English and Language: Study Skills and Research Methods
Module Number (EDM072) Oct 2009- Jan 2010
Outline:
From the outset, the study appears to be following a quantifiable investigative enquiry in to academic setting producing generalizable conclusions regarding voice disorder and its awareness. According to Bell (1999: 7) in such studies the “quantitative researchers collect facts and study the relationship of one set of facts to another.” In this connection, I will focus in detail on the different sections of the article, scrutinizing the research patterns closely in order to see whether the researcher, in the article, has followed all the requirements for robust research in the process of this educational study or whether any weaknesses can be identified.
Summary:
The aim of the research was to investigate knowledge about the voice and voice care in teacher-training students. The research included teacher-training students from the University of Zagreb in Croatia. The researcher believed that by conducting the research, it would be easier to gauge how informed the teacher-training students were about the voice and its protection.
ABSTRACT
Problem Statement: (Hypothesis)
In the introduction section of the paper, the reader can assume that the main problem that prompted the researcher to conduct the study is to investigate about the knowledge of teacher-training students about voice and voice care. The problem came from the researcher’s identification that there is not sufficient information that is offered to teacher-training students about voice and voice care. The researcher believed that teachers use a lot of voice in teaching, therefore making voice a very important factor in teaching which must be maintained and must be taken care of. The researcher was able to present the literature review in such a way that it justifies the proposed research by identifying gaps in the thesis, then rationalizes the proposed study by identifying trends in literature, and by a review of relevant studies, demonstrated that the researcher understands the relevant literature and showed how this study will contribute to the body of knowledge.
Literature Review:
The literature review serves as the foundation of the research. The researcher was successful in accomplishing two things. First, the researcher demonstrates an understanding of both previous research and general writings that are relevant to the research area. Second, the researcher demonstrates the ability to critically integrate and evaluate the literature, rather than simply providing a summary of previous research.
The literature review is included in the introduction part of the paper that offers information about the topic in detail. The literature review is one of the longest sections in research which aims to analyze and evaluate what other researchers have done in the past. By reviewing the works of others in the chosen topic or field, the researcher is able to present to the readers the current state of knowledge and justify the research being conducted by showing what has not yet been done. Through the literature review, the researcher is also able to identify the gaps in knowledge. The researcher, through the literature review, is able to educate the readers regarding the topic. The researcher presented information from seminal works from researchers such as Titze et al 1997; Roy et al, 2004; Berg et al, 1996; Masuda et al, 1993; Duffy & Hazlett, 2004; Chan, 1994; Broaddus-Lawrence et al 2000; and Kovacic, 2003. These seminal works were all cited in the literature review. The author presents these works in order to establish for the reader the current knowledge on the topic, and to give a clear picture of the lacunae in knowledge. The literature review presents considerations on the topic of voice and voice care, while the review [e1] of related literature starts with the earliest works on the topic and then presents a progression of research conducted on the topic. The literature presents both previous and current references in order for the reader to have a clear idea of what the researchers hope to accomplish. The author [e2] is successful in including current sources. Perhaps, it is obvious that since there is a lack of research conducted in order to investigate teacher-training students’ knowledge regarding voice and voice care, the researcher focused on the importance of voice and voice care to the teacher profession, therefore giving a rationale for conducting the research. The author is successful in gathering information and data and presenting them in an organized and flowing manner[e3] . The resources and the literature that have been reviewed are all significant and related to the topic that the researcher sought to explore.
Method:
The method of this research is quantitative because of the nature of the study: i.e., to quantify the amount of knowledge of the experimental sample, student-teachers and the control group, students from other professions. This serves the purpose of the researcher best as the quantitative paradigm is based on positivism which takes scientific explanation to be homothetic (i.e. based on universal laws). Its main aims are to measure the social world, to test hypotheses and to predict and control human behaviour (Newman and Benz 1998). Moreover, quantitative research is based on the assumption that the world can be investigated using scientific method and that there is an independent reality. Besides this, quantitative research is based on the belief that measurable influences (independent variables) affect measurable outcomes (dependent variables) in a cause-effect manner.
The researcher, in the process of investigation, has remained selective in applying the quantitative research paradigm in this study, as it is generally through this method the study conducted in a controlled environment, such as laboratories, or using anonymous data such as statistics collected through surveys, questionnaires, structured interviews or tests. Quantitative studies are studies in which the data can be analyzed using conventional statistical methods (Peat 2001). Researchers who take a quantitative approach often work within positivism, as this paradigm frames the world as a collection of apparently independent phenomena to be counted, measured and otherwise catalogued as the prelude to deducing the rules or laws underlying them and giving them coherence (MacNaughton et al 2001).[e4]
To further analyse the researcher’s choice of quantitative research in this study rather than qualitative research, it is necessary to understand the reason and the logic. Basically, there are two types of methodological approaches to research- qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative paradigm stems from antipositivistic, interpretative approach, is idiographic, thus holistic in nature, and the main aim is to understand social life and the meaning that people attach to everyday life (Peat 2002; Darlington and Scott 2002). According to Newman and Benz (1998) a qualitative research involves an interpretative, naturalistic approach of the subject matter. Qualitative research is about studying things in their natural settings. This is one of the reasons that the researcher preferred the quantitative methodology over the qualitative because through this methodology it was possible to quantify both the samples (experimental sample- the student-teachers and the control sample- students of other professions) and measure the data for analysis.
The other reason justifying the researcher’s decision to conduct this research employing quantitative methodology is that no researcher conducting qualitative research can conclude with definitive results; definitive results are impossible if phenomena are interpreted in terms of the meaning people bring to them. Moreover, the qualitative research involves different methods of gathering and collecting of empirical materials such as case study personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactions, and visual texts. Therefore, it would have been impossible for the researcher to quantify, calculate and measure the data.
[e5]
To further clarify, the qualitative research methods also allow researchers to explore issues from the perspectives of the individuals directly involved in the experiences. In qualitative research, behaviours, understandings, actions and experiences are not measured using statistical analysis as in quantitative research (Bell 1999: 7). Instead, detailed written descriptions and explanations of the phenomena under investigation are produced. Qualitative methods are those that collect data in the form of talk, words, observations, visual images and documents. Therefore, the researcher is justified in using quantitative methodology because of the above reasons: the qualitative methodology would not have served the purpose of the current research. This is strength of the researcher for selecting the right method for the study.
The strength of the study stems from the researcher’s selection of control group from students of other professions rather than from the field of experienced teachers, who would not have had sufficient time to participate in the study. This, on one level, reflects the broader picture of voice users from different fields; and, on another level, it offers a realistic spectrum to the policy makers towards realisation of the introduction of Voice programme to student-teacher community. [e6]
Research Design/Instrument:
The research design according to Mauch and Park (2003) is a total plan for carrying out an investigation. A completed research design shows the step-by-step sequence of actions in carrying out an investigation essential to obtaining objective, reliable, and valid information. The completed design also indicates how the resultant objective information is to be used to determine conclusions about the accuracy of a hypothesis, a theory, or the correct answer to a question (Dillman 2000 cited in Mauch and Park 2003, p. 123). The researcher conducted a quantitative research in the form of survey. Survey based research can be described simply as a means of gathering information, usually through self-report using questionnaires or interviews. In this research, the survey method was used to examine relationships between variables. As a fact, the survey method is popular among social researchers because of its utility in countless research situations. Surveys are used for diverse purposes. The strength of the survey method is its applicability in situations where direct manipulation of variables is unethical. However, according to (Bell J 1999: 14) “The main emphasis is on fact finding and if a survey is well structured and piloted, it can be a relatively cheap and quick way of obtaining information.”
[e7]
With an appropriate sample, surveys may aim at representation and provide generalized results. Surveys are relatively easy to administer and need not require any fieldwork. On one hand, surveys may also be repeated in the future or in different settings to allow comparisons to be made. From practicability point of view, with a good response rate, surveys can provide a lot of data relatively quickly as compared to interview. On the other hand, researchers conducting surveys may tend to focus on the data in the form of tables, pie charts and statistics which may lead to a loss of linkage to wider theories and issues. The data provide snapshots of points in time rather than a focus on the underlying processes and changes. In addition, the researcher is often not in a position to check first hand the understandings of the respondents to the questions asked. Issues of truthfulness and accuracy are thereby raised. The surveys rely on breath rather than depth for its validity (Blaxter et al., 2001).
The researcher designed a voice-care questionnaire that was distributed among (1) teacher-training students (experimental sample) [e8] and (2) students taking up other courses (control sample) where voice is being used as a primary tool for professional activities. The respondents for the study were all students of University of Zagreb. The teacher-training student respondents totalled 184. The control sample consisted of 143 participants. The subjects were asked to complete a 20-item, true-false questionnaire. The aim of the questionnaire is to measure how much knowledge the respondents possess about voice and voice care. The questionnaire is easy to understand and the respondents only needed to determine whether each of the 20 statements was true or false. The researcher computed t total percentage of correct answers for both the experimental and controlled groups and compared them.
One of the weaknesses of the study is that the researcher did not pre-test the questionnaire, which is important as questionnaire pretesting identifies questions that respondents have difficulty understanding or interpret differently than the researcher intended. The researcher made use of a very popular question format which is “true-false”. This type of questions is very popular because from a practical standpoint they are easy to write and administer. This type of questions is also problematic according to Krosnick (1999) because it is susceptible to bias due to acquiescence – the tendency to endorse any assertion made in a question, regardless of its content. Krosnick and Fabrigar (1998) identified the disadvantages of true-false and yes-no questions. For example, people answer yes/no and true/false factual questions correctly more often when the correct answer is yes or true. Similarly, reports of factual matters are more likely to disagree with reports of informants when the initial reports [e9] are yes answers. And when people say they are guessing at true-false questions, they say “true” more often than “false”. Acquiescence can be explained by the notion of satisfying (Krosnick, 1991). When presented with an assertion and asked to agree or disagree, some respondents may attempt to search their memories for reasons to do each. Because of the confirmatory bias in hypothesis testing, most people typically begin by seeking reasons to agree rather than disagree. Acquiescence might also be a result of string satisfying. When respondents are not able or motivated to interpret questions carefully and search their memories for relevant information, true-false questions offer readily available opportunities for effortless selection of plausible response. Thus, the process of survey risks the validity and reliability in terms of the outcome thorough the use of this instrument.
Statistics:
The questionnaire solicited information about vocally abusive habits, attitudes toward speaking habits and vocal health, and some basic knowledge about voice and its protection. Correct answers were assigned one point, whereas incorrect and ‘I don’t know’ answers were assigned no point. Each assessment item was assigned a coded label needed for the statistical analysis. The data were processed on a descriptive level and multivariate level. The differences between the experimental and control samples were analyzed by the method of canonical discriminant analysis.
The descriptive approach was employed by the researcher in order to present the findings in such a way that the readers will understand them clearly. The researcher used descriptive statistics to summarize the key features of a set of data. The descriptive statistics enable the readers to assess the findings of the survey. The researcher made use of descriptive statistics to present an account of the principal features of the data. The researcher made use of tables to accomplish this. The tables used contain appropriate information in order for the readers to understand the results. The researcher made use of tables in presenting the descriptive statistics for two subject samples – teacher-training students and students of other professions. Information presented in the table includes mean age, number of male students and female students for each subject samples and total. A table was also used in order to present and compare the results of survey for teacher-training students and students of different professions. The researcher presented the data very clearly and in a very organized manner. From the table, readers can easily identify the percentage of the correct answers for each item. Comparison between teacher-training students and students of other profession are also easy. The researcher also employed canonical discriminant analysis or multiple discriminant analysis. Discriminant analysis is a procedure for estimating the position of an individual on a line that best separates classes or groups.
Results:
Percentages of the correct answers on a 20-item assessment instrument for both samples of subjects are shown in the table. In order to compare the scores of the subject samples, the researcher added a total average score item expressed in percentage was added at the bottom of the table. The results of the survey were properly [e10] presented by the researcher. In the results part of the paper, the readers can readily understand that teacher-training students scored better than the control subject[e11] . However, as the researcher indicated, both groups’ scores were unsatisfactory. [e12] The teacher-training students’ success was 56 percent correct answers, while the percentage of correct answers by the students of other professions was just 48 percent. As shown in the table in the results part of the paper, detailed scores for each subject sample were indicated as well as the frequencies and the percentages of the correct/I don’t know/incorrect answers.
Validity and Reliability of Data:
Reliability refers to consistency in measurement. In common terms the reliability of a test is the extent to which subsequent administrations would give similar results. A test which is not reliable will give different results every time it is taken. Validity is the complement to reliability and refers to the extent to which what is being measured reflects what was expected to measure. Validity to the qualitative researcher generally refers to the extent to which the stated interpretations are, in fact, true. Determining the reliability and validity of a quantitative research is different from determining reliability and validity of qualitative research. In quantitative research, the extent to which results are consistent over time and an accurate representation of the total population under study is referred to as reliability and if the results of a study can be reproduced under a similar methodology, then the research instrument is considered to be reliable (Stenbacka 2001). Likewise, in quantitative research validity determines whether the research truly measures that which it was intended to measure or how truthful the research results are. The means of measurement used by the researchers were accurate and they are actually measuring what they intended to measure (Seale 1999). The researcher did not explicitly identify her methods in ensuring validity and reliability of data. [e13]
Sufficient Evidence of Supporting Claims:
In the discussion section of the paper, the researcher discussed the results of the survey by presenting the responses of the participants. The conclusions made by the researcher were based on the data gathered and interpreted. The results substantiated the researcher’s claim that teacher-training students are not aware of voice and its protection. As a result, the researcher suggested a voice care programme “implemented with the curriculum of studies” for a teacher community to safeguard and protect their “long-lasting enjoyment in such a challenging vocation”[e14]
Personal response:
I personally chose this article out of the other three as it is interesting and insightful. It brought out the importance of Voice and Voice Care in my own field. It is informative and instructive in its nature and emphasises the importance of our vocal health. It is readable and communicates its point of view as it is free from jargons and over-specialised vocabulary. It is interesting from general knowledge point of view, contributing awareness and information to the reader. It is relevant to me as I belong to the teaching community, and it benefits my daily work as a teacher is required to use the voice in everyday business.
Besides this, I now realise that I was unaware of number of factors related to the use of voice. I have become very careful with my voice since the day I read this paper; I have changed my teaching strategy considerably to protect my voice box, which is, after all, the source of my income. I agree with the researcher that there should have been a programme in 2005 about voice care to bring a greater awareness to student-teachers of the need to protect the voice. However, nowadays, all teachers in the UK should be aware of the voice care, as the subject is raised in the PGCE course, in Inset trainings, and in the Induction year.
To sum up, this was undoubtedly a very in-depth research project, particularly for a journal article. For the most part, it was well-written and well-organized research paper, though there was a definite need for pre-testing the survey questionnaire for identification and interpretative reasons in order to achieve the intended outcome. It is also true that the article some clarity as the researcher failed to explicitly identify her methods of ensuring validity and reliability of data. Nevertheless, overall, it was a very interesting, significant contribution to the field of research.
[e1]Perhaps summarise what are the key themes that are identified
[e2]Singular or plural?
[e3]More detail needed – examples
Do you really think the literature review really critically evaluates past research?
[e4]A bit too lengthy
[e5]All this is too lengthy.
[e6]Ok, but any comments on size/range of sample? I don’t think how busy teachers are is a valid reason for choosing non-teachers!
Gender of subjects?
[e7]You are commenting too much on general issues of research, rather than analysing the article
[e8]Any comment on whether control and experimental are valid terms to be used here?
[e9]Yes, good, but don’t say too much about this – analyse the questionnaire more!
[e10]Meaning?
[e11]Comments on areas in which in particular they differed?
[e12]Your views on the term satisfactory? Satisfactory for what?
[e13]good
[e14]could be more detailed
Credit:ivythesis.typepad.com
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