. Unlike science or mathematics courses that rely upon concrete reasoning and problem solving in which answers can be easily determined with proficiency in the subject areas, English courses frequently entail individual interpretation and analysis of literature. This type of methodical thinking involves taking some risks because it is often more personal. According to (1993) those who may be regarded as high risk takers in life are not in any way deterred in English classes for they are by nature verbally active. They also indicated that to the more cautious person, the prospect of making a mistake and exposing oneself to ridicule represents shame and social embarrassment. In these extreme anxiety situations, more often than not, being called upon to answer a question may drive a student to resort to invent what is considered to be an appropriate response (selecting an answer based on the perception of what the teacher is seeking) in order to appear coherent and articulate ( 1996). This can be termed (risk- taking).

Risk-taking refers to the learner’s ability to “gamble” a bit, to be willing to try out hunches about the language and take the risks of being wrong ( 1994). A more comprehensive definition of risk-taking was provided by  (1986) as “language class risk-taking refers to an individual’s tendency to assume risk in using the L2 in the second language class”. The definition implies that risk-taking involves four dimensions: a lack of hesitancy about using a newly encountered linguistic element; a willingness to use complex or difficult linguistic elements; a tolerance of possible incorrectness while using the language; and an inclination to practice a new element silently before speaking it aloud.

Much of college student learning involves feelings of self-esteem and self-worth, which ultimately manifests itself in academic performance, particularly in an English classroom (1994). This is often refers to as female perfectionism (1993). In an English class those perfectionists may actually paralyze themselves, avoiding new experiences for fear of failure. Therefore, adult female college students are likely to personalize their fear of making a mistake as an admission that, I am afraid no one will like what I have to say (1999).

Risk-taking is one of the personality factors that is believed to foster language learning (1983;1986;  1999; 2000;  1973; 1993; 1999 to mention but a few) and a good language learner as suggested by  (1975) and  (1992) is the one who likes to take risks and initiate conversations. Though risk-taking as suggested by (2000) can be one of psychological factors that may be an affective variable of the emotions that influence the way in which we learn languages. But such a personality factor is not variable. Also, observations reveal that some shy learners who may be less risk-takers in one English class are good risk-takers in another.

The question is whether or not such a personality factor can be reinforced and used to increase students’ ability to learn the language more easily? And whether or not such a personality factor can be affected by other factors such as the subject, the teacher and the classmates?

 

1.2.         Statement of the problem

Usually when English is taught as a foreign language, the classroom becomes an important setting where learners reinforce their language learning. However, some learners are not willing to take risks and interact in English classrooms; a fact may hinder their language development. In Saudi colleges, English learners are generally not risk takers and usually shun from interaction in English language classes. In Alhassa Community College, for example, most of the students in the English department are generally not risk takers and in some English classes, the teacher becomes the only speaker and sometimes she has to force students to interact. It had been noted that while the same learners hesitate to take risks and interact in one English class, may take risks and speak using new language structures in another. The reasons that drive students to take risks and participate in one class and inhibit some students from participation in classes are still undetermined. They might be partly due to students, to classroom setting (afraid of environment, teacher, or classmates), or to the nature of subject taught. The investigation of such factors and their relation to risk-taking is the topic of this research.

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.3.         The purpose of the Study

 

          The purpose of the current study is to examine the effects of the teacher, the subject taught and the classroom setting on female college students’ risk-taking in English writing, speaking and grammar classes.

 

1.4.         Significance of the study

 

Revealing the influence of the teacher, the classroom setting and the subject taught on risk-taking is an important step towards overcoming English learning problems. It is hoped that by addressing the influence of such factors on students’ risk-taking, the study will enhance women’s contribution to programme designers, text-book designers and teachers’ trainers. It attempts to elevate the awareness of stakeholders of risk-taking as a vital factor of English language learning and provide a clear perspective of how it can be reinforced effectively in the language classroom to produce the best learning results.

 

1.5.         Methodology of the study

This part of the paper will discuss the methods and procedures used and done in the study: the subject, the data collection method, and the statistical treatment of data.

 

          -Subject

The researcher, in choosing subjects or respondents for the topic at hand, is usually thought of to have the power over who the respondents of the study will be. Such a task would have been easier, except a researcher cannot simply choose out of whim; the subjects must be selected carefully with the intention of having subjects who each posses characteristics that, when put together, will represent a community. It is not only themselves whom these subjects will represent, but the bigger whole or the whole population. The characteristics which the researcher has chosen them for will determine which part of the community they belong and what part of the community they are representing. Thus, the choosing of the subjects must be based on their characteristics.

            In this study, it is necessary to collect information from female learners of Alhassa Community College. They were asked with a survey questionnaire. Basically, the researcher has to present or distribute the questionnaires to learners of Alhassa Community College. In addition, the sampling method used is convenience sampling. Overall, the study has collated 64 respondents who fill up the survey questionnaires. The filling-up of the survey questionnaire usually took 7 to 12 minutes for the respondents.

 

          -Instruments and Procedures

 

            In order to obtain the desired data, the researcher has chosen to use the primary research data, which is to collect firsthand the data to be used for the outcome of the research. In able to do this, the researcher must have a data collection instrument to be presented to the respondents. Thus, the researchers have chosen obtaining data through the questionnaire. The questionnaire is administered by writing questions on a page and distributing it to the respondents, expecting them to return the paper with their answers on it. This is easier than other methods of data-collection (e.g., interview, observation, etc.) as particular details may be hard to talk about during interviews and cannot be drawn out from observation.

            The advantage of using the questionnaires method is that the respondents have time to think of their answers, thus allowing smaller rate of errors. Also, concerning delicate matters, the respondents may feel more at ease when answering questionnaires as they are not required to speak with someone else in order to give information. The disadvantage of the questionnaire method is when the respondents are unable to read or write; then the questionnaire will be rendered useless by the respondents as they may need interpreters for the questionnaires.

            In this study, the female learners of Alhassa Community College were surveyed to acquire their opinion regarding risk-taking in English subjects. As previously stated, 64 learners were surveyed from Alhassa Community College. The reason why such a criterion was put on the learners was because the said Community College is the only girls' college in Alhassa where we can find two English subject classes of the same level taught by two different teachers in the same term.

            As stated, the structured questionnaires were given personally to each respondent. They were briefed first about the aim and objectives of the research. The instructions were written at the beginning of the questionnaires. The respondents were informed that they can ask if there is anything they do not understand among the questions or the instructions. Out of the 64 respondents who were approached, a success of 100% responses was obtained, thus 64 agreed to be surveyed.

 

Instruments to be Used

To determine the perception of the respondents about risk-taking in some English classes, the researcher prepared a survey-questionnaire. The respondents graded each statement in the survey-questionnaire using a Likert scale with a five-response scale wherein respondents were given five response choices ( 1994). The equivalent weights for the answers were:

 

Range                                     Interpretation

            4.50 – 5.00                              Strongly Agree

3.50 – 4.49                              Agree

2.50 – 3.49                              Uncertain

1.50 – 2.49                              Disagree           

0.00 – 1.49                              Strongly Disagree

 

The decision was made to use a questionnaire for the data collection for this project due to the sensitivity of the information being obtained.  It is important for the respondents to be open and honest in their responses. The use of the questionnaire provides the project owner with the ability to test the views and attitudes of the respondents. The questionnaire was designed to allow the collection of specific information about the participants to conduct statistical analysis, e.g. age, sex, social status, income and society class. Here, the researcher encouraged the respondents to clarify vague statements and to further elaborate on brief comments. The researcher did not share his/her own beliefs and opinions.

 

Statistical Treatment

When the survey questionnaire will have been collected, the researcher will use statistics to analyze all the data. The statistical analysis shall be conducted using the Microsoft Excel and SPSS software where the data will be tabulated, graphed and evaluated. Comparisons were drawn between the overall responses to the questions and the differing responses (1994) the following statistical formulae were used:

1.  Percentage – to determine the magnitude of the responses to the questionnaire.

                        n

% = -------- x 100         ;           n – number of responses

                        N                                 N – total number of respondents

 

2.  Weighted Mean

                        f1x1 + f2x2  + f3x3 + f4x4  + f5x5

x = ---------------------------------------------;

                                                xt

 

where:             f – weight given to each response

                        x – number of responses

                        xt – total number of responses

The researcher will be assisted by the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) in coming up with the statistical analysis for this study. SPSS is one of the most widely available and powerful statistical software packages that covers a broad range of statistical procedures, which allows a researcher to summarize data (e.g., compute means and standard deviations), examine relationships among variables (e.g., correlation, multiple regression), and graph results (e.g., bar charts, line graphs) ( 2003).

 

1.6.         Working questions

This study tries to find answers for the following questions:

To what extent are second-year college students willing to take-risks in English writing, speaking and grammar classes?

What reasons does a college student have for taking or not taking-risks in English classes?

What do adult female students need to take risks in English classes?

Is students’ risk-taking behaviour due to teachers’ attitude in English classes or is it due to classroom settings?

 

1.7.         Research Hypotheses

Specifically this research will test the following hypotheses:

There is no correlation between female college student’s risk-taking in English classroom and classroom setting.

There is a correlation between female college student’s risk-taking in English classroom and different teachers.

There is a correlation between female college student’s risk-taking in English writing and grammar classes.

 

1.8.         Limitations

This study will be conducted in Alhassa Community College in the eastern province of Saudi Arabia. The reason behind choosing the Community College is that it is the only girls' college in Alhassa where we can find two English subject classes of the same level taught by two different teachers in the same term. Moreover, each class has only thirty two female students which make comparison among classes a lot easier and meaningful.

 Only female college teachers and learners of English will participate in the study. The productive language skills classes writing and speaking are chosen to measure production; while grammar is also chosen because it is a common component to all language skills.

 

1.9.         Definition of terms

 

Discussions

These are brief explanations of teacher and student actions in each of the vignettes, linking vignettes to standards and progress indicators (www.encyclopedia.com).

 

Education

Education encompasses the teaching of specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, good judgement and wisdom. One of the fundamental goals of education is to impart culture across the generations socialization. ()

 

ESL

This term shall be used to define the course taken by the learner in order to acquire the English language ().

 

Goals

These are defined as overarching intentions for English language use; they are tied to social and academic language and appropriate use ().

 

Knowledge

Knowledge includes, but is not limited to, those descriptions, hypotheses, concepts, theories, principles and procedures which to a reasonable degree of certainty are either true or useful ().

 

School

A school is a type of educational institution. The range of institutions covered by the term varies from country to country. ()

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter Two

Review of Related Literature

 

2.1. Introduction

Language is an important part of the human civilisation. For many years, language is considered as the main tool for communication for almost all levels of man, all races, gender and age. The everyday life of man is confronted with knowledge. It is a fascinating necessity as it varies from culture to culture yet many still struggle to learn the language of another just to communicate with the person native of the language. Today, many people use different language, whether native or foreign, to communicate with other people from different race. One notable type of language is the English language, which is considered as the global or universal language. English is used by many countries as their secondary language. It is already being spread and used as a tool to communicate with other nationalities. In international assemblies, it is considered as the formal language although others may have the choice of bringing along a translator. The point is, English, by the turn of the last two centuries, is not just any language anymore, but a universal one available for the use of all.

One of the greatest challenges facing educators today is the need to customise instruction to meet the individual needs of each English learner. It is an undertaking task that requires new knowledge and teaching skills. Many of the teaching and learning concepts are universal and can be used with all students since each learner is unique. Information exchanges, global prosperity, and an embracing of cultural sensitivity may be advanced if the complex process of language acquisition in English and its language development is understood. Initially, learning of English language serves as the foundation for the establishing of lifelong literacy skills.

Basically, learners in Alhassa Community College are growing up in a complex, highly competitive global economy in which the total knowledge is doubling every few years. People exist in a global society that requires extraordinary skills and talents as well as a pace of life never before experienced in human history. In connection to this, this chapter illustrates the review of literature regarding the proficiency level of learners and their risk-taking in Alhassa Community College in learning English.

 

2.2. Risk-taking in English classes

 

Most of the studies on risk-taking have attempted to investigate the relationship between risk-taking and situational and individual factors as well as other personality factors. The following is a summary of the results of some of those studies.

Studies examined the relationship between risk-taking and situational factors. (1983) carried out a comprehensive research on the relationship between risk-taking and interviewer ethnicity, accuracy and avoidance. She presented data from Puerto Rican bilingual (Spanish-English) children. The children were interviewed on four occasions; once by a monolingual English interviewer; once by a bilingual (Spanish dominant) interviewer; once by a bilingual (English dominant) interviewer; once by all three interviewers, in group of three children. Beebe operationalised risk taking in terms of number of attempts to use do insertion in WH-questions, avoidance of such amount of talk, and amount of information volunteering. She found that interviewer ethnicity, accuracy and avoidance situational factors could affect risk-taking level of the interviewees.  (1986) studied the risk-taking behaviour of university students enrolled in Spanish courses. Classroom participation was measured as the times a student said something in Spanish without being called on to do so. Ely found that students’ risk-taking behaviour was a positive predictor of students’ voluntary classroom participation.

Studies that tried to investigate the relationship between risk-taking and individual factors include that of (1991). They studied the effects of pay-off and task context on academic risk-taking. They found that both the variable pay-off that the learners get and game context increased the level of academic risk-taking. A study on the relationship between risk-taking and EFL reading comprehension was done by  (1994,  2006). He found that students’ risk-taking level did not affect their grades in reading comprehension. Another recent study by  (2006) found that there is no significant relationship between language learners’ risk-taking, syntactic complexity and grammatical accuracy in writing tasks. They also wrote (2006):

 

However, as already mentioned, what needs to be taken into consideration is the fact that

although risk-taking is a personality factor, it is primarily dependant upon the situation. Therefore language teachers can encourage an optimal level of risk-taking by controlling the classroom environment. The feedback given to the students can also be argued as a means for controlling the class environment..

           

            Studies related to the relationship between risk-taking and other personality factors can be divided into two groups. One group of studies investigated the relationship between learners’ risk-taking in second language classrooms as an essential factor of MacIntyre’s et al.’s willingness to communicate model (WTC) and individual’s personality factors that may hinder or facilitate language learning. The factors are extroversion, risk-taking, self-esteem, anxiety and empathy. An example is  study (2003) which amended the WTC model. Part of the results is that risk-taking and tolerance of ambiguity seem more affectively related and culturally significant in a Chinese English Classroom than other personality factors in the students’ willingness to communicate.  Another study that investigated the correlation between risk-taking and other personality factor is that of (1978). They studied the individuals’ sensitivity to rejection to find if it might affect active participation in language class. They administered the Mehrabian Sensitivity to Rejection scale (1970) to their subjects, 72 eighth-, tenth- and twelfth- grade Anglophone students of French as a second language. The result showed that there was no significant relationship between the individuals’ sensitivity to rejection and active participation in language class. They also found a little correlation, either positive or negative, between sensitivity to rejection, a trait intrinsic to risk-taking, and language learning success. (1986) studied the influence of cognitive and affective variables on adult second language learning abilities. Two variables, field independence and tolerance of ambiguity, were found to be significant predictors of English as a second language proficiency for international students studying in the United States of America. They also stated that tolerance of ambiguity and risk-taking seems to exhibit the highest correlation with success in second language learning.

 

 

 

 

 

 

2.3. Identification

The Good Language Learner

The mark of a good language learner has been covered in the linguistic literature for the past three decades. As it will be presented in the consequent parts of this chapter a lot of works have focused more on the specific characteristics of the language learner. Some have established factors such as age and intelligence as among the rather unchanging elements in their discussubin, 1975) In the same manner, there is also a considerable body of works that take on the specific personality factors that are present in a good language learner. The work ofco (1978) claimed that on a normal basis, in order for someone to know is a person is indeed a good language learner, what they have to do is simply allow the said individual to acknowledge whether he/she is one or not. They claimed that the individual is inherently aware of the capabilities and whether he/she had the necessary faculties to be considered a good learner. However, when one analyzes this claim, the use of such method is not quite reliable as N (1978) deemed. Knowing the beliefs and practices that an individual takes on established has been the foundation of the said study. Another issue that comes to mind when looking into the fact that the Naiman study focused on the “good” ones instead of looking for the reasons why there are those who in some way underachieved in their pursuit of language learning. The response provided by the said study indicated that in studying how these good learners take on their business in language acquisition, the less successful ones will be assisted considerably since they are able to adapt the method which has been proven to be effective by the good learners.      

Another study that addressed the issue of a person being a good learner is the work of  (1983). The study claimed the good language learner is one who is capable of taking risks. ) It is thus not surprising that this work has been considered influential in the consequent studies trying to relate concepts of risk-taking behavior and success in language learning. The said study similarly claimed that learning a language actually entails the possibility of being wrong, and that in order for a learner to be effective he/she must be able to face the implications of the mistake. It is in this claim that this chapter depend its arguments. The following discussion will be taking on the effects of these ramifications on the risk-taking of the learner. In looking at the factors contributing to language learning success, claims on both past and recent works in the realm of language learning will be taken into consideration.       

 

Individual Learning Strategies of the Learner

The capability of the individual to successfully take on a second language predominantly comes from an internal belief on how a particular language is ought to be learned. The language one uses and how it is conveyed or communicated to another individual thus serve as an “important communication tool” in order to establish one’s identity and frame of mind.,9 19, 1) The concepts of language and communication work hand-in-hand with regards to establishing these social structures established in societies. And it is these individuals who decide on their own their own strategies in learning a language to effectively communicate. To illustrate, a study ati (2002, 323) indicated that the attitude towards the target language as well as the learning situation, specifically the set of beliefs held by the learner, greatly affects the learning process of the language learner. The said study added that the instructor’s knowledge on the student’s belief systems will provide some degree of improved understanding on the expectation, commitment, success, and satisfaction of the learners. With such knowledge, the language instructors possess a great tool in gauging the improvements of the individual learners as well as the capacity to work hand-in-hand with the student.

 

Locus of Control

Another study that took on the learning strategy in influencing the personality factors of the learner is mYeh (2001, 141). In the said study, they claimed that the learner’s level of control on the learning strategies served as a major indicator in the success rate of the learning process. The study found out that a learner-controlled environment grants the student a considerable amount of advantages as compared to a more program-controlled framework. Their study showed that giving the power to the learner to decide the pace and sequence of the learning process result to a more effective learning outcomes as a result of a more interactive environment. Thus, when a student decides how and to what extent he/she input in the learning process generates a more student-friendly atmosphere where the burden of addressing the personality factors of the individuals are held to a minimum.

This is supported by the study of  (2000, 3) when they pointed out that the locus of control of the learners have a significant effect on the learning outcomes of foreign language acquisition classes. They even indicated that the capability of the students to control their learning and language acquisition in foreign classes is reflected on the difference on the effort and results made by even high achievers. This explains the reason why the perception of the student on the level of their control in their classes appears to be among the central indicators of success in foreign language classes.

 

Affective Factors

            In the context of foreign language acquisition, a set of predictors known as affective variables has been considered as major elements. (2000) Issues on anxiety and self-confidence were among the affective indicators used in past studies. In the work of  (2000) they stated that a major affective factor in this area refers to the anxiety of the learners towards the use of a second language. They have also stated that the level of self-confidence of the learner is an indicator of his/her proficiency in acquiring the second language. Similarly, they also found out that it is a factor in general foreign language achievement.

            In a study made by  (2001, 195) they indicated that the defining the basic affective factors that a group of individual possess allows the instructor to establish what motivates these individuals to take on learning activities. The said study has similarly equated the manifestation of this motivation factors (as an offshoot of the affective variables) to the level of responsibility of the individual. Though this does not indicate proficiency in the context of language learning, the said finding equates affective factors towards the dedication and motivation of the language learner to gain knowledge of the lessons in his/her language classes.   

 

Anxiety

It has been noted in studies in linguistics that one of the major factors impeding the process of second language and foreign language acquisition is language anxiety.y, 2004, 23) The concept of language anxiety is characterized as the feeling of concern among the students because on an inherent realization that they are not yet proficient in the use of the said language. As a result, these students choose not to employ the foreign language in interacting with other individuals, even in the classroom setting. The study of  (2004) presented several elements that generally constitute foreign language anxiety.

One factor that has been viewed in the study is “communication apprehension.” (p23) Generally speaking, the said term is characterized as an anticipated or real communication fear by an individual to another.y, 2004) However, Casado and Dereshiwsky (2004) authors indicated that the capability of the students to express what seemed to be mature ideas and very competent line of reasoning are not conveyed to its fullest because of their rather insufficient vocabulary on the second language. This inadequate reservoir of words consequently limits the capability of these individuals to express what they want to say.y (2004) contend that this inability to express and comprehend leads to feeling of apprehension towards the said language.  The study oey (2004, 174) similarly acquired the position on communication apprehension. They added that the said language learning impediment is a “cross-linguistic” characteristic. They claimed that this trait is directly related the way an individual similarly possess communication apprehension even with using the native language. This indicates that the concept of communication apprehension may possibly be deep rooted as compared to the claim of  and . (2004) The findings presented by theey (2004) generally holds that the incidence of communication apprehension among individuals is inherent and deep seated fear to actually communicate.

Another factor stated in the studyy (2004, 23) is the fear of negative evaluation. This kind of anxiety among the learners may also be considered as a factor that amplifies the overall anxiety of the learner. , 1999, 19) This is considerably attuned to be related more on a social context considering this entails whether the individual make a proper social impression or otherwisey (2004) noted that since there is a level of uncertainty among the learners regarding the correctness and accuracy of what they are saying using the foreign language, apprehension builds up. The fear to be ridiculed and seen as unintelligent has similarly been noted in other studies in class participation. ( 2005)  

  Self-worth

The element of confidence in the classroom setting has considerably been considered as an element not only in the area of foreign language acquisition but also in academic achievement in general. According to the work orie (2001, 34) the development of learners are hinged largely on the progress of their concept of self-worth and self-efficacy. The communication that entails in the classroom setting harnesses these concepts among the students along with the trust relationship between them and the educator. With such a relationship, acquisition of knowledge is maximized along with the classroom performance of the learners.n, 1997, 55) This shows that a person may perform well in specific activities such as foreign language acquisition provided that he/she positively value his/her own competence.

Psychologically speaking, the concept of the self with regards to the classroom experience has been considered as a factor playing an intervening role in the ability of an individual to establish the skills concerning social interactionsi, 2003, 141) This means that the concept of one’s self, or how one values one’s self, is imperative in the area of language acquisition given the fact that it is mostly geared towards interaction and communication with other individuals, especially in the classroom setting.

Further studies even claims that the level of self-worth of an individual is directly related to academic achievemenest, 1998,) These studies claim that the self-worth of a learner is similarly connected to the level of motivation of the said individual to learn. In the context of language acquisition, the study t al (2000, 6) revealed that the individuals who appeared to perceive themselves with low academic competence were among the underachievers of the class. The arguments presented by the said authors may equate such an observation to self-worth being another element that amplifies apprehension among the learners. They claimed that those students who showed signs of low self-perception of academic competence and foreign-language performance are among the more anxious in using the foreign language in class. 

 

 

2.4. Classification

 

Effects on Speaking

The topic of second language acquisition has been looked into by several studies from the past years. Nevertheless, a specific attention on the effects on speaking has yet to establish a seminal work. A particulas (1994) indicated how speech and speech patterns by second language learners are affected. Their analysis took on a more social context for indicating the said effects. Linguistically speaking, the said analysis stated that these English language learners have to “accommodate their speech to that of other.” (p173) An explanation given attributed to the search for acceptance and conformity of the speakers among its peers and other individuals. The study coined the term “interlocutor” as an indicative of the possible changes in the speech patterns of the English learners. (p172) It defined interlocutor as the conversational partner of the English language learner. This means that the speakers are making a conscious effort to adjust their speech patterns to accommodate their interlocutor. Though the explanation provided is limited to a social a psychological account, it established the notion that the speech pattern on an individual indeed changes along with the changes of speech situation he/she encounters.

The study further noted the process in which a second language learner’s decision to use particular words in a given second language.  (1994, 175) indicated that a decision making process on the part of the learner takes place before he/she “uses or reject” a particular term or word in his/her sentence. The “decoding” that takes place is said to be concluded after a couple of stages. First, the learner is forced to interpret a particular sentence provided by his/her interlocutor. Subsequently, the learner is then prompted to consult his/her “internalized linguistic system.” This means that the learner is subjected to consult on his/her own understanding of a sentence by comparing it with the patterns present in his/her native language. Thus, the ability to comprehend and the vastness of the vocabulary of the learner constitute a great part of the speaking process.

Another possible effect on the pattern of speaking is through the accent used in an acquired second language. The phonology used and possibly considered as a norm in the speaking pattern of the said second language may well be different to a phonology particular to the native language of the learner. In the work or (2001, 1) he indicated that this phenomenon is more prevalent with adult learners of second language. This means that the learners have deeply ingrained the speech pattern of their native language. The visible result of this is the accent made by the learner when he/she is speaking the language. Nevertheless, Major (2001, p78) found out that in the situation of migrants, they are forced not only to learn the language but also to take on a similar phonology of the culture they are living in, specifically they have to take on the accent of an average American if they are in an American community. This is similarly the case when they are subjected to other English peaking cultures such as the British and Australian settings. It is known that these English-speaking nations acquire different phonologies in their speech patterns. This backs up the study oss (1994) regarding the social aspect of this shifts and changes in the speech pattern indicated earlier. Both studies have indicated that these shifts in phonology or specific context of the desired second language bear social factors that force these individuals into adapting to the culture they are subjected.

       

Effects on Grammar

The learning grammar is similarly one of the elements transcribed in second language acquisition. This is tied with both spoken and written attributes of the acquisition process. The use of grammar tends to be focused more on the proper employment and application of the language through its technical elements such as the use of tenses and the use of grammatical person. This rather instruction of technical usage gives the tendency of learning the proper use of grammar considerably uninteresting and un1excitinch,995, 32) This means that the effectiveness of learning the proper use of language through grammar tends to vary depending on the age of the learner. In the study of Fitch (1995, 35) she noted that older learners are more prone to better grammar than adolescents. She also equated this in second language acquisition. (1995) noted that the study of form and use of a language is better suited to older language learners because they have mastered the “monitoring” of the learning process. (p35) This means that the older part of the population is well equipped with the proper self-evaluation skills needed to learn the proper forms of grammatical use in language. The said study further noted that the learning process in which adult learners engage in forms an abstract structure with the higher capability to retain information specifically with regards to technical rules in grammar. This means that the learners from the college level would be able to effectively take grammar lessons as compared to that of those in elementary or high school level given the rather tangible and immediate learning processes involved among young learners. Applying these learned rules in grammar makes both spoken and written application of a language acceptable to the context of the second language. In this manner the use of the second language acquires a more understandable level to the interlocutor of these learners.

This claim is supported by the workgao (2001, 356). He indicated that acquiring a second language considered a learning process as opposed to what the acquisition method posed by learning a native language. He indicated in this work that the use and learning of the grammatical rules provided in second language acquisition is necessary to realize its fundamental goal: effective communication. This means that the learning of grammatical rules is important as Fitch (1995) have stated in her claims in her work. Communicative competence thus is an important element that learners should aim at in order to become effective users of the second language. ( 2001, 356)

In looking at the effects of learning grammar in second language acquisition, it appears that the knowledge of the specific rules in using the language helps greatly on the capability of the learner to acquire competence in communicating what he/she intends to convey. This means that these rules are important, indispensable even, in second language acquisition provided that it not only shows literacy but also displays fluency on the part of the learner and accuracy on the context he/she wants to convey. And along with these capabilities, there are opportunities in which the learner eventually possesses given that he/she could play in the same playing field as that of the other individuals who use the language effectively, both in verbal and written sense.    

 

Effects on Writing

The skill of writing among the second language learners, unlike the other two aspects discussed earlier, have a small amount of literature to begin with. The work oa (1994, 237) stated that there are basic prerequisites that are needed in order for an individual to effectively learn from the writing lessons provided in classrooms. One prerequisite is that the learners must have a basic knowledge of the figures and the manner of printing specific prints. This means that for a second language learner who tries to take on lessons in English should be able to discern the different letters alphabet and how to write them down in paper. Learners from countries with a writing system similar to the English language may well find this easy. Learners from countries like most of Europe and some parts of South East Asia would be able to find it easy to adapt. However, countries with cultures that have totally embraced a unique writing system as well as a distinctive set of alphabet may have a hard time on this aspect. Countries such as China and Japan and other Arab countries are examples of these cultures.

In the similar study, (1994, 237) indicated that in the context of second language acquisition, the teachers normally prefers to provide the students the mastery of the English language before some other communication skills is taught. This means that spoken or verbal use of the English language is normally taught first. Tasks such as completing drills, copying manuscripts, filling in the blanks and dictation were among the basic practices acquired by the second language acquisition leaerotta (1994) coined these tasks and activities as “cautious.” And with the use of these cautious methods the learning of the second language apparently becomes considerably retarded in some ways. (p240) The contention of the said study indicates that all aspect of second language acquisition, particularly writing, speaking, and grammar are all “interrelated and interdependent.” (p251) Development of these skills is therefore impossible to separate. The use of an audience or publishing of a work of the second language learner has been noted as a necessary element in the learning process, given the use of the writing skill as a social element and a communication tool. (p251) Not only will this be able to improve the writing skills of the second language learners, there is also the secondary objective of improving the literary skills of the English language learner.

  Risk-Taking Behavior In the context of risk taking in general, the attitudes towards these activities tend to be considerably varied among individuals. In a study ofn, (2002, 585) they indicated that the risk-taking behaviors of may actually be different among the age groups, specifically between adolescents and adults. They noted that factors such as different options, identification of possible consequences of a particular option, placement of value among these consequences, examinations of such consequences, and rules used in decision making. On the whole, the acquisition of risk in an activity depends predominantly on the personality and other internal factors of the individual, however one could not discount the fact that the reactions of these personality and internal factors are still anchored firmly on the situation wherein these are subjected. (2006, 10) n (2002, 585) added in their examination that there are some predictors on the risk-taking behavior of an individual. They found out in their study that the sensation-seeking variable is the highest predictor of risk-acquisition among individuals. The said study noted that constructs such as thrill-seeking and adventure-seeking is composed of this predictor. This claim is similar to an earlier study of Brown (1994) where the said author indicated the propensity of a learner to “gamble” with their answers in class participation practices. The context of gambling takes into consideration the propensity of the learner to participate in class, either verbally or in written form, without being anxious of the positive or negative response to his/her answer. In addition, Bendell et al. (1994) took on a study of the risk-taking behavior of adolescents. They found out in their study that their respondents take on these activities and behavior as a response to their stimuli to satisfy some sort of “bravado.”(p701) This may well be in accordance to the earlier mentioned indicator of “sensation-seeking” among individuals. The study further indicated and confirmed what  (1994) claimed on his context of gambling with their actions and their rather neutral or indifferent nature to the possible consequences.l (1994) indicated that adolescents displayed this innate “sense of indestructibility and non-awareness of the negative consequences” to relate these activities to the concept of bravado and show of courage. In looking at the said studies, the capability of the individual to provide an indifferent reaction to the consequences is major indicators of risk-taking. This sense of bravado and display of courage are seemingly actions carried out to satisfy a sensation-seeking stimulus. The problem in this context is that not all individuals are risk-takers; there are still individuals who could be described as risk-averse. This sensation-seeking stimulus might be not as compelling to these risk-averse individuals.  

In another study,t (1999, 289) indicated several advantages of risk-taking among individuals. One particular effect of these activities includes the increase of a person’s confidence. To a certain extent, an individual’s perception of himself/herself develops because of his/her realization that he/she could indeed take on a challenge. In the context of this study, the challenge is the open participation in the English classes, be it in verbal or written formart (1999) added that the risk-taking behavior similarly provides the individual some sort of sense of control by lessening the feeling of helplessness or victimization. At this point, it is beginning to show that the contention of Neihart regarding risk-taking is more related to personality factors. This feeling of helplessness and victimization indicates that these risk-taking behaviors seem to be a coping mechanism to overcome one’s personality issues. This is further established by  (1999) by pointing out the third advantage of risk-taking. She noted that the said behavior enables an individual to develop skills that could prevail over one’s anxieties and fears.

Similarly,(1999) had the same opinion with  (2002) with regards to the relationship of decision making and risk-taking. On the study of  (1999) a close contention with the younger part of the population is taken into consideration. All in all, thehart (1999) proposed what she coined as a “systematic risk-taking” among individuals. This type of risk-taking represents a planned and calculated manner of taking risks. Though she noted that taking risks is indeed have a high propensity to be more inclined to failure, the ability to have an “active” choice selection among individuals could make have an equal take on their risk-taking activities.

 

Risk-Taking Behavior in Academic Institutions

            In looking at the literature of the risk taking attitudes of students in the academic setting, the studies have focused more on the situational and personality factors that may be present in the risk-taking activities. The relationship in these elements with the risk-taking behaviors have been considered not only in the acquisition of the English language, but also the general view on second language acquisition. Early works of  (1986) took into consideration situational aspects of the risk-taking behavior of the respondents. To illustrate, the said author took into consideration the classroom setting where Spanish classes were being held. The main indicator of used in the said study included class participation. Specifically, the capability to speak the second language without being instructed by the professor was taken as a major predictor of the risk taking behavior of the students. This means that students who show a positive response with regards to classroom participation directly relate to the level of risk-taking involved in a classroom setting.

            The context of risk taking particularly appears to be closely related to class participation. In a multicultural setting, a study in class participation has revealed several hindrances in attempting to take risk in participating in the discussions within the classroom. The work of (2002, 241) undertook a view on the class participation of students in the college setting. Factors such as discomfort and political correctness were among the perceived indicators why the respondents take on self-censorship in the classroom.  (2002,) characterized this kind of activity which is highly related to political correctness. The study’s premise basically considers political correctness as the primary factor that engenders self-censorship among students. With the presence of political correctness in the classroom, though it is the study apparently taken it as an understood or unspoken phenomenon, greatly suppresses the idea of the students, especially in a multicultural setting. In the context of their discussions, the idea of risk taking is hindered by this concept of political correctness and eventual self-censorship among college students. This covers what seems to be preconceived notions and intolerance to specific ideas. These ideas possibly include racist remarks and chauvinist claims in the discussions of students. These may or may not be actually intended to be included in the arguments posed by an individual.  And in the end, the fear that permeates among the respondents whether they are speaking within the limits of political correctness in an attempt to steer clear of any unintentional offensive remarks that they may give once they partake in class discussions.

            Some studies have also taken into context the relationship of the individual on the risk-taking activities. More specifically, the personality of the individual has similarly been considered in these studies. A study of  (2003) showed a huge relationship of this risk taking behavior on an occurrence he coined as a person’s “willingness to communicate (WTC).” The positive or negative relationship of one’s risk taking behavior towards a person’s WTC may well become a significant hindrance to the learning process of the second language learner. Other personality factors involved in the  (2003) study included extroversion, risk-taking, self-esteem, anxiety and empathy. This work of (2003) has proven to show importance and influence to this field. It has been used as a reference by different risk-taking studies. An instance is the work of Win and Clement (2003) indicating a possible alteration on the hypothesis of MacIntyre (2003) regarding a person’s willingness to communicate. In their study of a Chinese English classroom setting revealed that, along with tolerance of ambiguity, risk-taking behaviors of the students seemed to be directly related to the respondents’ willingness to communicate.

 

Perspectives from Other Linguists This part of the discussion is going to take into consideration the arguments of other authors regarding the risk-taking of the learners. For clarity and coherence, the discussions will be divided into two categories. The studies regarding risk-taking of the learner and its personality factors are going to be discussed separately with the risk-taking studies concerned with the situational factors. Discussions on the seminal works of  (1983) and other earlier works on the language learning are to be presented in this part of the chapter. 

 

Risk-Taking and Personality Factors

On of the earlier works on the relationship of risk-taking and personality factors, or those pertaining to the individual, included the seminal work of al (1978). In the said study, they focused on the issue of rejection among the learners. Specifically, the individual’s sensitivity on the said dismissive action was measured in accordance to their participation in classroom activities. To a certain extent, the study related class participation to the risk-taking attributes of the individual. The classroom setting in particular opens the learner to specific elements that may lead to such sensitivity to rejection. This claimgues (1978) appears to have veracity even in the current time. This is supported by the study of s (1999, 33). They claimed that learners are constantly subjected to verbal aggression from the central authority in the classroom, the instructor. The said study characterized these actions as concerning an individual’s self-concept and how the central authority tries to deliver “psychological pain” to the said individual.

Going back to the study ofal. (1978) they claimed that the individual’s sensitivity to rejection has little or no significant relationship to the learner’s propensity to participate in class. This means that such a personality trait of having such fear of rejection seem to be inexistent for that period. In the same way, the studyyers (1999, 39) supported the findings presented in the Naiman study. They concluded that the effect of verbal aggression among the learners, in the college setting to be exact, is not substantially affecting the student. They even advanced their argument that the effect of the verbal aggression and verbal aggressiveness of the central authority in the classroom is basically limited to the perspective of the student. Thus, a decision is imparted on the learner on whether to view such acts of rejections as disparaging or otherwise. This is comparable to what has been discussed regarding Neihart’s claim of the learner having an active choice in the matter.

These problems, as presented by the works o al (1978) aers (1999), were then answered by another author who similarly took on the issue of language learning.s (2002) indicated in his work that the solution to such problems related to class participation is based primarily on the level of motivation of the learner. He stated that the burden of instituting some sort of approach that would be able to establish such a situation between the student and the instructor rested on the latter’s shoulders. He indicated several courses of action that may help in forming such motivational strategies that would induce participation. On the whole, he indicated that establishing a positive rapport, pleasant atmosphere, and recognized group norms are necessary to achieve this goal.   

        

Risk-Taking and Situational Factors

This part of the chapter indicates the studies that addressed the external factors that affect the risk-taking of the person. This means that a more social aspect of the language learning spectrum will be taken in this portion. To illustrate, the previously noted influential work of  (1983) was among the first to establish implications of situational aspects to the risk-taking behavior of the person. She carried out a comprehensive study using Puerto Rican children as her main respondents. Specifically, she tried to relate risk-taking behaviors to interviewer ethnicity, accuracy and avoidance. The study found out that the said variables had a direct effect on the risk-taking behaviors of the learners.

 (1986) analyzed the implications of several variables such as discomfort, risk-taking, sociability, and motivation. The said study similarly took account of the attitude of the learners towards class, their consciousness towards their grades, and language learning skill. All of these variables were taken into consideration with the participation of these students in the foreign language classes. These classes were characterized as introductory/basic (not advanced) courses in the university setting. Direct observation was used to measure the participation of the learners in the classroom. On the other hand, the study similarly used other research tools such as surveys and interviews. The author tested the hypothesis that risk-taking attitudes and motivation of the learner creates a positive effect on the participation of the students in foreign language classes. On the similar note, the author similarly tested the hypothesis that discomfort has a direct negative influence on class participation of the students with a consequent indirect influence on the risk-taking behaviors of the learners.  The study acquired its finding claiming that risk-taking behaviors of the learners indeed is a major indicator of the classroom participation. Similarly, the variable of discomfort among the students indirectly affects the participation of the learners in the classroom setting.   

Other situational factors indicated other situational factors that have an affect on foreign language learning. In the work e (2002, 748), he equated the use of second language to the literacy of an individual. He indicated in his work that the level of understanding of an individual to a foreign language, particularly the English language, spells the likelihood of the said individual to do well academically. The said study reveals how non-English speaking individuals in the third world setting actually learn the language in schoonde (2002) mentioned hindrances in the second language acquisition process in the Nigerian setting. First problem that he noted is that the teachers employed by both private and public schools are not well-versed in the process of teaching the reading skills necessary for the students. (p748) Specifically, he took note on the issue that the reading skills taught in the Nigerian classroom are basically interpreting works written in the Nigerian language. He noted that the teachers frequently take for granted the instruction of the learners of a second language. The study found this as an issue considering the fact that the education policy of Nigeria to instruct the students in English in later stages of the education process. On other instances, not only does the learner suffer from this lack of probable avenues on applying what they have learned in school, there is also this possibility especially in third world countries to have pitiable educational resources in the classroom. Tattered textbooks, rundown armchairs, or worse instances like using of dilapidated buildings as classrooms would be some of these problems. This means that the environment which contributes to the learning of the student may well be a considerable liability and thus serve as a hindrance for language learning.

 

Risk-taking in the Classroom Setting

On a recent study made byr (2005, 570), they have provided a more comprehensive set of indicators that may well be associated with the risk-taking behaviors of the students in the college setting. The basic contention of the said study is that class participation in the college level is an important part of the learning process, yet there is an understandable and apparent low level of class participation among college students in general. (p570) The study tried to explain this phenomenon by discussing several factors: Informal and Formal Structure of the Classroom Setting; and Student Attributes.  Under the Formal structures of the classroom, the study took notice of the class size, the faculty, and the inter-action between student and the faculty. In the context of class size, the said study claims that this factor influences how a classroom operates. The discussions in the said part indicated that as the size of the class gets bigger the opportunity of the individual student to participate, and even take risk, becomes very limited as well. On the context of the faculver (2005) claimed that being the authority of knowledge, professors and instructors tend to distance themselves to the class. On these kinds of instances, the authors claimed that the student may feel that he/she may not have as much to contribute in the discussion in the class given that the faculty is knowledgeable enough to compensate for the whole class. In the same way, the interaction between the teacher and the student plays a significant role in classroom participation. The way the faculty encourages participation by revealing a sincere interest on the development of the student and how they actually learn the lessons places considerable effect on the participation in the classroom.

Another factor includes the informal structure of the classroom. (2005, 571) These informal structures are also among the elements that molds how the students behave in the classroom setting. These factors include the fear of disapproval and para-participation. The first factor indicates primarily on the peers and the peer groups of each and every student. This shows that one standing in from of the lecture hall is not the sole authority in the classroom setting. Like in any other social structure, the peers and peer groups have a say on how people behave in the classroom. Given the established norms of these peers and peer groups, they become a commanding force in the classroom. Given these parameters and perceived influence of the peers on the participation of the student, the concept of “para-participation” comes into play. This type of action coming from the students, to some degree is a compromise between the authority of the faculty and the influence of the peer groups. In this settiner (2005) indicated that the student places himself/herself on a strategic position where the teacher is aware of his/her presence. At this juncture, he/she is provides what is normally considered by his/her peers as a “sufficient” amount of participation through inquiry and answering questions. After that, the student retreats to giving non-verbal responses to the class discussion. He/she may display a nod after a good point is given in the class discussion, or he/she may show a slight grin after a witty remark from the instructor. In both ways, the important thing is that the student communicated to the professor that he/she is a part of the discussion thought he/she may not be verbally inputting her/his ideas. 

 

Social Considerations in the Classroom Social Acceptance

As in any other areas where group interaction is inevitable, the classroom is similarly a social area where specific norms and standards are established. Though class participation is normally a must in these settings, some social attributes comes into the way of class participation and risk taking behaviors of the students. One is the fear of peer disapprovaver, 2005) As discussed in the earlier part of the paper, the peer and the peer groups share the power with the faculty with regards to the influence in the classroom. This may be displayed as a fear of the individual to be seen as someone overly trying to get the attention of the professor to gain his/her favor. Other instances may even be based on the constant query given at discussions in the classroom or the constant incorrect answers provided when asked by the faculty.r (2005) considered this as a fear to appear “unintelligent” within the group. In this discussion, the perception of acceptance is apparent. Not only does it appear to be an important part of the classroom setting, it seems to be similarly an influential element in classroom interaction.

In attending to this kind of classroom interaction setting, the studinger (1995) indicated that the instructor may have an instrumental role in this manner, the capability of the faculty to provide the confidence that the student needs is said to be the first step in this endeavor. (p82) The discussions on the said study took on the assumption that the downturn of student participation stemmed from two fears, the fear of appearing unintelligent to one’s peers and the fear to appear unintelligent to one’s instructor. (1995) claimed that in alleviating the latter fear, the instructors would be able to not only encourage the students to participate in class, but also give the entire class a positive outlook in participation. In so doing, the entire students, including the peers and peer groups are given the necessary amount of confidence to take risks in participating in class.     

  

Self-Evaluation of Performance

This idea of self-evaluation among the students in a classroom setting basically rests on the confidence of the individual. In the study of  (2005) they have indicated gender, preparation, and confidence as major indicators of student attributes in the classroom setting. The context of gender in the classroom has considerably been noted in the literature. One such study is taken in the w (2003). Normally, the gender issues on the classroom setting are often pointed out as highly favorable to the male population. This is termed as the “chilly climate model.” In the work of  (2003) it found out that the class participation of their respondents was affected significantly of the chilly climate model. This means that the gender of the respondents and the gender of the professors were taken as a predictor of performance as perceived by the students. In the said study, the female students with male instructors felt that they received less favorable impressions from the instructor. Nevertheless, it is admitted by the authors that there may other factors that may lead to this rather “cold” treatment on the part of the male instructors such as class size.

This indicated gender bias in the classroom is similarly taken into account by the studawley (2005, 221). In his work, he worked on the premise by admittedly referring to the existence of the gender bias and how it is deeply entrenched in the classroom setting. He claimed that the role of rectifying this irregularity should be placed on the shoulders of the teachers themselves. The study pointed out that activities such as fostering closer teacher-student interactions, shifts in instructional styles, and analysis of the instructional materials would greatly help in this endeavor.

On the study ofr (2005), they indicated that the level of preparation of the student is a major indicator of confidence. The said paper indicated that the level of preparedness that a student has is seen by professors and instructors as a major contributor for participation of students. However, in looking at the arguments of the said authors, it seems that the preparations made by the students in their class serves as a mere safety blanket in order to address to wger (1995) initially stated as the fear of appearing to be unintelligent to one’s peers. This means that a student prepares for the class just so he/she would be able to answer the questions given by the teacher once he/she is asked to recite.  However, this is seen differently by  (2000) in their work. They saw this act of preparations among the students as a means to gain control and power in the classroom. Their premise is that there is an existing power struggle among the students with regards to acquiring the favor of the teacher. Being a part of whatn (2000) coined as prosocial strategies, the students gain the favor of the teacher by presenting an evidence of their hard work. And by this presentation of the hard work provided by the students, this shows the effectiveness of the teacher in carrying out his/her work.

 

Technology and Second-Language Learning The emergence of high technology has greatly improved the way communication and in the same way, the manner of instruction. Computer programs are constantly being used and integrated in the educational system. This is illustrated in the study ill (2005, 46) where she looked into the use of computers in the instruction of ESL students, specifically those who are at risk. A sub-finding of the said study indicated that the second language learners have the potential to become at-risk with regards to their academics because of their situation with their language. This backs up what was claimed in the earlier discussion about the relationship of literacy and language. (2002) The major findings that the Meskill study revealed is that the use of technology in the classroom has indeed provided teacher with the ammunition to combat mediocrity, especially in the field of instruction in second-language acquisition. Technology amplifies the way teachers should address whkill (2005, 46) coined as the first line strategy of ESOL teachers. Specifically, it greatly assists in the capability to analyze the needs of the students and create ways to make these students participate in the learning process. The use of computers and other hi-tech gadgets made this easier. The limitation of the said study is that the participants are considerably young, second graders. Though it is equally difficult to try to ask these students to participate in class, their situation is considerably different to those in high school and college level students. Thus, it would be hard to establish a generalization regarding the findings of the Meskill study.   Similarly, the internet has also paved the way into this information genre. Resources and other educational data now are accessible through the click of a browser. The impact of such technology is similarly felt on the realm of second-language learning. Several studies have taken to themselves to take on such a topic. The work ong (2002, 317) took on this relationship between the World Wide Web and ESL programs. Specifically, the study addressed the issue on whether the English language learners may learn more with the use of the internet and with a “learner control” attribute connected to it. The study claimed that the English language learners indeed learned more in this medium, through the internet using hyperlinks of terms, in their second language acquisition skills. The said study may hardly be classified as a seminal work in the topic of second-language acquisition, but the findings provided by the authors have been significantly helpful in establishing the possibility of internet-use and second-language acquisition. In this manner, it added to the empirical data that a web-based instruction and language program would be able to help the learners acquire more language skills on their own pace. The problem seen in the said study is that the learning may possibly be limited to comprehension and reading skills of the learner. Other aspects such as spoken language, conversational skills, and written capacities would be neglected if the learner solely relied on the web-based instruction. The said issue is addressed by the studyLapp (2000, 50) where it took into consideration the use of email as a means of conversation medium for the second language students. The study realized the potential of emails a means of communication, given that today’s society are frequently connected to the World Wide Web, it is the most common, non-expensive way to communicate with people. The results of the said study indicated that the use of email have provided the students the “literacy growth” they require in the program. ( 2000, 55) Along with the added capabilities in written English, the study also indicated that the confidence of the students have also improved in the course. The responses made by the respondents in Lapp’s work revealed how effectively they construct their sentences. Although the study was merely a case study of a select number of non-English speakers, the method used by Lapp revealed a considerable potential in the field of second-language acquisition. The use of the Internet and other web-based applications like the use of email or even instant messaging could be useful in the future of the pedagogy of second language acquisition in general. Moreover, based on the discussions of the said study, the population she used was participating quite regularly in the exercises that they made during class. This indicate that the use of email would be considerably helpful in overcoming whaty (2004, 170) initially coined as communication apprehension and even help in the risk-taking activities of the students in the future.   

 

 

2.5. Explanation

 

The learning of a English as second language is important in today’s setting. The emergence of bilingualism has become a necessity in this period. Recent works on this subject has constantly presented in the literature. This is especially true for those still in school.  2000, ix) This apparent need has prompted educational institutions to create several different second language programs that would be able to help students in their learning needs. (ial (2000, ix) further stated that in doing such actions in the educational system, it is inherent that a “language-competent” society will come about. However, recent studies have shown that the participation level of the students in the classroom setting has significantly diminished in general. This lack of voluntary action and risk taking behavior among the students could be considered a major factor that could compromise the overall learning of a student seeking to educate himself/herself with the English language. The anxiety present in the classroom setting and the level of participation of these students should thus be studied in detail, specifically taking into consideration the individual and situational factors involved in the phenomenon.

More often than not when English is taught in the classroom setting as a foreign language, the classroom grows to be an imperative background where learners strengthen and build up their language learning. Nonetheless, a number of learners are not disposed to acquire a certain level of risks and interact and participate in English classrooms. Consequently, this may hold back their language development. The present study will examine the relationship involving risk-taking and some situational factors. It will gauge the effects of some foreign language classroom elements on risk-taking. These factors are includes subject taught, the mood of the classroom and support of classmates, and encouragement of the teacher.

As stated, this study investigated the relationship between risk-taking and some situational factors. It measures the influence of some foreign language classroom factors on risk-taking. The factors are: subject taught, the mood of the classroom and support of classmates (classroom setting), and encouragement of the teacher. None of the previous studies mentioned in this paper measured the relationship between these situational factors and risk-taking. Consequently, the researcher studied these factors’ effects on female college students’ risk-taking.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter Three

Data Analysis and Discussion

 

In this chapter, the data gathered from surveyed learners are presented and analysed. This chapter discusses the results of the survey.         Prior to the initiation of the survey process, the purpose, the significance and objectives of the study were relayed to the participants. They were also assured that all the information they had provided are solely for the purpose of the study while their identities would remain confidential. All questions asked in the survey questionnaire pertain only to the respondents’ insights on risk-taking in some English Classes.

          Little sense can be made of a huge collection of data; therefore an essential part of research is the analysis of the data. This data must be carried out in relation to the research problem. (2001) Because research is not a linear process, the only way to help us to judge the type of and amount of data is to decide on the methods, which we will use to analyze them to obtain a feel for the data, establish reliability and to understand how the results are interpreted.

          Qualitative data are based on meanings expressed through words. It results in the collection of non-standardized data, which requires classification, and is analyzed through the use of conceptualization. (1997) In this research, I also need to get some qualitative data through a number of the process of qualitative analysis, including document and interim summaries, self-memos, etc.

          Thus, the dependent variable (i.e. factors in risk-taking) is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable, or explain its variability, or predict it.  Through the analysis of the dependent variable, it is possible to find answers or solutions to the problem (2000). Furthermore, an independent variable (i.e. factors related to teacher; classroom setting and subjects taught) is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or a negative way. As a result, the researcher will use a systematic explanatory and exploratory research and focus on those dependent variables. The relationships of the variables will be designed in detail, based on the understanding the independent variables.

For a clear presentation, the findings of the survey are presented in tables. To give an appropriate flow of discussion, findings are also divided into sections. Section one discusses the data gathered concerning their perceptions towards the 4 variables related to their English language classes (i.e. perceptions on risk-taking, factors related to teacher; classroom setting and subjects taught). The discussion of relationship of these variables as described by the researcher in the Hypothesis section of Chapter 1 is presented on the second section. The use of correlation statistics was considered to assess the relationship between variables. On the third and final section of this Chapter, the synthesis of the results was presented.

 

 

 

 

Section 1. Perception of the Respondents

Risk-taking

Class participation is among the classroom activities that most students feel anxious to partake in. The presence of a huge audience, with a considerable part of it being one’s peers, seem to be daunting especially when one is not sure of one’s abilities. Personality and situational factors thus come into play in this setting. Though may surmise that all academic subjects similarly place students in a situation where they are compelled to participate in class, specific subjects appear to place more anxiety on the part of the students. Unlike subjects that involve mathematical reasoning and science, students are able to easily contend with this given that these are based on exact theories and consequently entail exact answers. On the other hand, subjects that involved logical reasoning and verbal argumentation may perhaps be more taxing on the student, especially if they are forced to communicate in English or any other language beside their native tongue.

Table 1

Risk-taking

Risk-taking Statements

SA

A

U

D

SD

Weighted Mean

Standard Deviation

Interpretation

2. I think carefully before I speak.

31

21

8

4

0

1.766

0.904

Agree

5. I do not like competitions.

6

14

5

14

25

3.594

1.4334

Disagree

7. I prefer to say what I want in English without worrying about the small details of grammar.

15

27

9

6

7

2.422

1.2574

Agree

9. I like things to be perfect.

26

27

9

1

1

1.812

0.8522

Agree

10.I listen carefully before I speak.

34

25

3

1

1

1.594

0.7912

Agree

13.I do not mind if classmates laugh at me when I speak.

14

29

11

6

4

2.328

1.1135

Agree

14.I like to try out new words and structures that I am not completely sure of.

12

30

13

6

3

2.344

1.0423

Agree

15.When I speak English in class, I say as little as possible.

5

13

9

24

13

3.422

1.2447

Uncertain

17.I get embarrassed if my classmates laugh at me.

11

11

13

16

13

3.141

1.3901

Uncertain

18.When I make a mistake, it annoys me because that is a symbol of how poor my performance is.

13

18

9

18

6

2.781

1.315

Uncertain

22.I like to participate only if the class is enjoyable.

14

13

8

16

13

3.016

1.4746

Uncertain

23.I am afraid that when I make a mistake, I appear unintelligent to peers.

4

15

4

22

19

3.578

1.3069

Disagree

24.I am afraid that when I participate in class, the teacher comments negatively on my responses.

13

13

5

17

16

3.156

1.5142

Uncertain

 

Table 1. The table previously indicates the perceptions of the respondents pertaining to risk-taking of students in some English classes at Alhassa Community College. According to the number of respondents, they usually think carefully before they speak in their class. And most of them agreed that competition is really part of learning in their class which was justified by 3.59 weighted mean. On the other hand, the learners also verified that they prefer to say what they want in English without worrying about the small details of grammar since most of them like things to be perfect. They usually listen carefully before they speak. They do not mind if classmates laugh at them when they speak since they love to try out new words and structures that they are not completely sure of.

Apparently, most of these surveyed subjects are uncertain about the following statements:

·         When I speak English in class, I say as little as possible.

·         I get embarrassed if my classmates laugh at me.

·         When I make a mistake, it annoys me because that is a symbol of how poor my performance is.

·         I like to participate only if the class is enjoyable.

·         I am afraid that when I participate in class, the teacher comments negatively on my responses.

From this results, we verified the same findingsman, (2002, 585) that risk-taking factors may actually be different among individuals. Thus, factors such as different options, identification of possible consequences of a particular option, placement of value among these consequences, examinations of such consequences, and rules used in decision making are factors that affects the perception of respondents regarding risk-taking. Generally, the acquirement of risk in an activity depends mostly on the qualities and other internal factors of the individual, however one could not discount the fact that the reactions of these personality and internal factors are still anchored firmly on the situation wherein these are subjected.

 

Classroom Setting

 

From the review ofer (2005, 570), classroom setting plays significant role in learning. This factor is also among the elements that molds how the students behave in their English Class. These factors in classrooms include the fear of disapproval and para-participation. The first factor indicates primarily on the peers and the peer groups of each and every student. This shows that one standing in from of the lecture hall is not the sole authority in the classroom setting. Like in any other social structure, the peers and peer groups have a say on how people behave in the classroom.

Table 2

Classroom Setting

 

Classroom Setting Statements

SA

A

U

D

SD

Weighted Mean

Standard Deviation

Interpretation

4. In class, I feel too tense to participate.

10

8

14

15

17

3.328

1.4036

Uncertain

6. In class, I do not like trying to express complicated ideas in English.

7

13

5

24

15

3.422

1.3429

Uncertain

8. In class, I prefer to say a sentence to myself before I speak it.

29

27

3

3

2

1.781

0.9672

Agree

12.I do not like to participate in large classes.

11

12

10

16

15

3.188

1.4351

Uncertain

16.In class, I feel shy expressing myself in English.

8

16

5

20

15

3.281

1.3969

Uncertain

19.In class, I participate only when I called upon by teachers.

5

5

8

19

27

3.906

1.2563

Disagree

28.I participate actively in class when my classmates are active.

27

10

10

12

5

2.344

1.3941

Agree

29.I do not like to be boring to peers when participating in English classes.

7

4

7

27

19

3.734

1.2629

Disagree

 

Table 2. The table above shows the complete result of the survey questionnaire of the respondents in regard to their perception towards Classroom Setting. The column 5 (SD), 4 (D), 3 (U), 2 (A), and 1(SA) signify the number of respondents who answered to the different degree of responses. For example, in statement number 4, there are only seventeen respondents who answered 5, fifteen for 4, fourteen for 3, eight for 2, and ten for 1. The weighted mean column shows the mean answer of that particular statement that is 3.328 and it is interpreted as agree. The previous table shows that most of the respondents are uncertain on the survey statements given as shown in the interpretation column. However, all the statements from the survey are clear to the respondents. The uncertain average responses indicates that there are mixed perceptions among the subjects concerning classroom settings.

 

Teacher Factor

Table 2

Teacher Factor

 

 

Teacher Factor Statements

SA

A

U

D

SD

Weighted Mean

Standard Deviation

Interpretation

1. I am afraid that when I make a mistake, I appear unintelligent to the teacher.

4

22

4

21

12

3.238

1.2916

Uncertain

3. English teachers are intimidating.

7

13

7

19

18

3.438

1.3787

Uncertain

11.I try to use difficult sentences in class when the teacher encourages me.

15

28

9

11

1

2.297

1.0643

Agree

20.Some teachers encourage me to participate actively and freely in English classes.

23

25

8

3

5

2.094

1.1781

Agree

21.I am afraid that when I make a mistake, the teacher laughs at me.

9

15

4

22

14

3.266

1.4057

Uncertain

30.I participate freely in English classes only when the classmates and the teacher trust each other.

24

12

11

13

4

2.391

1.3407

Agree

 

From the teachers’ role in risk-taking among students, learning does provide can be eminent levels of judgment and sympathy through positive intertwining of actions and indication. In times of fast change there can be an involvement of choice as for instance, group works on actual problems in true time along with learners that can likely provide direct decisions to challenges and problems. This world is a tremendously huge place. It is a fact that in your existence you will never identify all there is to recognize. But learning is the greatest gift you can give to yourself. Basically, by learning about the world around you, you’re giving yourself the chance to understand just how far we have come since the beginning of man. If it weren’t for learning, you wouldn’t speak or write, you wouldn’t be able to communicate through the use of language, you wouldn’t have the use of things like telephones, televisions, bicycles, cars, and any man-made invention that exists today. Thus, for learners it is very important to them that their teachers appreciated their efforts in the class. The result of the survey reveals that teachers’ factor is one of the most important things to consider in reinforcing the student in learning English language.

 

English Subjects

Table 4

English Subjects

Subject Factor Statements

SA

A

U

D

SD

Weighted Mean

Standard Deviation

Interpretation

25.I participate actively in writing classes.

2

15

12

22

13

3.453

1.1537

Uncertain

26.I participate actively in grammar classes.

9

20

8

18

9

2.969

1.321

Uncertain

27.I participate actively in speaking classes.

18

18

4

14

10

2.688

1.4787

Uncertain

 

The survey reveals mixed perception regarding subjects related to English class. Basically, the use of language aids primarily in the context of cross-cultural communication. Within this area, the interaction among individuals inevitably creates the self-conceived insights on each other. ( 1994, 3) Elements such as speech patterns, grammar and writing capabilities of an individual to some extent reflect some aspects of the culture to which the user comes from. Particularly, the manner in which a non-native English speaking individual’s use of a second language has been observed by several studies such that oss (1994) to reflect the speech pattern and grammar of the first learned language. This issue will be taken into consideration in the following discussions. Details on how second language acquisition affects an individual’s manner of speaking, use of grammar, and writing capacities will help establish the need of acquiring a second language as well as in establishing the necessary elements that is required in the learning process.

 

Section 2. CORRELATION

To determine the relationship between independent variables (i.e. factors related to teacher; classroom setting and subjects taught) and dependent variable (i.e. perceptions on risk-taking), the use of correlation statistics was employed. On the other hand, the strength of the linear association between two variables is quantified by the correlation coefficient (Guilford & Fruchter, 1973).

Given a set of observations (x1, y1), (x2,y2),...(xn,yn), the formula for computing the correlation coefficient is given by:

            Where:

= Correlation between X and Y

= Sum of Variable X

= Sum of Variable Y

= Sum of the product X and Y

N= Number of Cases

= Sum of squared X score

= Sum of squared Y score

Source: (1973)

Furthermore, the correlation coefficient always takes a value between -1 and 1, with 1 or -1 indicating perfect correlation (all points would lie along a straight line in this case). A positive correlation indicates a positive association between the variables (increasing values in one variable correspond to increasing values in the other variable), while a negative correlation indicates a negative association between the variables (increasing values in one variable correspond to decreasing values in the other variable). A correlation value close to 0 indicates no association between the variables.

Since the formula for calculating the correlation coefficient standardizes the variables, changes in scale or units of measurement will not affect its value. For this reason, the correlation coefficient is often more useful than a graphical depiction in determining the strength of the association between two variables.

In addition, if the correlation index of the computed rxy is not perfect, then it is suggested to use the following categorization (Guilford  & Fruchter, 1973):

                        rxy                                                  Indication

between ± 0.80 to ± 1.00        :           High Correlation

between ± 0.60 to ± 0.79        :           Moderately High Correlation

between ± 0.40 to ± 0.59        :           Moderate Correlation

between ± 0.20 to ± 0.39        :           Low Correlation

between ± 0.01 to ± 0.19        :           Negligible Correlation

 

 

 

 

Correlation Analysis

 

 

The correlations table displays Pearson correlation coefficients, significance values, and the number of cases with non-missing values. As previously discussed, Pearson correlation coefficients assume the data are normally distributed. The Pearson correlation coefficient is a measure of linear association between two variables.

The values of the correlation coefficient range from -1 to 1. The sign of the correlation coefficient indicates the direction of the relationship (positive or negative). The absolute value of the correlation coefficient indicates the strength, with larger absolute values indicating stronger relationships. The correlation coefficients on the main diagonal are always 1.0, because each variable has a perfect positive linear relationship with itself. Correlations above the main diagonal are a mirror image of those below.

 

In our data, the correlation coefficient for perception on risk-taking and teacher factor is 0.418. Since 0.418 is somewhat close to 1, this indicates that perception on risk-taking and teacher factor are positively correlated. On the other hand, the correlation coefficient for perception on risk-taking and subject taught factor is -0.39. Since -0.39 is not relatively close to 1 or -1 this indicates that risk-taking and subject taught factor are not strongly correlated.

The significance of each correlation coefficient is also displayed in the correlation table. The significance level (or p-value) is the probability of obtaining results as extreme as the one observed. If the significance level is very small (less than 0.05) then the correlation is significant and the two variables are linearly related. If the significance level is relatively large (for example, 0.50) then the correlation is not significant and the two variables are not linearly related.

Apparently, the correlation coefficient for perception on risk-taking and classroom setting factor is 0.480. The significance level or p-value is 0.000 which indicates a very low significance. The small significance level indicates that perception on risk-taking and classroom setting factor are significantly positively correlated. As the responses for perception on risk-taking increases the responses for classroom setting factor also increases. And as the responses for perception on risk-taking decreases the responses for classroom setting factor also decreases.

From the findings, the perception of the respondents regarding risk-taking has significant relationship to their perceptions on the current status of their classroom setting and performance of their teacher.  On the other hand, their perception regarding the subject taught has no significant relationship to their perception on risk-taking to their English Classes.

 

Synthesis

            The acquisition and learning of English language has been has been primarily attributed to the requirement of education in Alhassa Community College to acquire a universal language in order to understand and to be understood in the international setting. This will be an impetus for the researcher to incorporate the group slang used by the students into a translation dictionary. Moreover, the capability of using English as a language is thus gauged providing a concrete research on the efficacy of students in Saudi Arabia. Since the findings of this study justified that there is a weak performance in learners when it comes of English language learning due to risk-taking, then improvement should be taken in consideration. Actually, English is considered as a universal language in contemporary times. In order to excel in the corporate and industrial world, a firm grasp of the language is required, especially from students. Nevertheless, in countries where English isn’t the first language, there is a degree of difficulty in the acquisition of such language skills. Moreover, it is given a unique typology of the language as reflected from the accent patterned from the speaking styles of individual nations.

            Moreover, culture also becomes a significant factor in the use of the English language. Exposure to the culture of the western part of the globe through mass media and direct immersion on the nation dictates the level of competency of the learner in the acquisition of language. Discussions of "culture" and "learning styles" are essential to understanding how people learn.  (1993) elaborates on (1989) definition of culture by defining it as "a group's preferred way of perceiving, judging, and organising the ideas, situations and events they encounter in their daily lives" (p. 9). She further explains that cultures may maintain specific religious orientation, language, or style of communication and may have preferences for expressive methods of their perceptions of the world. Guidelines used by individuals to select information to which they attend and to interpret given information are also determined by culture. It is only natural to assume that culture would affect how students learn.

            Actually, a student’s ability in learning the English language is determined by a lot of different factors. One of the most important among them is the learning environment. The learning environment is not only limited in the classroom but it extends to the whole community in which the student interacts.

            From the given analysis, learning should be taken in a holistic approach. All factors that should encompass learning such as the learning environment, the strategy, facilities and tools, parental support and motivation should be present. Thus, the application of a learning theory in teaching the English language for instance, should not work on its own. It is then recommended that the learning process should be taken into levels and steps. Class involvement and the fun in learning should also be taken into consideration in order to avoid the concept of risk-taking.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter Four

 

Conclusion and Recommendations

 

            Language is the starting point whom an individual establishes his identity as a person and build a social relationship. There are factors such as linguistic, cultural, the social class, school and family background that influences and affects the student’s ability to speak and develop their skills in language learning especially in English. An individual vary in the rate at which they develop their skills in using English language and their understanding of the language.

            One must be cautious in one’s claims of effective learning characteristics and techniques.  Risk-taking in learning a language well depends not only to groups in which the learner belong (i.e. from Alhassa Community College) but on so many different factors, and there is considerable variation among learners.  Some learners of language may be more successful due to factors out of their control, like language exposure or environment, teacher, classroom setting, subjects in class etc.  But, to some degree, they do have control over what strategies they employ, although we still do not really know to what extent this has a positive impact. Also we do not really know yet if successful learners use certain strategies because they are successful learners (i.e. because they can), or as a result of using the strategies.

Actually, successful language learners appear to use a wider range of strategies in a larger number of situations than weaker learners (Oxford & Crookall, 1989). Some learners may not be aware of which strategies they use or which strategies are available to them.  The teacher can therefore help these learners to recognise the power of using strategies by integrating learner-strategy training into the regular lesson, teaching them how to evaluate each strategy, and how and why to use them. It is important though that the individual language tasks, and the characteristics of each learner, are taken into account when doing such training.  Some learners may be resistant to change, and the teacher will need to be creative to find ways to disguise the new strategies as old ones. 

            Learning how to read, write and speak a certain language is one that involves phases or a step by step process. A student, for example, has to learn the alphabet first. Soon, he will be able to form words out of the letters. At this point, it won’t be long until he is able to construct sentences himself, speak the language fluently and read written text with ease. In this paper, risk-taking of students in learning English as a second language was discussed and analysed. From the result of the findings, it is found out the there are some variables in English language learning that affects the learner.

Furthermore, understanding the contexts that surround students is a challenging yet critical step that enables us to describe and deliver appropriate and effective developmental supports for any outcome especially learning. Students develop and learn in a varied milieu of natural environments ranging from the immediate family to the broader aspects of a particular culture ( (1993). The broader aspect includes the immediate society in which the learner lives and of course the school. Once the student is already enrolled in the school, his learning ability depends mostly on the way by which learning in school is facilitated. It is therefore important that during this stage in the student’s life, his ability to learn is enhanced as well as nurtured by the school teacher, the people in the society and the parents.

            The students’ ability to learn as facilitated by those involved in the immediate community where they live is presumed to be enhanced. This is the primary basis of most of the learning theories that has been identified through time.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

http://researchkorner.blogspot.com/2013/12/reinforcing-college-students-risk.html