Improving Organizational Performance through Transition to Process View of Management: Work Plan

Improving Organizational Performance through Transition to

Process View of Management: Work Plan

 

Introduction

Performance improvement has evolved over the past year training, to human resources development, to human performance improvement and to the most recent which is workplace learning and performance. Training focused on providing employees with new or additional knowledge and skills to improve their performance of job requirements ( 1999). Early studies helped to define trainer roles (1976;  1967;  1983; 1962;  1978; 1973, 1976).

 

While, human resources development (HRD), "integrated the use of training and development, organization development, and career development to improve individual, group, and organizational effectiveness" ( 1989). Human resource development went beyond training to include organization and career development. Nine major competency studies ( 1983;  1998; 1994;  1982;  1989) were conducted between 1970 and 1989 that helped shape the HRD field (1989).

 

According to (1996), human performance improvement (HPI), however, required everyone in an organization to contribute to improving performance and enhancing organizational competitiveness. Human performance improvement recognized that the trainers themselves could no longer solely determine the role of trainers. Human performance improvement required a shared responsibility, among HRD practitioners, management, and non-management employees, for improving organizational performance.

 

And lastly, the most recent which is workplace learning and performance (WLP), requires the combined talents of many organizational members from various disciplines to improve human performance. Workplace learning and performance is "the integrated use of learning and other interventions for the purpose of improving human performance and addressing individual and organizational needs. It uses a systematic process of analyzing and responding to individual, group, and organizational performance issues. Workplace learning and performance creates positive, progressive change within organizations by balancing human, ethical, technological, and operational considerations" (1999).

 

Organizations are in a constant state of change, requiring a workforce that is not only prepared to adjust quickly to the changing environment but to simultaneously maintain or improve overall organizational performance. Over the years, organizations have implemented a variety of major organizational-improvement techniques, including total quality management/continuous quality improvement (TQM/CQI), zero-based budgeting, management by objectives, reengineering, and, most recently six sigma.

 

In addition,  (2004) argued that "operations can often be the foundation of strategy and the basis for superior performance." Improving processes with the goal of enhancing the firm's competitive position requires an analysis of both construction and performance processes and also a critical assessment of how individual processes contribute to the firm's business model and strategy. This paper attempts to develop a work plan on the improvement of organization performance through the transition to a process view of management.

 

Goals

1.    Develop a clear set of organizational improvement objectives, complete with time lines, budget, and responsible parties.

2.     Organize a steering committee to facilitate the transition to organizational improvement. The steering committee should include skilled persons appropriate for their responsibilities. Committee members should have the authority to make changes and start projects, within the established time lines and budget. Part of the control process for the steering committee is to establish key measures of performance so progress can be gauged.

3.    Describe any needed structural changes, such as development of teams, and develop a timetable for achieving the structural changes.

4.    Communicate about transition activities to employees at every level throughout the organization, and celebrate when goals are met.

Objectives

1.    To improve organizational performance

2.    To increase productivity, efficiency and effectiveness of the organization

3.    To effectively implement the transition in the organization.

 

Requirements

Requirements are needed to be considered when working on a work plan for organizational performance improvement. Considerable effort is required to train employees to use organizational-improvement techniques. Some employers routinely build training into employees' schedules and count training as productive time. Motorola, for example, requires managers to receive 40 hours of training per year. In other organizations, productivity may decline during the time employees are being trained. For any organizational-improvement method to work, managers need to plan carefully for the time and resources needed for training and for maintaining productivity.

Training and education constitute most of the resource allocations for massive change efforts such as TQM/CQI, a well-known and long-lived organizational transformation methodology. Changing an organization's culture is a slow process, during which the organization requires additional resources to accomplish the research and the education needed.

In addition, organizations also need to recognize that change management requires considerable money and time. If employees receive only a one-time exposure to the new ideas or new methods, the result will be that employees who have not mastered the necessary skills will become stressed and burned out because of the increased expectations, and the work processes may deteriorate instead of improve.

Moreover, implementing process improvement requires careful planning. Implementing process management faces several significant challenges. First, process management requires structural changes that enable a business to operate around processes instead of functions. For example, process management often uses both technology and cross-functional teams to integrate activities that span traditional functional boundaries. Second, the rapid changes associated with moving to a process management environment often require workers to adapt. Pressure to improve and change the status quo can result in constant tension among individual workers. Finally, process management requires knowledgeable individuals who are able to manage in the increasingly complex process-oriented environment.

 

Team Members Involvement

Employee participation is among the more popular strategies touted to enhance the productivity and competitiveness of companies. Its advocates claim that empowerment can increase employee satisfaction, boost employee morale and motivation, enhance organizational performance and effectiveness, and facilitate greater acceptance by employees of organizational change.

In order for the work plan to be at its success, it is important to encourage extensive employee participation. To do this, employee empowerment is encouraged. Employees should be given an active involvement in their work. They should be given a greater responsibility in their workplace.

According to  (1984, 1986), majority of the employees wish to become actively involved in their work, desire and have the ability, knowledge and expertise to assume greater responsibility in their workplace and can make significant contribution to their organizations; seek to fulfill many of their psychological needs through their work; and management participative management stimulates employee enthusiasm and willingness to carry out decisions in which they have been involved.

In addition, organizations should provide with greater intrinsic rewards from work than do traditional forms of management. These greater rewards from work increase job satisfaction and, in turn, increase employees' motivation to achieve new production goals ( 1986; 1988).

Moreover, it has also been proposed that giving workers access to management information increases mutual trust and commitment to organizational goals (1988). Hence, employee-supervisor relations improve (1990a), employees are willing to be more flexible regarding changes in human resource policies (1993), and employees are more inclined to channel their power in positive ways than they otherwise would be ( 1990).

Steps to Encourage Involvement

In order for the team to effectively function and maintain good communications there needs to be a designated leader. This leadership role can be challenging in that the leader will need to provide structure and support while still being a team member. To accomplish this task, the leadership responsibilities must be viewed differently from those of a traditional manager. Here are the steps to encourage team members involvement.

Guidance which refers to the process of directing the discussion and providing structure for planning and action to take place.

Stimulation in which involves reinforcing productive team efforts, and checking and receiving feedback to determine if all team members are actively involved in the process.

Coaching which may be done both one-on-one and in groups with other team members by giving feedback, asking If they are having problems, giving helpful suggestions, and recommending outside resources that can be helpful in alleviating the problem. Coaches do not repress conflict but manage it so that a constructive solution is found.

Coordinating which involve improving communication and feedback among team members through improving the work environment, controlling the operational climate, and in general, indirectly doing things that help to produce a cohesive, finely tuned working team.

The leader needs to use a management approach that encourages team member participation in making decisions that affect the group.

In order to identify and meet development needs, some steps should be undertaken.

The team leader needs to empower the members and assist them in establishing guidelines for accomplishing the task. One way to help team members is by soliciting team members’ ideas by asking open ended questions and complimenting them when appropriate.

Make sure that team members are well acquainted with each other and with their particular tasks.

The team leader should continually empower team members, create trust, provide vision of what the team can become and teach decision making and conflict management skills.

 

 

Transition to Process View of Management

A process is any activity or group of activities that takes an input, adds value to it, and provides an output. The product or service that a process delivers may be tangible or intangible.

Management processes such as strategic planning and labor relations influence customer and administrative processes on both a long term and day-to-day basis. (2006) defined four key features of any process: predictable and definable inputs, a linear, logical sequence or flow, a set of clearly definable tasks or activities, and a predictable and desired outcome or result.

Almost all processes involved in delivering products and services to customers are of this type. It becomes clear that superior operational performance most often hinges on the capabilities of cross-functional processes that involve two or more departments. This aspect of process management is worth noting in light of the success of six sigma projects that have been fairly limited to activities within one functional unit ( 2002).  (1990) described the key aspects of managing this process capability as:

·         Establishing sub goals for each critical process which drives functional goals

·         Obtaining feedback on process outputs to track performance, provide feedback, and reset goals to current requirements

·         Providing resources to support each individual process goal and its contribution to the overall process

·         Managing the "white space" between process steps, or hand-offs between functions.

In describing this important element of managing process capability,  (1993) states that "the critical task is understanding how pieces balance one another, how changing one element changes the rest, how sequencing and pace affect the whole structure." Only a comprehensive organization-wide view of managing processes can achieve this understanding.

 (1999) identified seven roles which include: (1) manager, (2) analyst, (3) intervention selector, (4) intervention designer and developer, (5) intervention implementor, (6) change leader, and (7) evaluator. These roles are the key to the success of the work plan since a person in the organization would be given a specific function.

A role represents "a grouping of competencies targeted to meet specific expectations of a job or function" ( 1999). Role theory developed from the earliest analyses of behavior at work and served as the impetus for the identification and development of motivation theories, which are some of the means to determine why individuals act the way they do at work. Motivation theorists argued that individuals behave in a prescribed manner for a number of reasons. Expectancy theory (1964) suggested that expected behavior was the result of a valued outcome, which is the attractiveness or value of rewards to an individual for practicing behaviors expected by an employer. Goal theory (1968) argued that an employee's behavior was based on his or her desire to achieve personal goals, assuming that the goals were clear, specific, and attainable. According to  (1982), individual job behavior stemmed from the combination of work desired by an organization and the values, goals, and needs of the individual. Role theory identifies what individuals might do based on motivational conditions.  (1978) attributed roles and role behaviors to the relationship between an organization's structure and its supporting environment. Role theory suggested that if an organizational structure supported role behaviors, the desired roles or inputs most likely will create the desired outputs.

 

 

Table 1. Roles and Function

Role

Function

Manager

Plans, organizes, schedules or monitor, and leads the work of individuals and groups to attain desired results; facilitates the strategic plan; ensures that workplace learning and performance is aligned with organizational needs and plans; and ensures the accomplishment of the administrative requirements of the function.

Analyst

Troubleshooters and isolates the causes of human performance gaps or identifies areas for improving performance

Intervention Selector

Chooses appropriate interventions to address root causes of human performance gaps

Intervention designer and developer

Creates learning and other interventions that help to address the specific root causes of human performance gap

Intervention implementor

Ensures the appropriate and effective implementation of  desired interventions that address the specific root causes of human gaps

Change leader

Inspires the workforce to embrace change, creates direction for the change effort, helps the organization’s workforce to adapt to change, and ensures that intervention s are continuously monitored and guided in ways consistent with stakeholders’ desired results.

Evaluator

Assesses the impact of interventions and provides participants and stakeholders with information about how well interventions are implemented

 

In addition,  (1991) proposes a basic five-phase approach to be successful in process improvement. These are organizing for improvement, understanding the process, streamlining, measurement and control, and continuous improvement.  (1992) discuss three skill and knowledge sets that individuals need to succeed at process improvement. These include job knowledge, team skills, and process analysis skills. Job knowledge describes what and how to do a task or activity. Teams skills are describe as being able to function and interact in a group or team environment to enhance overall performance of the system. Process analysis skills is described as being able to measure and analyze processes, determine the effects of changes on those processes, and implement an improvement model.

Any approach that fails to ensure these skills are in place will surely fail to improve organizational performance. However, education and training alone do not guarantee success.  (1978) presents six categories of potential causes for deficiencies in performance: data, resources, incentives and rewards, skills and knowledge, capacities, and motives. The first three are generally provided by management. Individuals must have relevant data that can be transformed into useful information to conduct their work. Resources such as appropriate tools and equipment are needed. Incentives and rewards that reinforce behavior and support the organization's goals are a must.

Education and training, however, affect both the fourth and sixth causes of performance deficiency. This is due to a lack of training in the essentials of process analysis, education in viewing work as processes, and education in decision-making directed at improving processes. Appropriate training and education can overcome a lack of motivation for individuals to change the way things are done and reduce the fear of failure. Finally, overcoming the fifth deficiency, the capacity of individuals, involves matching specific individuals' abilities with job requirements.

Discipline and Grievance Procedure

Discipline is corrective actions taken by a supervisor when an employee does not abide by organizational rules and standards. Disciplinary treatment in most organizations is progressive, whereby the organization attempts to correct the employee's behavior by imposing increasingly severe penalties for each infraction. The usual steps are:

1.    Verbal warning

2.    Written warning

3.    Suspension, without pay

4.    Termination of employment

The Grievance Procedure is a conflict resolution method available to employees. Many organizations have Employee Relations Specialists available to assist employees and supervisors with accessing the grievance procedure if informal attempts to resolve a problem are not successful. The Specialists provide neutral monitoring of the grievance process and advising of participants on procedural matters as needed. Grievance Procedure may include informal step in which the employee orally presents facts to the manager or supervisor and formal step in which grievance in put in writing.  

Instances of Poor Performance

Poor performance could be due to low ability or inadequate training, learning problems, drug and alcohol dependency, physical or mental illness, marginal health, or disability respond much better to coaching and counseling than to punitive measures.

In order to handle and resolve this situation, leaders must undertake the following steps:

Step 1. Identify the performance problem. Establish exactly what the performance expectation is and specifically how the employee is failing to meet it.

Step 2. Analyze the problem. Determine the impact of the problem. How is the performance problem adversely affecting the quality and quantity of the work, other employees, customers, and the organization as a whole. Identify the consequences that the individual will face if the employee decides not to correct the situation. Determine the appropriate action step.

Step 3. Discuss discipline with the employee. Gain the employee's agreement to solve the problem. Discuss alternative solutions and decide on specific action the employee will take. Communicate positive expectations or change.

Step 4. Document the problem. Describe the problem using facts and specifics. Describe the history of the problem. Describe the discussion to include the employee's agreement to change.

Step 5. Follow up. Determine if the problem has been solved. Reinforce improvement. Take required action if the problem has not been solved.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

US Immigrant and Ethnic History

Land Allotment Strategy used with the Choctaw Indians and the Treaty Strategy applied to Cherokee Indians.

 

            Prior to the discovery of Christopher Columbus of the Americas, there are already native settlers living in parts of the United States. The Native Americans more popularly known as American Indians are the Indigenous people that live in North America. Prior to the colonisation of Europeans in the lands of North America Native Americans are living peacefully in their own lands and homes. However during the 19th century, according to (2007) when the European settlers is expanding rapidly in the South of the United States, the Native Americans that is composed of what they called the five nations which are the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chicasaw and Seminole were regarded as impediments. In the notion of the European settlers these Indian nations, according to PBS, were hindrance to the progress. Due to the fact that these white Americans wanted the land of these Native Americans in order to plant and raise crops and animals, they forced the then government to create treaties so that they could obtain the land.

            This paper examines the land-allotment strategy utilised by the white settlers with the Choctaw Indians and the Treaty strategy applied to the Cherokee Indians. Moreover, a comparison of these two treaties will also be given. In addition, the differences and similarities of the two strategies to the Indian lands. Finally, a discussion on the outcomes of each approach will also be given in this paper.

            According to (2004) based on history the Choctaw Indians composed one of the largest, most prosperous, and well-organized Native American Groups in the South East of the United States. Moreover, discussed that the Choctaw Indians were farmers who added to their diet through fishing, gathering, and hunting, moreover, survival activities included the total community and created the base in which the social organisation relied.

            Clearly, the Choctaw Indians were the most progressive tribes in the Southern part of the United States. According to (1997) at the turn of the nineteenth century the Choctaw Indians were still occupying their lands in the region of Mississippi, which is a favourable area for planting and producing cotton, and between the years 1801 and 1820 the Choctaw have given up almost half of their land to the white Americans and most of it is due to the determined efforts of then secretary John C. Calhoun. According to (2006) in the year 1820 the treaty of Doaks Stand was signed between the chieftains and the white Americans wherein the Choctaws exchange their prime cotton-producing lands which were approximately 4,150,000 acres for an uncertain land west of Mississippi. And in the year 1930, according to Chasteen the fate of the Indian Choctaws were sealed when Andrew Jackson made the Choctaws sign the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek wherein under this treaty the lands that were under the control of the nation of Choctaw which is around 10,421,139 acres would be exchanged for the same amount of land in their territory in which the Choctaws already owned under the Treaty of Doaks Stand.

            According to  (2002) Cherokee Indians are a group of Native Americans that live moistly in North Carolina and Oklahoma, and call themselves as ANI-Yun’wiya which means principal people, they also make up the second largest American Indian nation living in the United States. After the Choctaws were successfully removed from their lands in the Mississippi Valley, the then President Andrew Jackson started to take the lands of other Indian nations like the Creeks, Cherokees, and the Chicasaw.

             According to , in order to avoid harassment from the white settlers the Cherokee Indians used legal means in order to safeguard their rights in their aboriginal land, and in 1827, the Cherokee have adopted a constitution which stated that they are a sovereign nation so that their lands could be protected from the white settlers who wanted them to cede their lands. However, the state of Georgia did not acknowledge the status of sovereignty of the Cherokee nation. But after just a year the Cherokee Indians appealed in the Supreme Court and this time the court favoured the Cherokees, and again the state of Georgia refused to adhere by the ruling of the court added to the fact that President Jackson have refused to enforce the ruling.

            In addition, according to PBS after Jackson was sworn in the office as president he pushed the legislation called the Indian Removal Act in which it gave the power to negotiate the treaties with the tribes. According to (2007) in December 28, 1835 the Treaty of New Echota was signed, the terms under the agreement the United States will pay the Cherokee Indians $4.5 million, cover the costs of relocation and will give then a new land in exchange for their land in Georgia and Alabama, however the treaty was never signed by the Cherokee nation, therefore the Cherokee Indians did not recognize the validity of the agreement. John Ross, a chieftain of the Cherokee Nation drew a petition asking the Senate to void the Treaty of New Echota, but the petition was ignored and the Cherokees that did not comply with the treaty was forced to move to the west.

            The Land-Allotment Strategy used with the Choctaw Indians has similarities with the Treaty Strategy and these are the lands that the Indians own will be exchanged by questionable lands in the west. Another similarity is that the government of the United States have created agreements wherein it discusses the exchange of lands. In addition, the Native Americans were removed from their aboriginal lands under the regime of President .

            There are also differences between the Land-Allotment Strategy and Treaty Strategy and these are in the Land-Allotment Strategy the Choctaws exchanged their land for also the same amount of land, on the other hand, under the treaty strategy, Cherokee Indians will exchange their land with a new land in the west, relocation costs and $4.5 million. Another difference is that the Choctaws chieftains have signed the agreement, while the Cherokees did not.

            The outcomes of the approach of the white settlers with the land of the Native American Indians are not good, with the Choctaws losing the sovereignty in their own lands and a number of lives were lost during the relocation of the Choctaw Nation such events include Choctaws that suffered under one of the worst blizzards during that time, contracting diseases such as cholera, and meeting up with a storm upon crossing the Lake Providence in Louisiana. In the case of the Cherokees about 16,000 of tem were forced to move and began their march known as the Trail of Tears wherein approximately 4000 Cherokee Indians died due to hunger, cold and diseases.

 

 

 

 

 

Relationships of the European Immigrants, Native Americans, African Slaves, Post-Bellum African Americans and Mexicans to the land throughout the nineteenth century

            Immigration in the United States has been continuously happening ever since Christopher Columbus discovered it. After the discovery of the land in 1493, numerous white settlers from the European Continent have migrated to the United States. According to (1911) there are two general causes for immigration during the periods of 1820 to around 1875 and these are people that repelled the mother country and people that were attracted to the United States.

            This paper examines the different relationships to the land experienced by the European Immigrants, Native Americans, African slaves, Post-Bellum African Americans and Mexicans which have contributed to the success of these various ethic groups during the 19th century in the United States of America.

 

Relationship of European Immigrants to the Land

            According to  (2006) during the 1750s up to 1830s the move of the British Government towards large scale scientific-farming have increased the output of the farmers however a number of them have became redundant which become one of the reasons why most of them immigrated to the United States, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Canada. In addition, after the 1830s the number of people migrating from Britain has increased drastically, especially people that had been hit by the agricultural depression in the counties of Britain. In the case of the Irish people they immigrated due to the Irish Famine wherein approximately 350,000 people died due to the outbreak of diseases and famine. German people, according to Spartacus immigrated to the United States due to the failed revolution in the year 1848. Just like the Germans most French that immigrated to the United States were political refugees from the failed revolution in 1848. The Europeans have various relationships with the land, in the case of British people, upon immigrating in the United States they stayed in the field of agriculture and settled in mill towns in Massachusetts. In the case of the Irish, due to the fact that most of people that immigrated were poor they settled close to the port wherein they get off from the ship. German’s on the other hand lived in the cities and owned schools, churches and bookstores by the year 1860, just like the Germans French people settled in cities such as Chicago, New Orleans and New York. The Europeans treated the land of the United States as their second home, and have lived and worked in areas wherein they are familiar. Therefore, European immigrants have successfully integrated in the American society at the same time contributing to the culture of the US.

Relationship of Native Americans to Land

              The relationship of the Native Americans to the land is different from that of European, African, and Mexican settlers. According to  (1997) many Native Americans have planted and used the land for many years, however compare to their European counterparts, the Native Americans will only utilise the land wherein they have asked permission to farm, have offered prayers to the gods, and performed ritual of thanks. Cousins discussed that the Native Americans view their lands as a living network rather than portions in which they could sell and purchase. In addition, Cousins discussed that one of the most extensive ideas of the Native Americans is the belief that the land is alive in which every form of land is the place of various spirits and these spirits are the ones that sanctifies the land. Due to the products that the land shares to the people, Native Americans believe that the people must give and offer thanks such as singing songs of gratitude, leaving offering, and praying. The Native Americans consider that the land has sacrificed a lot by giving humans what they need, and in order to show gratitude the humans must also sacrifice by leaving something that they regard as important. Another way in which the people can show gratitude is through respecting the land by not polluting, wasting the resources or drastically modifying the land. They believe that when human interferes with the landscape of the land it will have negative consequences especially in the ecosystem. Clearly, the Native Americans relationship with land is different from other people living in the United States, and for this reason the relationship has contributed to the success and preservation of the Native American Culture in the United States.

Relationship of African Slaves to the Land

            In the United States slavery played a significant role in the economic development of the nation. The African Slaves were made to work in the lands of plantation owners wherein they plant and harvest the crops. Aside from working in the land the African Slaves also worked in construction and domestic jobs. In the early 1800s the importation of slaves to the United States was banned, and slavery in the Northern part of the United States was abolished, however on the Southern part of the US, slavery was still rampant. Due to the fact that slaves are bought and worked on manual labours, slaves cannot own a land. In severe instances some of the slaves were worked to death by the owners and because of that uprising occurred which resulted in murder, destruction of property and many more. The relationship of African Slaves to the land is different they viewed land not as a source of productivity but a source of slavery and maltreatment.

Relationship of Post-bellum African Americans to the Land

            After the African Slaves were freed they were able to acquire rights such as owning a land. According to  (1997) because of the involvement and experience of the black slaves with the task system in the agricultural production they were able to obtain property earlier and had more opportunities in the economy, they were also more efficient in developing their labour arrangements after the end of slavery. Therefore, a number of African-Americans became more effective in handling their own land after their emancipation from slavery.

Relationship of Mexicans to the Land

            Mexicans account for one of the largest immigrants in the United States today. Mexicans are among the oldest immigrants in the United States, therefore a number of them have their own lands in the United States, as well as, Mexico. According to  (2007) the land that is owned by a Mexican in the United States is viewed as a commodity because an average Mexican moves every four years, and owning a ranch in Mexico is a dream of most Mexicans in the United States rather than having a condominium or a town house in an urban area.  It only shows that even though Mexicans immigrated and rise in the United States they are still deeply rooted with their traditions and culture. Therefore, their relationship with the land in the United States is different from their land in Mexico.

           

 

Factors that contribute to the Success of European Immigrants in Acquiring Wealth in the United States

           

United States of America is often referred as the nation of immigrants. Almost every individual currently residing in the United States is a descendant of an immigrant from another country. The turn of the 19th century have United States felt the surge of numerous immigrants from Europe and Africa. According to (2007) during the 19th century, the United States became the world’s first industrialised nation, which have attracted a number of immigrants from various parts of the world. Moreover, MSN Encarta discussed that most of the industrial workers during the 19th century were foreigners, and from the years 1865 to 1885, most of the immigrants that arrived to the United States came from European countries such as England, Germany, Ireland, and Scandinavia. These European immigrants arrived to the United States poverty-stricken and no money to start a good life in the US. However, they become successful in acquiring wealth in the United States.

This paper examines the factors that contributed to the success of the European Immigrants and their descendents in obtaining wealth and a higher social status than the indigenous people of the Unites States and immigrants outside Europe. In addition, it also discusses the exceptions of other European Immigrants and the reasons why they were not able to acquire the same status as others.

 

According to various historians, there is no specific reason why people emigrate from one country to another and different studies have tried to explain this phenomenon. During the 19th century, according to  (2001) the early rise of immigration was due to the potato famine which affected the majority of Ireland and the North West Europe. In addition, according to  (2007) most of the English people that immigrated to the United States were farmers that were affected by the agricultural depression, while the German and French immigrants left their home country because of the failed revolution of the people.

After the immigrants disembarked in the United States assimilating with the culture and surviving have been very difficult for most of them since, a number of European immigrants cannot speak and even understand English; moreover they do not have the money to live a comfortable life. But despite of these obstacles they managed to become wealthy. Apart from using African slaves to work in the fields, there are also other factors that contributed to their success. According to  (2007) European immigrants’ responses were also contributory factors in their success in the United States, and these are:

Acculturation- not only the European immigrants, but all immigrants in the United States, as well believe that education and success in the financials and economic means of an individual was the key in becoming an America. They believe that being hard-working and having loyalty to the new country will win over the white Americans and will treat the immigrants equal. However, not all of the immigrants wanted to stay and live in the United States for long and the reason for going to the US was to earn money and then return to their home country, just like in the case of Italian migrants wherein the return rate was 60 per cent.

Institution-Building- For most of the immigrants may it be European, Hispanic or Asian their capability to acquire wealth in the United States was based on their capability to create composite organisations and strong communities such as union, churches and businesses. In creating their institutions the immigrants were able to assimilate in the American culture, at the same time, preserving their heritage and traditions. A big example is the Irish people, wherein they both use the assimilation and resistance to new cultures, the Irish immigrants was involved in institutions like unions, the politics, and the church. According to the University of Michigan the convergence of ethnic views and the American ambitions was very obvious in the urban politics of the United States wherein Irish leaders, as well as, other ethnicities utilised a mixture of ethnic beliefs and the longing to participate in the American politics. In addition, the key to the successful penetration of the European immigrants in the political strategies was due to their concentration within the ethnic ghettoes; moreover, unlike other immigrants the Europeans were eligible for naturalisation.  

Ethic Niche Markets- the core in the strategy of European immigrants for having a successful life in the United States is the development of situations in which the Ethnic traditions would suit the American Economy. This strategy became the basis for European immigrants to save money, for their descendents which can be used to enter the business, politics, and life in America.

The European immigrants and their descendants were able to assimilate and obtain greater status and wealth in the United States because they are gifted with the following characteristics, according to the University Michigan:

• European heritage
• White Skin
• The capability and desire to assimilate with the American culture
• Good Fortune and the capability of taking advantage of the opportunities of the industrialisation.
• The decrease of new immigrants from the home country.

In the case of acquiring the wealth and status of European Immigrants, there is no particular group of immigrants that can be identified as having lesser status than the other, because it all depends on the person and the situation. Like in the case of the Irish people, upon disembarking from Europe most of them lived near the ports since they do not have enough money to purchase lands and relocate to rural areas in the United States, however there are also Irish people that became wealthy and acquired businesses in the United States. Just like the Irish, some of the English, German, and French people also obtained wealth and status, while some did not. In the case of the Italians, as mentioned earlier they did not assimilate and care much of the status because 60% of the immigrants went back to Italy, as soon as, they earned the money and the country became stable again. It is impossible to generalize a race and tell that they were not able to obtain high standards of living than the others, it all depends on the situation and the location an immigrant was in.

Pizza Hut Essay

Pizza Hut Essay

Write an essay of no more than 400 words about the following topic.

Question: Describe a typical Pizza Hut (PH) branch in your area together with discussing and analyzing its services and products. Illustrate your argument with references to Pizza Hut literature, and interviews with (PH) branch manager and clients.

Your essay should have the following parts:

 An indicative title
 Introduction
 Main arguments
 Conclusion
 References

5. Have a clear mental framework

 Map your essay (Refer to the model provided in Book 1 pp 11-12 and pp. 15-18).

1. Be clear what output you want from reading the text.
2. Before you read carefully, look quickly through the text to see what it is generally about.
3. Write down what you already know about the case.
4. Think of a question that the text will answer for you before you read.
5. Read the text carefully.

6. Make a checklist and select your appropriate source materials. (Refer to the model provided in Book 2 pp. 48-53).

Tutors are looking at not only what ideas are included in an essay but also how they are communicated. They will use a checklist to assess these features too.

Use of source material: Is information from study and research
correct and appropriate for the task?

1 Relevant information from reading is used.
2 Irrelevant information from reading is excluded.
3 Information from reading or other research is interpreted correctly.
4 Information from reading or other research is transferred correctly.
5 Information is integrated within the text.
6 Text is free from plagiarism.
7 Bibliography is constructed correctly,
i.e:
Source: adapted from materials created by Helen Bonano and
Janet Jones, MASUS Project, University of Sydney, 1997.


7. Outlining the essay and producing its first draft.

A. Take a position and then write your first draft. (Refer to Book 2 pp. 62-64).

1. What are you going to write about?
2. How are you going to communicate it in writing?


8. Design the essay

 Producing an essay. (Refer to Book 2 pp. 68-76).

1. The introduction comes at the beginning of an essay. It sets the scene, introduces the reader to the argument of the essay and indicates how it will be developed.
2. The body of the essay consist of arguments. Arguments are made up of two main elements: claims and basis. To make a claim convincing, there needs to be a basis for it.
3. Statements of conclusion follow from arguments and should relate to the title.

9. Design your argument

 (Refer to Book 2 pp. 79-85).

1. Introduce the key concept of the paragraph.
2. Provide data.
3. Make a claim.
4. Give an explanation.

10. Use the appropriate, critical skills

To make your essay more interesting, you are strongly encouraged to employ the skills and techniques you studied in Book 1 Analysing Business Cases, particularly in the following areas:

We are particularly asking you to include a paragraph (or two) before the conclusion that performs a SWOT analysis on the PH branch that you have chosen and frames your discussion according to its concepts.

Good Luck!

We have a wide range of topics available for you reading.

Pressure Ulcers Thesis Statements

HOSPITAL ACQUIRED PRESSURE ULCERS CAN BE PREVENTED

While care and supervision is given to the patients, the effect of proper management of patient could expose the patient to acquired pressure ulcer which can make matters worst.

Implementation of effective reduction and prevention strategies will benefit from acquiring hospital acquired ulcer and will be of advantage to the hospital to prevent liability therefrom.

Knowledge on proper skin care by the hospitals will benefit the status of the patient and prevent them from hospital acquired ulcers.

Dependency Theory on Zimbabwe

                Zimbabwe might be reluctant in facing the development because of the impact of the tradition and culture that was preserved over time. The country has undergone several traumatic experiences ranging from war, economic and political depression - today, Zimbabwe is now in the recovery process. The effects of war included shaping and shifting institutions, culture, and even the daily practices that are related to the Zimbabwean political culture and development of the socioeconomic features (Viriril, 2008). These factors have been part of the challenges holding the country from reaching its full potential.

In the start of the development process of the country, there is an obvious weakness pertaining to the inability of Zimbabwe to implement and control the changes and this results for being dependent on their model developed countries.  This theory is based on the behavior of the Third World Countries and their capabilities to cope with the modern society. The level of dependency of the country on the other developed countries is the basis of social and economic development (Waisbord, 2003).  Obviously, Zimbabwe is not ready to plunge into the risks because it depends on the pattern of development of other countries, particularly in Western influence; which might result into drawbacks instead of benefits.  This also serves as evidence that the dependency theory should not apply in the country.

Challenges in Development

       Even if there is a good view for the development of the countries, the Third World countries are still likely to experience difficulties. In relation to the traditional culture that inhibits development, the Third World countries need the necessary culture traits that can push the countries to move to the next level of development and modernization. Culture is considered as a mild hindrance that prevents the continuous adoption of the modern attitudes and behavior as seen in developed countries. It is already accepted that the personalities of various individuals can make the entire social structure, but the negative personalities such as the authoritarianism or the use of power, low self-esteem, resistance or reluctance to innovation and other technologies are dramatically considered as the way of the society and mirrored as an act of anti-development. The prevention of the modern personalities and sticking to what is tradition is not considered as a good indication for development because the society only manifests that they don’t want to leave or change the future.

Relationship Marketing

Marketing Coursework

 

Relationship Marketing

 

Introduction

            Relationships are essential in the various aspects of life, whether in romance, family, or in business, for this becomes the foundation of good interrelations with one another. Making good relationships benefit many individuals, including many business organizations. This also becomes one of the good foundations of companies and organizations to attain growth and profit in the market, for their relationships with their customers, shareholders, and employees become strong and established, if each individual would strive to make good interrelationships.

With the fast-changing world today, many gadgets and technologies have become a means for many individuals to enhance their relationships with the use of the Internet and the World Wide Web. With the innovation and evolution of technology, many business organizations are able to identify and focus on the needs of their customers, which enhance customer value in terms of marketing. In addition to this is the use of other factors in marketing, such as traditional marketing, selling, and database marketing, which are responsible for enhancing and developing good relationships with customers. In this paper, the factors concerning customer value within relationship marketing will be evaluated. Customer value will be discussed to how the customer perceives potential benefits in their relationship with the business organization.

 

Customer Value and Relationship Marketing

             (1991) reports that positioning begins with the customer, for customer thinks about products and companies in relation to other products and companies, and what really matters is how existing and potential customers think about a company in relation to its competitors. Customers set up a hierarchy of values, wants and needs based on empirical data, opinions, word-of-mouth references, and previous experiences with products and services, and use this information to make purchasing decisions (1991). Today, the importance of market positioning depends on not only the products, services, and needs of the customers, but on the company’s competitive strategy, pricing, packaging, distribution, service, support and communications, such as the use of advanced technologies. This is why, traditional positioning strategies are inadequate because they do not consider technology and change to be significant factors, and because building and sustaining customer relationships is never their central aim. They believe that a static, impersonal customer and marketplace exist, where technologies, products and customer perceptions change very slowly (1991). In contrast, dynamic positioning strategies are very different, for it is based on manipulation of the customer’s mind, on using a bag of marketing tricks to entice the customer into awareness of a company’s desired position, which is company centered than customer centered. This strategy is applicable in a complex, fast-changing industry, where radical changes are occurring everyday. These changes become a response to the fact that products evolve, markets change, competitions change, and new technologies emerge. This is why new and established companies are constantly trying to innovate and improve their products and services ( 1991). In addition to this, are the company’s continuous strategies of improvement in terms of customer value, for these are important in sustaining relationship marketing.

            It has been reported that relationship marketing is a form of marketing, in which emphasis is placed on building longer term relationships with customers rather than on individual transactions, involves understanding the customer’s needs, and emphasizes in providing a range of products and services to existing customers as they need them ( 2006). Relationship marketing is important for it enables many companies to become permanently established in the market and provide longer-term service and products to new and existing customers. With relationship marketing, the company not only can serve their customers, but also generate profit and company gain for a longer period. The application of relationship marketing also provides the consumers with great value to their money, which gives the company a good reputation in the market, for the company relies on building a strong and long-lasting personal relationship with their customers.

            However, the concept of relationship marketing will not be complete without the existence and influence of customer value.  (2003) provided several definitions of customer value. First, customer value is what the customer believes that a product or service provides in a certain use situation. Second, it is an implicit comparison between what the customer receives from the provider and what the customer provides in time, effort, and money, where the frame of reference is not just the price tag on the product, but also the ease and convenience in the acquisition and use of the product and the entire interactive experience the customer has with the firm. Third, is that customer value can be shaped by attitudes, opinions, and behaviors of others, such as friends, family, media, the providing firm, and other competitors in the industry as well as in substitute industries. Lastly, is that customer value determines customer satisfaction and the likelihood of brand or firm loyalty, where the cause-effect relationship could be affected by comparisons with competitors and other substitutes (2003).

Moreover, many firms focus on the product rather than on the customer, but when the focus is on the customer, the business is defined in terms of customer value, not in terms of product, for the product is viewed as a customer solution and experience, which is the most fundamental definition of any business firm. If firms are focused on the customer, they ought to see themselves in the role of providing solutions, not products, which leads to giving importance for customer value (2003). By focusing on customer value and customer’s perspectives, business organizations can identify their mission and values, and can better understand their strengths and sources of competitive advantage, for business firms are better positioned and more effective in allocating resources and efforts both strategically and operationally, if they are better situated to understand what would be considered superior customer value ( 2003).

 

Factors concerning Customer Value

            In line with the advantages in determining customer value are several factors, which are important to identify in response to providing value-added and high-quality products and services to the consumers. Important factors include perceived value, service quality and value, and social and emotional value in terms of brand loyalty. These factors are related to marketing and technological means, which also determine the effectiveness and success of the company in the market.

            It has been reported that customer perceived value could be related to a single purchase of a good or a service, or to a relationship between a supplier and a customer, or even to a net or network of such relationships ( 2004). Professional services are always customized, which creates a need for the parties to interact intensively in every phase of their joint value creation, thus, are often bought within relationships. In business relationships, two exchange partners coordinate a number of activities in a way that it increases their interdependence, thus, raising their joint productivity and creating value (2004). If the customer has a positive or pleasant perceived value towards a product or service, then most likely, consumers purchase that specific product regularly. However, if the customer has a negative perceived value towards a product or service, then consumers will be patronizing other brands from other industries. The role of communication and technology somehow determines the building up of the consumer’s perceived value, as more consumers today rely on what different media can say about a specific product or service. A good venue for developing perceived value is through the Internet, representing a state of pure competition, where there exist many buyers and sellers and a lot of market information on which to base decisions in purchasing or patronizing a product or service (2004). In addition to the influence of the Internet and the World Wide Web is the influence brought about by other means of communication, such as the television, radio, and printed media. Moreover, the perceived value factor of consumers determines relationship marketing, for with this perceived value, the company can base the innovation and features of their products to satisfy their customers and attain customer loyalty. This is a way of responding to the needs of their customers, for taking note of their perceived value regarding a product or service would mean listening and paying attention to their needs.           

            The second factor is service quality and value. In understanding customer value, improving service quality and value is important, being an element of customer focus and service orientation. In order for the company to deliver customer value, it must strive to aim at customer satisfaction, to achieve customer loyalty. Firms design a product concept based on their understanding of the customer’s expectations, and then configure their value-creating assets accordingly in an operations design, which determines the customer experience. Thus, customer value must be closely aligned with customer expectations, and this can be achieved by continuously improving, developing and innovating a company’s products and services (2003). Through the influence and role of communication means, the service quality and value of a product or service can be altered. This includes the assessment of the media on the reliability and quality of the product or service, which determines its success in the market. In relation to relationship marketing, the improvement in service quality and value of a product or service would enable the company and customers create a good and lasting relationship, for the customers provide solutions to the problems of the consumers, and in turn, the consumers provide the company profit through continuous loyalty and patronage.

            In line with this, a study done by  (2005), which aims to examine the relative impact of service quality on service value, customer satisfaction, and customer loyalty, including positive word-of-mouth communication, proves the positive impact of good service quality and value to relationship marketing. The first implication of their study is that the greater the tangibles, assurance, and sensory dimensions of service quality, the greater are the perceived service values by the customers. The second result is that the greater the empathy dimension of service quality, the greater is the customer satisfaction. Third, the greater the service value, the greater are the customer satisfaction, the positive word-of-mouth communication, and continuous patronage of the customers. Lastly, the greater the customer satisfaction leads to greater positive word-of-mouth communication and patronage of the customers (2005). This study proves that with good service quality and value, consumers have positive response regarding a product or service.

            The third factor is the social influence in terms of brand loyalty. Brand loyalty is the consumer’s conscious or unconscious decision, expressed through intention or behavior, to repurchase a brand continually, and occurs because the consumer perceives that the brand offers the right product features, image, or level of quality at the right price (2002). The different aspects present in society, such as media, advertising and communications, influence brand loyalty. With the advancement of technology, advertising brands is not anymore a hard task, so many companies invest on making advertisements to introduce their brands in the market. Because most consumers are exposed to the different means of communication media, many consumers base their judgments and decisions in purchasing and patronizing a specific product or service.

            In relation to relationship marketing, companies can easily introduce their products and services to the public through the different advertising media. Companies can express their aim of targeting the needs of their customers by properly and effectively advertising their products and services. This is why, companies should always strive to improve and develop their products and services, because the society can easily detect the qualities and characteristics of products through the advertising media. Through good customer value, companies can attain brand loyalty from their consumers, as a consequence of implementing an effective relationship marketing strategy with the consumers.

            The last factor is the emotional value of consumers in terms of brand loyalty. It has been reported that emotional loyalty occurs on one of two pathways, each with its own threshold (1999). The first pathway suggests that emotional loyalty is born out of a consumer’s personal relationship with a brand, and this relationship may very well start through the satisfaction of a functional need or an expressiveness need. Consumers cross the threshold from a mere brand relationship into emotional loyalty when they “animate” the brand, and relating to it in the same way they relate to human beings ( 1999). The second pathway is the formation of a strong user community around the brand, where the consumer crosses the threshold to emotional loyalty when membership in the brand’s user community becomes an end in itself. In essence, the emotional value of consumers toward a product or service depends on certain circumstances when they have found attachment to the product or service. This attachment well depends on customer value, which in turn creates good interrelationships between the producers and the consumers. In addition, the key to creating value from emotionally loyal consumers is to manage simultaneously their purchase behavior and their influence on others, for the halo effect created by this small consumer segment can be used to expand the value of the brand, create line extensions, or build a beachhead into other categories (1999). The company must make sure to maintain the good and high quality of their brand to ensure the public of their perceived value and in turn, the brand loyalty and continuous patronage of their consumers.

 

Conclusion

             Relationship marketing is important in the aim of many business organizations to identify customer needs and provide answers or solutions to their problems. In having a good relationship with customers, the company can continue innovating solutions to serve consumers and establish the company in the market. In line with relationship marketing, is the concept of customer value, which is important to determine and evaluate to successfully and efficiently provide the needs of the consumers. Customer value can be influenced by several factors, namely, perceived value, service quality and value, and social and emotional value in terms of brand loyalty.

            Perceived value determines the success of a product or service, because with a positive perceived value of consumers creates a positive effect in the value of a product or service. Similarly, a good service quality and value helps generate a good profit for the company. In addition, the society has a big influence on brand loyalty, with the role played by the different advertising media. Likewise, emotional loyalty affects relationship marketing, for with the continuous patronage of consumers on specific products or services, the company can cater to their needs. With relationship marketing, customer value can always be determined by the company, which is essential in their aim to efficiently providing their consumers with good and high quality products and services.    

 

 

External Corrosion of Petroleum and Petrochemical Pipelines

EXTERNAL CORROSION OF PETROLEUM AND PETROCHEMICAL PIPELINES 
 

Table of contents

Problem and its Background.. 3

Introduction.. 3

Background of the Topic.. 4

Aims and Objectives. 5

Map of the Study.. 5

Rationale of the Study.. 7

Significance of the Study. 8

Scope and Limitations. 9

Review of Related Literature.. 10

Pipeline Corrosion.. 10

Uniform Corrosion. 11

Pitting Corrosion. 13

Crevice Corrosion. 14

Galvanic Corrosion. 17

Pipeline Management and Corrosion Monitoring.. 18

Control Systems.. 20

Coating and linings. 20

Cathodic protection. 22

Materials selection. 24

Corrosion inhibitors. 25

Remedial Actions.. 26

Synthesis.. 27

Methods and Procedures.. 28

Research Method.. 28

Research Tools.. 29

Administration of Research.. 30

Ethical Issues.. 30

Chapter 4. 32

Presentation, Interpretation, and Analysis of Data.. 32

Perception of Pipeline Corrosion.. 33

Effectiveness of Control Systems.. 34

Coating and linings. 34

Cathodic protection. 35

Materials selection. 37

Corrosion inhibitors. 38

Prevention and Remedial Actions.. 39

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations.. 41

Summary.. 41

Conclusion.. 43

Recommendations.. 45

Bibliography.. 48

 

 

 

Chapter 1

Problem and its Background

Introduction

The most lucrative and possibly the richest industry in the world include companies that deal with petroleum and petrochemical products. As an essential commodity, these industries tend to be more of an indispensable component of the all aspects of business and trade. Studies have mentioned that the varying cost of these petroleum products and their petrochemical counterparts tend to augment the actual price in the market. Unfortunately, most if not all products are anchored in the actual price of these petroleum and petrochemical products. One of the major causes of wastage and cost-incurring occurrences in this industry is the presence of defective pipelines. In the process of transferring petroleum products and petrochemicals from point A to point B, it is inevitable for the transition to incur any systems loss. At the most, companies tend to give the burden of these lost resources to the consumers. In the instance where high costs are incurred, these may be attributable to the company’s weak pipeline reliability and consequent damages in its pipelines. The most prominent cause of such damaged pipelines is corrosion. This study shall take into consideration occurrence of corrosion on petrochemical and petroleum pipelines. In the research process, an in-depth discussion regarding the possible causes, methods of prevention and perceived remedies shall be provided. The arguments and observations made throughout the study shall be based on the past and existing literature on pipeline management and corrosion science.

Background of the Topic

Pipeline corrosion is normally caused by a lot of reasons, regardless on whether the pipe is underground or openly exposed. Corrosion could be triggered by the lack of protection or appropriate means of maintaining it. Without such protection from the elements, it is more likely that deterioration will be expeditious as corrosion will set in.  Looking at this description, it appears that without the initiative to protect the pipelines, the effects would essentially be unforgiving. Corrosion shall basically take away the structural integrity of the pipeline. Without such strength in these pipelines, not only will these be an unsafe means of transporting petrochemicals and petroleum products, it will essentially be a drain for any company as it will induce wastage, hence lost revenue. Fortunately, advances in technology has made available for companies to provide some way of extending the lifetime of these pipelines. However these companies have to make sure that the application and maintenance of these pipelines and these technologies have to be appropriately done. This paper shall look into the methods on which pipelines could be protected from corrosion. The general intention of this study is to discuss four of the major corrosion control methods available for companies. These include coating and linings, cathodic protection, materials selection, and corrosion inhibitors. The following parts shall specify the aims and objectives of this paper.  

 

Aims and Objectives

In order to establish the general goals of this paper, the researcher has to answer the following questions:

·        How does the past and existing literature perceive corrosion of pipelines?

·        What are the means of managing pipeline corrosion

·        How effective are these control systems in defending pipelines from corrosion:

o       coating and linings,

o       cathodic protection,

o       materials selection, and

o       corrosion inhibitors.

·        What is the best system for the prevention and remedial actions available for companies?

Map of the Study

The study shall give a qualitative analysis of the works pertaining to petrochemical and petroleum pipeline corrosion. Specifically, an analysis of the approaches of preventing and management of corrosion such as coating and linings, cathodic protection, materials selection, and corrosion inhibitors shall be made. The dissertation is divided into several chapters. This division provides for a clear and cohesive line of arguments for the overall dissertation. The first chapter shall consider the background of the study. Specifically, the discussions shall cover elements that cover the problem of corrosion and how companies could benefit from preventing such occurrences. This chapter shall give the aims and objectives of this dissertation and the overall rationale of doing such a work. In the same manner, this chapter shall also discuss the scope and limitations of the arguments as well as the significance of the study on this field of knowledge, particularly pipeline management.

The second chapter will serve as this dissertation’s review of past and existing literature on the study of pipeline management, corrosion science, as well as pipeline reliability. The second chapter will basically be a synthesis of the research made by the author that seeks to realise the aims and objectives of the dissertation. More importantly, the discussions shall cover studies that looked upon the effectiveness of coating and linings, cathodic protection, materials selection, and corrosion inhibitors as means of extending the lifetime of a pipeline.

The third chapter of this paper shall provide for the discussion of the methods used in this paper. In its simplest sense, the third chapter shall be covering the models employed in the data acquisition and the modes on which the arguments are provided in this dissertation. Since this dissertation is more qualitative in nature, a discussion pertaining to the overall research process shall be highlighted. In addition to this, the third chapter shall also point out the ethical considerations that the researcher had to contend with in the completion of the paper.

The fourth part of this dissertation is the presentation, interpretation and analysis of the data. The chapter shall be discussing the issues pertaining to petroleum pipeline corrosion. Other topics shall cover the types of corrosion mentioned in the aims and objectives of this paper. In the same chapter, a set of discussions presenting the preventions and remedial actions that the industry have maintained shall be pointed out as discussed in the academic journals and articles. It is in this part of the paper that preventions and remedial actions shall be discussed.

 The last chapter of this dissertation shall provide a summation of the arguments and observations done throughout the previous chapters in the paper. In the same manner, this chapter shall also provide a conclusion based on these findings, arguments and observations. It is in this part of the study that recommendations as well as the preventive methods available shall be given. All these are based on the observations, arguments and analysis made in the previous chapters of the dissertation.  

Rationale of the Study

As indicated in the earlier part of this chapter, corrosion takes away the structural integrity of the pipeline. This does not only take away the safety of the materials transported in the said conduit, it also translates to added costs, wastage, and eventual loss of future revenue. The methods pointed in the aims and objectives of this paper represent the technology available for the common organisation in its quest to ultimately do away with corrosion.

However, these organisations must realise that controlling corrosion is not a simple feat. It is a dynamic and continuing process that may in itself become a money drain for the company if it is not done appropriately. An amalgamation of technology, monitoring and maintenance is an essential element in ensuring the success of controlling corrosion. It is the intention of this paper to find out the most appropriate approach in achieving this level of success in controlling corrosion and thus extending the useful lives of pipelines.  

Significance of the Study

The existing literature on pipeline management and corrosion science is rather scant. This paper intends to add up to that list and provide a detailed description of the four available approaches in pipeline management. This study shall be giving the existing literature a much needed comparison of these approaches. Students of engineering shall benefit from the findings of this paper as a summary of the levels of effectiveness shall be given in the end of this paper. In the same manner, the petrochemical and petroleum companies will also benefit from this paper. The discussions on pipeline management shall provide conclusive recommendations and remedial actions that could increase the useful life of their pipelines and in the process save them a whole lot of resources. More importantly, the study shall also benefit the consumers and society in general as the savings made by these companies entail lesser costs on which the end users tend to shoulder. All in all, this dissertation will benefit a whole range of areas from the business side of the fence, to the academic perspective, and the end-users of the product.

Scope and Limitations

The arguments and observations that shall be provided in the course of this paper are solely based on the rationale provided in this chapter as well as the main objectives and aims of this study. Given that the discussions are based on qualitative research, this means that majority of the sources and authorities used in this study are from previous data and studies on this field. This also requires the researcher to take a higher stand on the ethical processes made in the course of this research. The importance of proper citation must be pointed out as well as the elimination of any researcher bias in the process. Though it is not easy to dispense with, the researcher should be able to treat this data objectively such that issues on manipulations and lack of neutrality will be tackled with no trouble.

 

 

Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

The previous chapter provided the background on the importance of studying pipeline management and the inherent potentials that it offers organisations. In this part of the study, the definition of the major concepts in the study shall be provided based on the provisions from existing literature.  

Pipeline Corrosion

Corrosion, in it simplest sense, is the wear and tear in an object induced either by natural or chemical elements that it is subjected. In the oil and gas production industry, it is imperative to manage corrosion in its pipelines. In the report provided by the  (2002), it is said that management of corrosion is geared towards several benefits. One given is for compliance of the company with the Safety, Health and Environmental policies of the government. Like any other state with a lush industry for fuel, the UK implements a series of legal regimes that covers not only the protection of the oil and gas industry but also to ensure respective integrity of the facilities used in the working environment. In the same manner, the employment of corrosion management tends to benefit the individual companies as well. The report of the HSE also pointed out that corrosion management tends to reduce leaks, increase plant availability, reduction in unplanned maintenance, and reduce deferment costs. Seeing these elements, these all reflects the business effects and operational implications of implementing a corrosion management initiative in the organisation.

In the said discussion, the purpose of safety catches the attention of the researcher. This essentially seen in the literature as pipeline accidents has taken a lot of lives in the past years. For instance, there has been an increase of 4% in the pipeline accidents in 1989 and 1998 in the United States killing at least more or less 226 individuals. ( 2002, 22) In Russia, the non-compliance of pipeline contractors with the world standards made it “difficult to detect damage and so prevent leakage of gas, oil and oil products.” ( 2001,) This means that there were several unreported cases of accidents which approximately amount to over a thousand annually. In the same lines, it has been also noted that there were “insignificant leaks” that occurred because of the lack of supervision and failure to meet international standards. (2001,) mentioned that there were 40,000 leaks that occurred per year in the said country.  

Uniform Corrosion

Uniform corrosion is basically a caustic attack arranged squarely in the whole exterior or the surface area. In the same manner, this corrosive attack could also form part of a greater portion of the overall area of the material. In the discussion on studies pertaining to this type of corrosion, they described the damage done by this corrosion attack as a process of general thinning. The thinning continues if not checked until the material fails its purpose. The great thing about this type of corrosion attack is that it is readily measured and calculated. Looking at this claim, one could surmise that disastrous failures occurring from this type of corrosion attack would be rather uncommon and would basically reflect utterly poor pipeline management.

Studies have also mentioned that the corrosion attack could easily be controlled. Complex processes from cathodic protection to mere painting of the metallic surface extend the useful life of pipelines. Other studies similarly mentioned the aesthetic element of uniform corrosion as it adds appeal as the discolouration and shifts in hue tends to manifest in the surface of the material. This would only be beneficial if the said material is erected for the sole purpose of adding visually appealing images. In the case of pipelines for petroleum and petrochemical transport, function triumphs over aesthetics at any given day.

Figure 1. Uniform Corrosion

Uniform corrosion takes place when the coating system that shields the metal structures collapse. This is often manifested by the reduction of shine in polished metals and discolouration because of oxidation. The common denominator in this respect is that these corrosion attacks are manifested in the surface of the material. For instance, pipelines that are initially stainless and those that include corrosion resistant alloys could become discoloured by virtue of the elements in its environment. The neglect of this corrosion attack will initially make the surface of the metal material rough but totally disregarding the entire problem would lead to material damages of higher proportions.

Pitting Corrosion

Some types of corrosion attacks are more localised as compared to the uniform types of corrosion that spread all over the material. In localised corrosion attacks, specific parts of the material are damaged severely compared to the other parts. These damages are manifested by cavities or holes, thus the term pitting corrosion. In these types of corrosion attacks, detecting the damage in the material is more complex as compared to uniform corrosion. Basically, the pits implicated by these corrosion attacks are normally concealed under a layer of corroded area.

 

Figure 2. Pitting Corrosion

This means that the holes and other cavities are not readily or immediately detected, not until the severe damage has already been done.

The pits in this type of corrosion could take on a couple of form, trough pits or sideway pits. Though these damages appear to be superficially negligible, these cavities will fundamentally affect the overall engineering system of a particular machine. This is especially true in pipelines as pitting corrosion tends to be among the initial steps that lead to leaks and consequent wastage.

Studies on these types of corrosion attacks claim that pitting is triggered by a confined chemical or mechanical damage to the covering oxide film of the material. This is also manifested in factors affecting water chemistry which sets off the failure in the material that is supposed to deflect the effects of acidity and other concentrations from the environment. Pitting could also be prompted by the mismanagement of the material itself. For instance, pipelines are susceptible to pitting if the protective coatings placed in these materials are applied in poor form or the coating itself is of questionable quality. In the same manner, the actual material used in the piping system might also be the reason for pitting. The existence of some inconsistencies in the surface and even the inclusion of non-metals in these pipes could render the pipes highly susceptible to pitting corrosion.

Crevice Corrosion

Another type of localised corrosion, and equally damaging, is crevice corrosion. Studies have pointed out that such types of corrosion attacks tend to manifest itself on the micro-environmental level. This means that crevice corrosion takes place on miniature areas such as washers and joints. Basically, these take places in areas where crevices or gaps are present. Corrosion in these areas on the other hand is triggered a considerable amount of causes. One possibility is the significant reduction of corrosion inhibitors in the gaps. This then sets off deterioration in that area. This could also take place when the oxygen content in the said crevice is significantly diminished. There is also the possibility that the acid conditions became unbalanced for some reason. In this case, certain abnormalities have taken form thus setting off an imbalance in the actual structure of the material hence making it susceptible to corrosion attacks. Aside from a shift in the chemical balance of the material and the significant depletion in these materials, corrosion could also be triggered by a significant accumulation of some destructive elements in these gaps. These aggressive and consequently destructive elements could be chloride, especially true in pipelines submerged in seawater.

 Normally, restricted dispersal of oxygen in these gaps plainly places the reason why corrosion builds up. The existence of the differential aeration cells the lies linking both the microenvironment and the bulk environment completes the formula for disaster. The more commonly seen form of this type of corrosion attack is called oxygen differential cell corrosion. This takes place in the instance where moisture has a lesser content of oxygen at times when it is located at the gap compared to when it is in the surface. In this situation, the moisture in the crevice builds an anode in the metal surface. In the same manner, the part of the metal surface that is connected to the layer of moisture and is open to the elements builds a cathode. It is in category that crevice corrosion is made. The figure below summarises the stages on which the crevice corrosion takes place.

Figure 2. Crevice Corrosion

In the first stage, it shows that the oxygen content of the moisture is equal to the soluble oxygen throughout the material. This is basically the case before corrosion sets in the metal. In the second stage, the oxygen acquired by the normal uniform corrosion is reduced at a much faster rate in the gaps. It is at this point that reactions between the gaps and the open surface is formed. 

The third stage of the process presents the existence of accelerating elements that induces the development of corrosion in the crevices of the material. In these areas, the metal ions that the anodic corrosion reaction generates automatically break a bond in the existing molecules by adding in water in the formula. This gives off acid that adds up to the corrosion of the material. The negative algorithm of the hydrogen ion concentrates in the material then sets off at a very acidic value which then accelerates corrosion. The other product that ensues in the corrosion of the material is also observed to seal the crevice hence maintaining the constant deterioration of the metal. Other studies point to the individual charges of the ions in the crevices which contribute to the overall corrosive acceleration of the metal. Specifically, the positive charges of the metal crevices increases until it attracts elements like chloride that is basically aggressive elements that induces corrosion. It is thus apparent that in the case of crevice corrosion, once the chemical elements trigger deterioration, the progression would be continuous and aggressive unless there are certain actions taken to prevent the total destruction of the metal material.

Galvanic Corrosion

As mentioned in the earlier parts of this chapter, corrosion could be triggered by inherently different elements present in the material itself. There are instances where the existence of dissimilar metals would trigger an adverse reaction which is compounded by a corrosive electrolyte. This then sets off a form of galvanic corrosion. In the instance when the two elements combine, the metals present acquire the role of the anode and corrode as well as a cathode and corrode. One metal shall become faster than the other. 

 

Figure 3. Galvanic Corrosion

The said process is manifested in Figure 3 above. In order for the actual corrosion induced by these galvanic elements to take place, there are certain requirements that need be satisfied. First, there should be electrochemically different metals in place. Second, these two metals should be in contact and third these should be exposed to an electrolyte. For instance in pipelines, the difference between a screw’s electrochemical compositions from the composition of the actual pipe would inevitably trigger a galvanic corrosion.

In the onset, this type of corrosion could easily be prevented by measuring the corrosion potential of the material used. The best way to measure the reliability of the material, the galvanic series should be taken into consideration. Basically, this series is a list of metals that measures its nobility when it is in contact with sea water. Normally, a minute anode to cathode area ratio is high is considered adverse. When this ratio is present, it will basically indicate that a small area of the material would be susceptible to the concentration of the galvanic current. It is in this same situation that the anode is dissolve at a much faster rate. Hence, with a rather rapid progression in the process of corrosion, then the damage would progress in a rate which could not be remedied immediately. It is apparent then that the best way to ensure that the full brunt of galvanic corrosion is not encountered is by preventing it in the first place. 

Pipeline Management and Corrosion Monitoring

The operational aspects of pipelines cover a bulk on maintenance and extending its operational life. The  (2002) coined the term corrosion management in its report. This report mentioned that corrosion management covers activities that deal with integrity risks which include the corrosion, cracking, and embrittlement of pipelines in its operational life. To summarise the report, it basically pointed out that extending the operational life of pipelines entails proper corrosion management systems. This could be acquired by initially considering the individual pipe’s in terms of design, actual stage in the life cycle, the process conditions, and operational history.

Corrosion management is defined in the concept of corrosion management as a mere part of the overall system of management which specifically engages in the development, implementation, review and maintenance of the corrosion policy of a particular company with regards to their pipelines.

The said report further highlighted the need for an effective policy to ensure that the risks mentioned in the earlier parts of this chapter shall not take place. The identification of risks which are linked to the occurrence of corrosion as well as the creation of a reliable control measure is said to help any petroleum or petrochemical company in establishing an effective corrosion management initiative.

The report also indicated the importance of having an effective plan in controlling, monitoring, and reviewing the preventive and protective measures of the pipelines. In doing so, the welfare of the employees is also taken into consideration. This is imperative especially in pipelines that are offshore. Hence, safety management is crucial in its operations.  This framework is summarised in the figure below.

Figure 4. Corrosion Management Process

Seeing the framework above, it shows that the process have to include an amalgamation of both managerial and technical levels in the company, the complexity of the operations hence depends not only on the magnitude of the operations but also with the complementarities of both the management and the technical aspects of the operations.

Control Systems

Control systems are elements that help companies in dealing with the problem of pipeline corrosion. For the purposes of this study, four of the most common approaches in dealing with corrosion shall be taken into consideration. Discussions on coating and linings, catholic protection, materials selection, and corrosion inhibitors shall be taken into consideration.

Coating and linings

These are principal tools available for companies to protect their pipelines from corrosion. These are normally interposed with the system of cathodic protection. The combination of these two systems are said to provide the highest possible protection for pipelines. Protective coating is divided into two major categories, organic and metallic coatings. Without these protective coatings, the possibility of metallic substrates which often are the structural components of major pipelines will deteriorate at a faster rate. In the case of organic coatings, there are categorised into convertible and non-convertible coatings. Both types of coatings are essentially composed of a curing mechanism. For the non-convertible type of organic coating, the curing mechanism is particularly impressed by the evaporation of certain solvents which does not induce change in the prevailing conditions of the resin. In the same manner, there is the possibility for these elements to dissolve in the solvent which are used in the initial instance where the resin is dissolved. With regards to the convertible coatings, the curing mechanism is basically composed of a process of polymerisation that gives resins chemical changes. These changes nonetheless, as compared to the non-convertible organic coatings, are incontrovertible once it is changed in its chemical structure.

Articles on these types of organic coatings include chlorinated rubbers, acrylics, and oxygen-induced polymerised coatings. The first two examples mentioned are non-convertible types of organic coatings. Chlorinated rubbers are formed when a polyolefin is mixed with chlorine. The curing in these types of coatings goes through the process of modification so as to acquire a high level of solid structure and to eliminate the brittle nature of its original state. On the other hand, acrylics are elements that are composed of polymers dissolved originating from an acrylic acid and acrylonitrile. Pipelines are usually interposed with acrylics which are water-based. The reason primarily is to afford the companies ease of application as well as to bestow the material a heightened weathering property.

In the realm of convertible coatings, alkyds and drying oils are the most commonly used elements in the business. The former are composed of primers and topcoats. These are essentially oil-based. Basically when applied in the pipelines, a film is placed in its surface. This is formed with reaction of the oxygen and catalysts. Upon reaction, the solvent present in the materials evaporates. The more readily accessible alkyds are seen in spray paints. On the part of drying oils, the shielding film placed in pipes is composed of oils and lacquers that infiltrate the material.

On the other hand, metallic coatings are comprehensively used in the market as they provide greater protection as compared to their organic counterpart. The more common metallic coating employed is said t be galvanizing. For the most part, galvanising is composed of metallic zinc and carbon steel. These are applied as a film on pipelines so as to control the process of corrosion in these types of materials. More specifically, there are two types of metallic galvanising: hot dip galvanising and zinc coating. In the latter type, the zinc is alloyed to the actual metal in the process of galvanising. On the other hand, the mode of hot-dip galvanising does not involve alloying and as the name implies, the process is completed by dipping the material in molten zinc. Nonetheless, the mechanisms used on both of their protective purposes are fundamentally similar. Studies have indicated that the protection provided by the galvanising process depends entirely on the thickness of their respective layers.

Cathodic protection

The process of cathode protection is among the more common and one of the considerably complex approaches in corrosion management. The principle behind the process involves the anode, the cathode and a line of current that prevents corrosion from taking place. Specifically, it involves the connection of the external anode to the metal pipe with an electrical current to change the configuration of the metal into more of a cathode. In doing so, the prevention of corrosion is considerably increased. Normally the type of electricity used in the prevention of corrosion management comes from DC power sources. The use of the electrical element of the process rests on the electrochemical assumption that the electrical potential involving the metal as well as the electrolyte solution is to establish a more negative charge once it comes in contact with each other. 

Companies prefer the use of cathodic protection approach as their major anti-corrosion treatment. Normally, this is applied in structure, preferably coated to give protection on the pipelines. This is especially true in areas where there is a possibility that the coating may be spoiled in some manner. In the same manner, companies from the petroleum and petrochemical industry tend to prefer this mode because it could be readily applied to existing structures. In doing so, these structures’ lives are extended so as they could operate longer.

Indicating the specific utilisation of cathodic protection as a means of protecting the pipeline would veer away from the provision of a corrosion allowance to sections of the material that are inherently thin which companies find expensive to construct. Studies have indicated that cathodic protection tends to become the much preferred means of protection from corrosion in instances where the companies could not afford to have the slightest of leaks in their pipelines. In this sense, both protection of the environment as well as the avoidance of wastage and lost revenue will be ensured. Normally, cathodic protection is used in steel materials that are immersed in water or buried underground. Thus, most pipelines tend to employ this type of corrosion control mechanism.

Materials selection

In the process of materials selection, engineers tend to acquire certain materials which possess an inventory of qualities that are inevitably advantageous and essential to the project. The problem in this regard is that the needed requirements and selection criteria are rarely seen in a single material. This is especially true in the case of pipelines where the conditions wherein they operate are rather aggressive in terms of corrosion building. This is because these materials are normally submerged in seawater or underground.   

Studies have indicated that a large number of companies use iron and nickel-based materials in their pipelines. Specifically, these companies tend to use these types of materials in their pressure vessels and other fittings used in the operations of the pipelines. In the same manner, ferretic alloys are also employed to protect pipelines in areas where the temperature us approximately 650 degrees Celsius. Normally, these ferretic alloys are composed of chromium and molybdenum. However, compared to the other materials used in the industry, the use of ferretic alloys are considerably more expensive. This increase in cost nevertheless is well founded as the material imposes higher strength, oxidation, and offers considerable resistance on the oxidation and suffixation of the material. Moreover, these elements also add up to the capability of the pipeline to take away the vulnerability of the material to the effects of hydrogen.

Since there is a dearth in the source of a perfect fit in relation to the materials needed for corrosion control, there are companies who opt for material fabrication and specific design to meet the needs of the public. In doing so, the materials used by the company are able to measure up with the expected stresses as well as the initial criteria wherein engineers have formulated prior to the operation of the project.

Corrosion inhibitors

Like any other means of corrosion management technique, corrosion inhibitors are normally placed externally to protect pipelines from corrosion. Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals which have a certain reactions when in contact with a surface of metallic material. The process basically consists of an inhibitor adsorbing itself to the pipeline. This means that it accumulates in the exterior part of the pipeline. The process of applying an inhibitor takes on several effects on the progression of corrosion. For instance, the application of a corrosion inhibitor would increase either the anodic or cathodic behaviour of the metal. More specifically, the application of an inhibitor would provide more space between the cathodes and the anodes in the metal hence reducing the possibility of corrosion. Similarly, corrosion inhibitors are able to diffuse ions to the metallic surface. This effect basically depends on the type of corrosion inhibitor used. There are products in the market that specifically does this attribute of reducing the movement of the ions which then reduces the possibility of corrosion. Aside from these effects, the electrical resistance of the metallic surface is increased by corrosion inhibitors. In this regard, the company is able to manage the flow of electrical charges in pipes so as to maintain a charge that would essentially repel corrosive elements. On the whole, corrosion inhibitors are slightly similar to coatings and linings. However, the major distinction between the two types of corrosion control tools is that corrosion inhibitors often affect the electrical charges and ions of the materials. In the same lines, the protection provided by the corrosion inhibitors is largely on the external part of pipelines.

Remedial Actions

The existing literature has provided the certain remedial measures that would work on the implications of corrosion. For this paper, the researcher uncovered several important elements in dealing with corrosion. Studies could not stress enough the importance of data acquisition in the process. For instance, there are studies that look into the gasses on which the pipelines are subjected. This study pointed out that each type of gas has an effect on the corrosion development of the pipeline. In the same manner, the level of corrosiveness of the water, for those pipelines which are submerged, is also deemed important. Elements such as the linear polarisation and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy are used to measure such corrosive nature of these elements. On the whole, the operational parameters of the company should be taken into consideration to establish a type of corrosion control initiative that would fit perfectly with the needs of the company.

Another way of dealing with the protection of the external part of the pipeline is by chemical treatment. Studies have noted that this could only be carried out effectively once the data has been established. In the process of chemical treatment, the inhibitor is selected, particularly one that will fit the needs of the pipeline. Along with the right dosage and other inhibitors, the use of chemicals is often associated with the application of coatings, linings, and corrosion inhibitors.

And finally, to actually prevent corrosion from taking place in its pipelines, companies must take on measures in monitoring their pipelines. This is in line with the first element, particularly data acquisition. Companies have to acquire the relevant data to become aware of what is needed to be done in the process. However, these data must be up-to-date and acquired in a continuous manner. This will guarantee that the company shall be able to exercise some form of flexibility in their operations, particularly with the management of their pipelines.

Synthesis

 

 

 

 

Chapter 3

Methods and Procedures

 

This chapter shall be giving a description on how the data used in this paper is acquired in the research process. Particularly, the discussions shall include the research method and the manner on which these acquired data are to be analysed and interpreted. In the same time, the ethical issues that the researcher encountered shall be covered in the latter part of this chapter.  

Research Method

Given the limitations of the study with reference to the time and other financial elements in the process, this dissertation shall be using the descriptive form of research. There has been a considerable amount of studies that uses this form of research and quite the same number in terms of variety is present. For this study, the definition provided by  (1996, 18) shall be employed. He noted that the descriptive research deals with “questions of what things are like, and not why they are that way.” More importantly,  further pointed out that the use of the descriptive research in a particular study highlights the existence of a problem which could then trigger attempts towards action. This would be very useful in this area of study as the useful lifetime of pipeline tends to vary depending on the approach used for corrosion management. This dissertation shall present the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches provided in the earlier chapters.

In the same manner, this paper shall also use qualitative research in the process. This complements the use of the descriptive method in the earlier chapters as qualitative research shall be unravelling “why” such circumstances exists. For the most part, this use of qualitative research points to the analysis of the unstructured data acquired from the existing literature such as academic journals and articles on corrosion management and other subjects on pipeline control. The researcher realises that using such a method entails a cluttered process of analysing which would even be time consuming. However, it is one of the major aims and objectives of this study to uncover and explore the main issues of the topic and in the process understand how to manage it and deal with it in future occasions.  

Research Tools

For the purposes of this dissertation, the qualitative method to be used is document studies. This means that the research tools to be used are those existing records regarding the methods provided for in the earlier chapters in this paper. Hence, the past literatures shall be the main authorities used in this paper.

In using this type of method, the researcher is able to acquire existing sources which may be readily available and inexpensive. In the same manner, these items shall be based on the setting as well as in the language on which they take place. Hence, the studies used in this paper shall include primarily those in the English language. Moreover, the use of this mode of qualitative research allows the researcher to present the value of the study with reference to the varying views of the existing literature. It allows for an unobtrusive observation of the developments of the approaches of corrosion management throughout a particular period. All these stated above appears to be the positive effects of document studies. One must realise that the study also runs the risk of having an incomplete findings. It would also encounter challenges of authenticity and inaccuracy. Nonetheless, the researcher will be taking the necessary precautions and ethical considerations to avert any of these allegations.  

Administration of Research

The bulk of the research in this paper shall be acquired from the World Wide Web. This is to ensure the breadth of the scope of the research. In the same manner, some of the data shall also be acquired from the libraries of the university. In the case of online research, the researcher shall use search engines like Google and Yahoo! to locate online libraries that cater to the subject proper. Such online libraries shall be the source of all the books, articles, and studies that will form part of the document study required in this paper’s qualitative analysis. The acquired documents shall then be manually administered and sorted by subject and by category depending on the needs of the aims and objectives provided for in the earlier chapters.

Ethical Issues

The discussions in the earlier parts of this paper presented the risks that the researcher may encounter unless utmost care and caution is taken. This could be done by being aware and vigilantly following what is considered as ethical in the process of research. Being a study that relies heavily on secondary material and existing work, the researcher shall take into consideration the proper citation and referencing of these works. In the same manner, the researcher shall also make sure that the works used in this paper are heeded entirely so as not to provide a construction reverse of what its authors actually intend to present. Moreover, the interpretations provided in the research process shall be made with such liberality so as to favour both the researchers and the readers of this study.

 

 

Chapter 4

Presentation, Interpretation, and Analysis of Data

The previous parts of the study have presented an account of corrosion in general. In this part of the paper, a closer look on corrosion, particularly in the case of the external parts of the pipelines shall be taken into consideration. This chapter shall be divided into several major areas of discussions. First, a description on the general perception of pipeline corrosion will be given. In this part of the discussion, a generally accepted definition of pipeline corrosion shall be provided based on the existing data acquired by the researcher.

The second part of the chapter shall cover what has been deemed as the proper mode of the pipeline management. This will discuss the findings of the studies that pertains to pipeline management and prevention of corrosion in the external parts of the pipelines. Contrary t the first fart of this chapter, this part shall be concise and rather succinct. The third part shall contain a more detailed look on the control systems discussed in the second chapter of this paper. Once again, a discussion of the systems of coatings and linings, cathodic protection, materials selection and corrosion inhibitors shall be taken into consideration. In the end of the chapter, a discussion on the available prevention and remedial actions on companies based on the discussions in this chapter as well as those pointed out in the previous ones.

 

Perception of Pipeline Corrosion

As indicated in the previous chapters, corrosion is said to be a naturally occurring phenomenon. It is similar to any natural calamity that tends to induce some form of deterioration on anything that is made of natural elements. Corrosion, in its simplest sense is characterized as then as a natural reaction of metals with its direct environment. Like natural calamities, the repercussions of corrosion to these elements, more specifically on pipelines are expectedly costly and not to mention pose some high risk on the environment and the people that are directly involved in its maintenance.  

Seeing this reality, it is inevitable for companies that use pipelines to transport their merchandise from Point A to Point B to make sure that such occurrence is managed. As seen in the discussions in the earlier chapters, the existing literature impressed the importance of corrosion management in the operations of the company. In the same manner, it has manifested the importance of the corrosion control systems that has been developed throughout the years. For countries and economies that depend on this type of industry, particularly petrochemical and petroleum industry, the protection of their pipelines is one of the more prioritised endeavours in their operations. Billions of dollars shall be saved on costs and other remedial actions alone once pipeline corrosion is addressed in an opportune manner. However, this does not end there. It this study contends that it is a process and an amalgamation of all the existing processes on corrosion management. The actions done before the actual operations are only as important as the actual management of the control systems imposed in these pipelines.

 

Effectiveness of Control Systems

This part of the chapter shall be discussing the effects of the control systems on the pipelines. More particularly, a discussion on the application of these control systems shall be provided and the consequent elements that may induce the failure of such protection of the external part of the pipelines.

Coating and linings

In the study of  (2007), they pointed out the standards used in the External Corrosion Direct Assessment (ECDA) scheme which are employed by majority of companies that operate pipelines. The study observed several reactions of pipe coatings and linings on the corrosive nature of the environment. For instance, pipe coatings made of polyolefin are said to be vulnerable to ultraviolet degradation and cracking failure. This is especially true when the pipelines are buried underground. The same study also pointed out the permeability of polyethylene. The study noted that oxygen and water vapour provide some form of permeability on the pipelines once corrosion sets in the material. Normally, the adhesion of the coatings will severely diminish in the process. 

In underground pipelines, the study uncovered several externally driven failures of pipeline coatings. For instance, the backfilling of underground pipes tend to damage the coatings in the materials. Crown cracking are said to be the more common effects of the backfilling of the pipeline. The same study also pointed out that pipelines in clay soil tend to wrinkle the coatings when subjected to the expansion on wetting and contraction when drying of the clay soils. On the other hand, soil creep also induces failure on the pipeline coatings of the pipeline system. This is especially true in areas where unstable slopes are still in existence. 

The study also manifested important findings on the effect of temperature and microbial degradation on the coating of the pipelines. The study mentioned that when coatings are subjected high temperature, the coating system is considerably changed. This means that the configuration of the coatings is altered to the point that even the purpose of protecting the pipelines is significantly lessened. This similarly true when soil microbes invade the coatings of the pipelines, the study said that the permeability of the coating is increased as this takes place. In this regard, this shows that when the pipelines are buried underground, the coatings and linings serve as the last line of defence when these types of elements already set in the pipes. Moreover, once there is failure on the side of the pipelines, this could indicate that the other forms of corrosion control systems used in conjunction with the coatings and linings have already failed.

Cathodic protection

Normally, cathodic protection is made as a mechanism to protect pipelines which are underground. The assault of corrosion on the surfaces of the metal pipes as it comes in contact with the soil consists of a couple of basic mechanisms. These two mechanisms include direct soil corrosion and stray current attack. These two mechanisms are naturally electrolytic. In the case of direct soil corrosion, the deterioration takes place because of the existence of certain corrosion cells in the exterior of these pipelines. On the other hand, the stray current element points to the existence of externally controlled currents that make the pipe exteriors that are in contact with the earth triggers the deterioration process. 

In these instances, underground pipelines are usually taken to the application of cathodic protection. Studies have mentioned the need to consider soil sensitivity in the process of cathodic protection. This is important as the soil surrounding the pipeline tends to be a part of the cathodic protection current path. In addition, the pattern of the ground bed should similarly be considered as an important element in the process.

Other studies point towards the importance of the pipe-to-soil potential. This basically is measure of the potential between the pipe and a copper electrode. Along with this measure is the presence of the line current. This is essentially the process on which a current is moving longitudinally to determine the ability of the coatings used to protect the pipes from leakage and maintain a level of conductibility in the process of cathodic protection.

Other studies point to the importance of longitudinal resistance and current density. The first one points to the variation in the resistance of different types of steels. In the same manner, this part of the cathodic protection process points the determination as to whether the tolerance of the pipelines differ from one part to another depending on the weight of the said parts. Current density on the other hand, is rarely measurable for certain types of soil condition. However, it is crucial in providing the company a means on which to determine the design purposes for their respective pipelines in line with their cathodic protection initiatives. Along these lines, the information provided for by cathodic protection is a great marker of the quality of coating used in the process.

Materials selection

The discussions on the second chapter of this dissertation pointed out the limited possibility for companies to find ways to acquire a fit based on their pipeline needs. This prompts the process of material fabrication on the part of the organisations. However, it must be pointed out that there are certain materials which are considerably excellent when it comes to their mechanical capacities and their ability to oppose the possibility of deterioration by means of corrosion. The problem with these elements is that they are rarely used by companies because of the fact that their structures are not susceptible to fabrication. This means that the possibility of these elements to fit what companies require as a part of a prearranged standard of quality with regards to their pipelines will not be met or, at the most, be minimally addressed. Hence, buying such materials would only induce waste on the part of the company. In the same manner, some studies have also pointed out that selecting materials should also consider the maintainability of the pipelines. Studies have pointed out certain materials that similarly have the same excellent properties and can be subjected to fabrication. However their structure is also considerably susceptible to immediate maturation. In this regard, these studies show that the major elements to be considered in materials selection is the capacity of the material to be maintained for a long time and its actual capability to subject itself to fabrication without compromising its original structural integrity.

There are also studies that point to the potential of alloys to have greater fabrication ability as compared to other metals. Articles and studies have pointed out that these types of metals are more capable of enduring higher applications of certain metals like carbon or tungsten. The end result would be a much higher performance enhancement of the material with reference to its mechanical properties and even corrosion resistance. However, there are mixed reactions in the advent of technologies as those that offer the conventional materials are threatened by more novel types of applications. For instance, the modes provided above like corrosion inhibitors are among the more forthcoming technologies especially in the inclusion of other tools like nanotechnologies. 

Corrosion inhibitors

As stated in the earlier chapters of this paper, corrosion inhibitors are readily accessed in the market. This entails numerous products and consequently numerous alternatives for companies. The problem in this regard is whether the company is able to choose the appropriate type of product for their pipelines. Hence, the efficiency of the inhibitors is on the line whereas the market offers a considerable number of competitors are vying for their attention. Studies have indicated the need to measure inhibitor efficiency and ensure the height in quality such elements. 

 Before the application of the inhibitors on the pipelines, studies have noted the importance of evaluation of these corrosion inhibitors to make sure that the assets of the company are protected. Several tests should be carried out in order to weed out the more incongruous nominees. This is to make sure that the final choices will not include any poor performing corrosion inhibitor. In this regard, companies have to test these alternatives individually to get first hand data on the matter.

Articles on corrosion inhibitors cover certain types of test that could be used on inhibitors. For instance, one study motioned to testing the transportability of the inhibitor. This means that the test will determine whether an inhibitor is soluble in either oil, in water, and/or but not limited to both. Studies have shown that those categorised as organic inhibitors are more soluble than the rest especially when made in contact with aromatic hydrocarbons.

Another means of studying the inhibitor is by measuring the corrosion protection of the material. For instance, there are reports that point to the measurement of film persistence. In this type of test, the metal is bared on the reserved test solution for a provided number of times. The consequent corrosion is then monitored including the number of rinses per hour and the filming solution itself. Another form of testing the quality of the corrosion inhibitors is by metal loss. This aspect of corrosion is measured by means of gravimetric and radiometric methods. These methods are effective in measuring the occurrence of localised corrosion particularly pitting corrosion and attacks in the crevices of the pipelines.

 

Prevention and Remedial Actions

The discussion in this paper presents several new technologies that serve to prevent corrosion of the external parts of pipelines. Though such existence add up to the overall efficiency of corrosion control, effective corrosion control is still achieved through traditional preventive approaches which has been tried and tested by veterans in the petroleum and petrochemical industry. Studies have shown that corrosion management is only as good as the length at which the company can maintain a certain level of quality in its implementation. Following this line of reasoning, a company would require funds to address this area, hence the company requires knowledge of the actual costs on which savings could be consequently acquired. In this manner, the company would be able to have some form of financial flexibility and in the same manner, find ways to maintain a level of corrosion management that would guarantee the maximisation of the operational lives of their pipelines.

In the same manner, the discussions above have also provided a veritable argument against the longstanding myth about corrosion. It has been accepted in the past that pipelines are made of metals and thus would have a natural course of deterioration which is normally caused by corrosion. Added to this is the notion that there is nothing that can be done to address this natural progression. As seen in the discussions above, the process of corrosion could be limited and even significantly minimised just by applying certain chemicals, choosing the appropriate materials, and even running a live current through the material.

Thus, the effectiveness of corrosion maintenance done within a company is implemented in its optimal level when the policies and standards of the company itself complement the ends of its intention to prolong the lives of its pipelines. The financial aspect as well as the operational facets of the company should thus mesh so as to guarantee that it would be able to achieve its ultimate goals. 

 

Chapter 5

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

The previous chapters have discussed all of what was acquired during the acquisition of the data. This has been presented in the description of the topic, the review of related literature, the methodology, as well as in the presentation, interpretation and analysis of the findings of the research. This chapter shall sum up all the arguments and observations provided in the earlier chapters. This chapter shall be divided into three parts. The first part shall present a summary of the findings. The second part shall establish the overall conclusion of the research based on the earlier arguments, observations and summary provided in this chapter. The last part of this chapter shall be a ser of recommendations. This shall constitute those that may serve a better purpose for the readers of this study, especially those directly connected with corrosion management of petroleum and petrochemical pipelines.

Summary

The crux of the dissertation is basically an analysis of corrosion, its composition and implication on metal surfaces, especially in pipelines. The study has defined corrosion as the slow degradation and deterioration of materials by the very chemical contact with other elements and their environment. The implications of corrosion are also taken into account in the previous chapters. Based on the discussions, it appears that for every type of equipment or material there is a different way of reacting to the elements. In any case, the implications of corrosion in pipelines are essentially adverse as it translates to wastage, loss of revenue, and even degradation of the ecosystem. Damages on these properties tend to entail expensive alterations or replacements regardless of the extent of the corrosion.

The discussion in the previous chapters has maintained other implications of corrosion if the company fails to manage it effectively. For instance, corrosion tends to reduce the thickness of the metal pipes which essentially implies loss of the strength and structural integrity. More so when the corrosion takes place on localised spots in the material. The weakening of the metal is imposed in the instance that such localised corrosions like pitting and crevice corrosion occur. Aside from the financial implications of corrosion, the employees that directly work on these structures are openly at risk as they would be the first to be subjected to the actual implications in the onset of leaks or other more disastrous implications.

The discussions above also implied that the product that moves through the pipes would also be affected immensely. For one, these fluids would be contaminated to some extent. As a result, this contamination as occurred by the corrosion of the conduits reduced the value of the product as it has become polluted in some manner.

The consequent perforation of pipes, especially those connected t petroleum and petrochemicals tend to show a considerable magnitude of risk especially for the environment. This is particularly accurate on instances where the pipelines go through a channel of marine water. It is an accepted fact that saltwater is inevitably aggressive in the process of corrosion as it is subjected to surfaces of metals. It must also be indicated that it works both ways. Damage is not limited to the environment as the corrosive component of the external environment tends to trigger some form of internal corrosion and even compromising the overall composition of the product.

In terms of the operations of the company, the implications of corrosion is not only limited to the metallic element of the pipelines. It adds up to the total inefficiency of the operations once corrosion sets in. An instance pointed out early on is the possibility of adding frictional and other bearing properties in the process. This basically means that the flow of petrochemical and petroleum in these pipes will significantly diminish in rate once affected by corrosion. There are also instances that the conductivity of these metals diminishes as well as the transfer of heat that emanates from the surface of these pipes.

The discussions in the previous chapters also pointed out that corrosion doesn’t limit itself on the surface of the pipes alone. Crevices of the pipe where screws and other areas such as the pumps and the valves tend to explicitly affect the operations adversely. On the whole, the inability of the company to manage its pipelines adds up to the overall complication on the operations particularly with the equipment used in its operations. If the company did not undertake any initiative prior to the use of these pipes to protect it from corrosion or at least ensure that the operational life of these pipes are prolonged, then it is up for a whole lot of replacing, repairing, and loss. 

Conclusion

Corrosion could be triggered by a considerable amount of causes. When there are well established areas in the surface of the pipe for the reactions of both anodic and cathodic elements. This focuses the damage of the pipes on a minute area of the surface which could subsequently trigger a much larger and more serious damage in the long run. This is especially possible in instances where the elements in the pipes are of differing electrochemical property. As indicated in the earlier chapters, this is noted as a galvanic effect. Upon contact, these items which possess noble and basic potentials tend to induce undue deterioration by virtue of corrosion. The effects of that notably increase the possibility of attracting impurities such as rust, dirt and even induce stress. More importantly the effects of this kind of corrosion are concentrated in the place where the galvanic couple come into contact.

The discussions in the previous chapters also implied that the stimulation of anodic and cathodic reaction increases the possibility of corrosion in pipelines. The formation of certain oxide films that protect the surfaces of these metal pipes tend to limit its capability in the instance when elements like chloride and other aggressive ions comes into contact with these items. In the same manner, these elements are based primarily on the actual environment on which the pipeline is subjected. For instance, those that are submerged in seawater tend to accumulate sodium chloride while the effects of icing during winter tend to deposit moisture in certain crevices on these pipelines.

In any case he study has given not only the adverse effects of corrosion in pipelines and the implication on the company, the study have also taken steps to highlight the importance of actual prevention on these assets. The subsequent parts of this chapter shall be pointing out certain suggestions on the overall prevention of the pipeline corrosion in the industry. From simple acquisition of top quality material to the more complex monitoring processes, companies have to take this in hand so as to guarantee the protection of the merchandise of flowing from these pipes, the efficiency of the operations of the company, and the reduction of significant losses for the petrochemical and petroleum industry all over the world.

Recommendations

The study basically, having a rather descriptive temperament intends to show what the current situation in pipeline management and consequently seeks to provide recourse for companies. Hence, this study leans more towards the prevention of corrosion than the actual maintenance of pipelines. However, this does not mean that this study implies that companies limit itself to the activities prior to the use of such pipelines. This study suggests that companies could maximise the use of such pipelines by choosing the best possible items available at their disposal and consequently keeping track on how these pipelines contend with the existing environment. All in all, companies could carry all these out by merely extending the lifeline of these items. In order to realise this, the following proposals come to mind:

·        Provide utmost conditioning on the metal used for pipelines

As discussed in the earlier parts of this study, the metal ultimately spells whether it shall operate for a long time or if it will succumb to deterioration at a faster extent. The earlier chapters noted the effectiveness of coating the surface of the metal. This is to impose some resistance to corrosion by placing some form of covering or shielding effect from the corrosive elements. Earlier chapters pointed out the possibility of using another metal to coat the actual pipes. Normally, tin and zinc are used to make sure that steel pipelines are safe from the elements. Other protective coatings are derived from organic coatings. These are essentially found in resins and other paint-like substances. These essentially deflect any form of impurity that triggers corrosion. It interposes a barrier from between the actual component of the metal to the elements of the environment. As discussed in the previous chapters, some of these coating could possess some inhibitors to specific types of damaging elements. Another alternative is to alloy the metal. This is done to protect the pipes from the elements but instead of using actual non-metal inhibitors, a thin layer of metal plate is employed. This process is seen in the use of chromium and nickel in stainless steels.

 

·        Closely analyse the corrosive environment

 

The study also recommends conditioning the surroundings on which the pipeline is situated. For instance, the pipelines that are in an environment that could be controlled by the company would benefit from this recommendation. If it is submerged in a controllable environment, then the company could attempt to remove the oxygen to achieve a pH level that would considerably diminish the possibility of corrosion. An accepted element used as a reducing agent of oxygen is sulphite. The recurring problem in this recommendation is that it would not present any practical recourse on the company as it will have to continually go through the process of imposing reducing agents on the water on a regular basis. Thus, the process may cost more than that of the actual replacement of a damaged pipeline.

Another possible course of action is to use corrosion inhibitors in the process. These are essentially chemicals that are added in the corrosive environment of the pipeline, will reduce the possibility of metal deterioration induced by corrosion. The company could choose from a wide array of options. They could use anodic inhibitors which, as the name implies, impedes with the anodic processes. The issue on this inhibitor is that all the elements should be present otherwise it will essentially add up to the corrosion process instead of actually helping. A less dangerous inhibitor is the cathodic types. Basically, they reduce the area on which cathodic reaction could actually ensue. Unlike the earlier one recommended, this type of inhibitor does not amount to any possibility of concentrated localised corrosion. Companies also have the option of using these two processes, anodic and cathodic. This requires the process to consider the synergy of the chemical composition of the material and the ions present in the accessible environment.

·        Attempt to the controlling the processes electrochemically

Based on the discussions in the previous chapters, the process of corrosion is entirely electrochemical. This means that corrosion will essentially take place in time through the actual potential of the metal. This means that there is also the possibility that ions of the material comes into play. Corrosion could thus be avoided by applying anodic or cathodic currents into the metal. In its simplest sense, passing though a charge that is totally the opposite of the corrosive elements in the environment signifies that it would be repelled by the actual pipeline. Though it would not entirely eliminate the possibility of contact, the process is significantly slowed down to a certain extent.

 

 

 

 

Bibliography