Challenges in Development

Even if there is a good view for the development of the countries, the Third World countries are still likely to experience difficulties. In relation to the traditional culture that inhibits development, the Third World countries need the necessary culture traits that can push the countries to move to the next level of development and modernization. Culture is considered as a mild hindrance that prevents the continuous adoption of the modern attitudes and behavior as seen in developed countries. It is already accepted that the personalities of various individuals can make the entire social structure, but the negative personalities such as the authoritarianism or the use of power, low self-esteem, resistance or reluctance to innovation and other technologies are dramatically considered as the way of the society and mirrored as an act of anti-development. The prevention of the modern personalities and sticking to what is tradition is not considered as a good indication for development because the society only manifests that they don’t want to leave or change the future. 

Renault-Remanufacturing as a Strategic Activity

An Analysis: Remanufacturing as Renault’s Strategic Activity

Company’s Background

History

            In 1894, Marius Berliet designed and produced a single cylinder engine and his first petrol-driven car. He manufactured his first truck in 1906. At about the same time, Louis Renault launched his first commercial vehicle, followed shortly afterward by the forerunner of the bus for the city of Paris.  Laffly, Rochet Schneider, Camiva and Citroen Poids Lourds joined forces with Berliet between 1952 and 1974. In parallel, Renault Trucks merged with Somua in 1955; thus Saviem was born. ()

            Saviem and Berliet merged in 1978 creating the sole remaining French truck manufacturer, which became known as Renault Vehicules Industriels (RVI), the commercial vehicle branch of the Renault Group. RVI continued its international expansion by buying Dodge Europe and the American brand Mack in 1990. The entity became part of the Volvo Group in 2001 after being renamed Renault VI in 1992. The following year, it adopted the new international trade name, the Renault Trucks. ()

Development and Growth

            With about 57,000 trucks produced in 2001, the Renault Trucks business area was the second largest business area in the Volvo Group. Renault, unlike Volvo Trucks which specialized in heavy trucks offered a broad range of vehicles-from light trucks for city distribution to heavy long-haul trucks and military vehicles. Overall, it owned 11 percent of the Western European market for light trucks and 13 percent of the market for heavy trucks. ()

            Renault, employing 15, 000 people was present in 80 countries via a network of sales and service centers, importers and subsidiaries.  The network was especially strong in Europe with over 1,500 sales and services points. Thirty two dealerships out of 146 were solely owned by Renault Trucks in the French market. Moreover, all members of the network sold vehicles provided after sales service and distributed ‘approved’ original Renault Trucks spare parts. ()

The Issue

            Renault’s manufacturing was organized on the basis of firms’ orders placed by customers. Vehicles were assembled at three plants: Blainville for the medium-duty Renault Midlum range, Bourg-en-Bresse for the heavy-duty Renault Magnum and Renault Premium ranges, and Villaverde in Spain for the Renault Kerax range (dry bulk haulage). It had been in Limoges since 1938. Globally, it was the fourth largest employer in the Limoges area. ()

            Renault was recently acquired by Volvo Trucks to form the largest European truck manufacturer. Within the industry, remanufacturing was rapidly growing in popularity. Remanufacturing encompassed all the activities involved in rebuilding used spare parts to achieve a performance level on a par with or just below that of new parts. Remanufactured parts provided price-sensitive truck owners with a low cost like-new alternative to the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) replacements with the added benefit of environmental consciousness. ()

            Remanufactured parts, labeled ‘Renault 100 percent’ accounted for 16 percent of Renault Truck’s parts revenues and were processed in its Limoges plant. These dedicated facilities were rather old, inefficient and running at full capacity; thus increasing output would call for significant investments. ()

            Jean-Francois Hilico, the industrial project manager at Renault Trucks surveyed the market, benchmarked competitors and assessed Renault’s Trucks capabilities in remanufacturing. He became convinced that it offered exciting opportunities to the company but it also had the potential to create conflicts with truck dealers and divert resources from the more profitable original parts business. He foresaw three options for Renault: 1) outsource the activity to a third party; 2) expand and streamline processes in the existing plant; and 3) build an entirely new plant. ()

Internal Strength and Weaknesses

            Renault Trucks had the advantage in terms of human, physical and financial resources. As mention earlier, it employed around 15, 000 people and was present in 80 countries via a network of sales and service centers, importers and subsidiaries. In addition, it was strong in Europe with over 1, 500 sales and services point. It had also 32 out of 146 dealerships in the French market.

            Its financial resources were at high degree considering the big turnovers in its sales. As stated in the case, Renault Standard Exchange parts revenue had reached $64 million with a product margin of $19 million in 2000. This was equivalent to 170 000 units sold.  Likewise, its turnover from its total parts business during the same period was $488 million with a product margin of $192 million.

            Diverting from manufacturing to remanufacturing, this company’s activity and process clearly showed and met the success in the global industry of automobiles and trucks. It did not only meet its goal in increasing its revenues but also helped in decreasing the waste brought about by this industry since automobiles and trucks were the source of nine million tons of waste annually (). Generally, with these facts and data, we can therefore conclude that Renault had a better and effective marketing and research and development plans and strategies.

            However, Renault Trucks may face several problems and obstacles in pursuing its remanufacturing business since it required direct communication with the end consumers. Perhaps, it would risk alienating the whole dealer network since dealers and franchisees  may had a clear financial incentive to either rebuild parts themselves or use new parts.

            Segmentation of Renault’s customers base into two groups such as the trucks between three and seven years old with 12 percent remanufactured parts  and trucks between eight and 15 years old with 25 percent remanufactured parts may also bring some problems between the company and its customers. Conflict between the two parties may also arise since it was mentioned that most of customers used reman parts because they did not have an integrated workshop and were not under service arrangement of the classis three-year buy-back truck contracts.

The External Environment

            Within the industry, remanufacturing was rapidly growing in popularity. Considering the advantages and benefits it offered and brought and to competitively contend in the vehicles’ industry, Renault Trucks as a manufacturer recognized the importance of remanufacturing; thus applying this process in its operations.

            By doing this decision, we can conclude that Renault was not left behind by its rival companies and manufacturers. It ran parallel to the latest trend of the vehicle industry. Renault also may not have problems regarding its brand reputation since it already established its name and identity even before when it was still manufacturing. Its entry to the market regardless of geographical setting was not difficult since it already had its dealers and franchisees worldwide. There were also no problems regarding the funding source since its turnovers was higher than the company expected.

            The company offered a full range of remanufactured truck components with ‘Standard Exchange, Renault 100’ percent as its brand.  It was distributed throughout the international dealer network and was available within 48 hours, as fast as the new parts. Like most of its competitors, Renault guaranteed the same performance as new components and offered a worldwide one-year warranty on parts, equipment and components. These moves may attract clients and buyers to patronize the remanufactured products since they have been guaranteed and assured of its performance.

            However, independent repair shops did not view the development of Renault Trucks’ remanufacturing business favorable either. They had already initiated a price war and offered a 20 percent to 30 percent discount compared with Renault 100 percent parts. Parts suppliers like the Valeo, Wabco and Knorr were also thwarting the development of remanufacturing by partnering with dealer networks and independent repair shops to promote the use of new parts.

            Such independent repair shops and dealer networks promoting the use of new parts were the obstacles that hinder the fulfillment of vehicles’ remanufacturing industry. They were the risks in Renault’s full success in remanufacturing.

Evaluation of SWOT Analysis

            Balancing Renault Trucks’ strengths and weaknesses against opportunities and threats in remanufacturing, the company had an overall strong competitive position in the industry. Thus, it can profitably continue pursuing remanufacturing.

             Despite the price war and discounts offered by the independent repair shops and dealer networks promoting the use of new parts, it can still continue its current business strategy because aside from the fact that these repair shops and dealers didn’t offer the same warranty and level of reliability as ‘Renault Standard Exchange’, Renault already had established its name and reputation among the truck manufacturers and customers as the largest business area in Volvo Group.

            Proper and direct interaction of Renault with its end consumers must be done. The company must provide customers with information and assurance that the quality and efficiency of its remanufactured products were the same as or can be highly compared with the quality of those new manufactured products but in lower prices. Customers and buyers should have an incorporated workshop about reman parts and should have a service arrangement on the two groups segmented by Renault Trucks.

            Renault should also establish a rapport between the whole dealer network to avoid alienation of dealers and franchisees. It may put-up business meetings and talks with such dealers to discuss the trends in remanufacturing at the same time to tackle issues concerning rebuilding parts of the dealers themselves and using of new parts.

            To minimize if not fully eradicated the threat of the independent repair shops and dealers promoting the use of new parts, Renault should demonstrate its competitiveness and the effectiveness of its remanufactured products. It must show and emphasized the benefits and advantages of the remanufactured products as well as the need to remanufacture.

Corporate-Level Strategy

Volvo Group Mission

            ‘By creating value for our customers we create value for our shareholders. We use our expertise to create transport-related hard and soft products of superior quality, safety and environment; care for demanding customers in selected segments. We work with energy, passion and respect for the individual.’

Volvo Group Vision

● To be valued as the world’s leading provider of commercial transport solutions

● To be number one in image and customer satisfaction

● Sustainable profitability above average

● Number one or two in size or superior growth rate

            We can assume that Renault Trucks as member of Volvo Group considered and practiced the Group’s vision and mission in performing its operations. In order to do these, Renault according to Hilico, had secure the supply of carcasses both in quality and quantity. According to him, they will also improve the remanufacturing process so that the customers associate their label 100 percent Renault with image of quality, security and environment-the three strategic pillars of Volvo Group.

            Diverting from manufacturing to remanufacturing, the company had given the new opportunities to compete in the automotives and trucks industry since remanufacturing was the industry’s latest trend. The change in its corporate strategy was just an adaptation to the changes in industry and the changed over time. The new corporate strategy also will contribute most in its competitive advantage given the new demands and fashion in that industry.

Business-Level Strategy

            Renault Trucks was a single-business company and member of group of companies from the same industry. It had already established its name and reputation when it was still in manufacturing. Since it diverted to remanufacturing, there was still a need to reestablish its name and reputation in remanufacturing as well to attract further clients and buyers. Guaranteeing that the remanufactured components were the same as new in terms of performance and offering a worldwide one-year guaranty on parts, equipment and components were good business strategy of the company. It will gain the trust of the buyers; thus, to patronize its remanufactured products.

Structure and Control Systems

            Remanufacturing was rapidly growing in the industry of automotives and trucks. Remanufacturing a component such as a complete engine block, meant removing it from the vehicle, discarding worn parts, reassembling the engine and testing it. Remanufactured components or reman were usually aimed at vehicles between five and 12 years old. Vehicles that were less than five years old were either under warranty or repaired with original parts. (1999)

            The advantage of a remanufactured part over an original one was its price. For most components, remanufactured versions were 30 percent to 5o percent cheaper, enabling companies with big fleet to significantly reduce their servicing and maintenance costs. Because remanufactures knew the quality of each component, they were also able to offer warranties of 12 to 24 months or 150,000 lm for engine. ( 1999)

            Remanufactured components, especially engines, often benefited from recent technology, which sometimes made them more efficient than the original component in terms of performance and emission regulations. Remanufactures also offered customers the option of having the electronic control module (ECM) transferred from the old engine to the remanufactured one ensuring not only the original emission integrity with which that engine had compiled but also that the customer’s pre-calibrated engine specifications were automatically programmed in the new engine. ( 1999)

            Another aspect was time. Remanufacturing was quicker than rebuilding, which translated into quicker turnaround and less downtime. Added to the cost savings over purchasing a new part, this made remanufacturing even more appealing. ( 1999)

            Given such advantages and benefits offered by remanufacturing and considering its popularity in the industry, it was not shocking that Renault turn from manufacturing to remanufacturing.     Renault used the right integration and control system to manage the shift in production strategy: the remanufacturing operations since it had the authority who was Hilico who surveyed the market, benchmarked competitors and assessed the company’s capabilities in remanufacturing.

            Thus, the company saw the exciting opportunities in remanufacturing as well as its potential conflicts with truck dealers. It also provided the company to have three options such as to outsource the activity to a third party, expand and streamline processes in the existing plant or build an entirely new plant to address the remanufacturing operations.

 

Recommendations

            We can assumed that the whole company was already informed and had the knowledge about Renault’s shifting in remanufacturing process since Hilico consulted all the parties involved from marketing to engineering and R&D and manufacturing. The three options to support the remanufacturing business were incorporated with all the elements, the financial as well as softer ones. Further, the project was also put back into the strategic perspective of the Volvo Group.

             The first possibility was to hand over the remanufacturing business to a subcontractor. Renault Trucks owned part of the equity of a remanufacturing company that could increase capacity if Renault Trucks guaranteed to transfer the Limoges plant business. In this case, however, it would be more difficult to monitor the quality of the process. The Renault 100 percent label also could be at risk. ()

            The second alternative involved streamlining the remanufacturing process in the Limoges plant. It aimed to concentrate the activity in seven adjacent buildings and improve automation to reduce manufacturing and logistics costs. Capacity would remain the same, 250,000 units a year. Renault Trucks did not forecast any price increase for the following six years. Product margins would improve by five percent. ()

            The third alternative was more ambitious. It entailed moving the remanufacturing business to a new plant, just five kilometer north of Limoges. The investment was significantly higher but capacity would be increased gradually to 300,000 units by 2006. Margins would improve by 10 percent in 2002 and by two percent in each of the following years. The processes would be redesigned to include, for example, a “clean dismantling” step. In addition, the new plant would be built to meet more stringent emission regulations and achieve a “zero liquid waste, zero outside storage of carcass” level. Water consumption would be reduced from 450,000 m3 per year to 3,000 m3 per year and the plant would be eligible for ISO 14000 certification. ()

            According to , if Renault went for the last alternative; the company would create an organizational breakthrough by tailoring a manufacturing process to the remanufacturing activity. Further, such a plant with zero emission could also become a pilot site in terms of environment and working conditions and bolster the image of Renault 100 percent. However, increasing capacity could create problems in the future with Volvo. He also raised the argument that with the increasing commonality of parts between its trucks, where carcasses should go in priority five years from now when 70 percent of parts are common between Renault Trucks, Mack Trucks and Volvo Trucks. () Considering such statement, we could therefore conclude that the last alternative was not a recommendable option. Thus, what we have to regard were the two first alternatives.

            After weighing the advantages and disadvantages showed by the first and second suggestions, we could select option two as better than the first option since in the first option, it was mention that it would be more difficult to monitor the quality of the process and the Renault 100 percent brand could be at risk. Option two also was the most rational among other options in terms of the global strategy of Volvo Group.

             However, Renault must also not set aside its manufacturing operations since it was its first business strategy. Also, maintaining its manufacturing will provide the needs and demands of those customers who still want to have and purchase all new parts components and products.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Assignment Essay Instructions on Front Office Management course, "Comparison of a budget brand with a luxury brand within one Hotel chain"

Project objectives :
At the end of this project students should be able to:
Analyze the difference between a budget brand and a luxury brand within one hotel chain comparing target markets and their potential as well as underlining financial and service related objectives according to the classification categories explained in class and the text book-Managing Front Office Operations.

What policies can a country adopt to promote economic growth?

Introduction

Since there is no single aspect of economics, economic policies and adherence to such remain ambiguous and even conflict-laden at times. Economic policies refer to government’s action in responding to economic endeavors.  and  listed basic issues involved in faming economic policy. These are the functioning of the market economy and its impact on consumption, distribution of goods and disparities in income. Aside from these, pricing mechanisms, mixed economy models, liberalization, social equality, government priorities, functional autonomy and economic control dictate the local government on which and what economic policies to adopt (1992, ). Development economists suggested an alternative to develop strategies and policy models from a country-to-country or, a most comprehensive, stages-of-development frameworks.

Discussion

               The McKeever Institute of Economic Policy Analysis (MIEPA), on the other hand, is an independent organisation that describes, analyse, promote and recommend sound economic policies. Our task is to uncover and reveal what economic policies a country could adopt that will, in exchange, deliver results upon implementation. Towards this end, we will consider extracting the best economic policies that contribute to national wealth from MIEPA’s database. As our point of reference, we are going to contemplate on three of the developed countries from the list as Australia, France and South Africa. The criteria of policy analysis are divided into six categories as critical internal and external policies, important internal and external policies and beneficial internal and external policies.

            Based on this, the highest recorded scores for the three countries and their corresponding average (with 5 as the highest and 1 as the lowest) are as follows: A) critical internal policies – freedom from internal control (5), communication systems (4.5), transportation (4.83) and education (4.6); B) important internal policies – currency (5), institutional stability (4.33) and economic statistics (4.16) and important external policies – protection of foreign currency-earning enterprises (4.16). Economic polices that critical to the well-being and security of the nation-state conforms to freedom from state control, network of communication facilities, good transportation facilities and quality and quality education. The use of single currency, sustainable organisations and accurate statistics that create business opportunities awareness are deemed as the important economic policies that a nation must adopt. The government could adopt policies regarding external export earnings while also protecting the domestic markets. From this point, we could consider five constructs with the highest rates.

            Taking it from a developed-countries framework, economic policies on internal control and currency are the two most fundamental policies that could provide a sustainable economy. The overall internal control structure is integrated through a closed-loop approach wherein functions are integrated to one another. Internal control policies and procedures ensures proper authorization of all instructions, segregation of compatible duties, appropriate designation and maintenance of accounting records and documentation, controlled access to both assets and records and periodic presentation to the public of accounting data (. 1994, ).

            Tightening of monetary policies ensure a stable and strong currency as well as avoiding competitive distortion of exchange rate stability (, 1998, ). Monetary polices, in addition, addresses the sources of equilibria wherein the government could focus on fiscal problems such as  tax rates, tax reforms, income elasticity, removal of subsidies, budget expenditures cuts and restructuring, efficient use of domestic credits and enterprise reforms. Exchange arrangements would also be alter at the benefit of the nation. Such strategy claimed for a more flexible domestic wages and costs, stability of inflation in the currency against the fixed rate while maintaining payments viability.  Another feature of currency policies are the impediments to the transmission of monetary impulses that would likely result to reduction of the stability and predictability of monetary aggregates and weakening of links between money and credit growth (, 1994, ).

            Transportation, educational and communication systems are the subsequent areas that governments should adopt economic policies for. Transportation instruments, to be efficient, must be guided by comprehensive transportation policies. Such policies consider equity through optimal tax and investment rules and distributional effects of revenue recycling. Optimal tax and investment rules are used to correct transportation externalities. This is done through raising revenues to provide public goods and services, achieve desirable income distribution and control the externalities. Revenue recycling, in addition, assesses the efficiency and equity impacts of transportation policies correctly. This process considers how the revenue is used and how policies are financed (, , 2005, )

            Progress is continuously being integrated to the frameworks of knowledge-based disciplines. The efforts to centralize the educational system and the universality of the contents being taught create patterns for education sector that calls for a timely government intervention. They are motivated by the economic implications of educational policies. The connection of education in the labor is being recognized even by the multinationals (, 1995, ). Efforts to prepare students and universities to gain competence, and skills necessary to function in a modern economy in the long run are now in rapid progress.

            Communication is both an end and a mean. Communication policy had always been linked to other social and economic policies. An evident convergence between communication and trade policy acknowledge the role of communication and development. Noticed that communications also serve as links for inter-nation activities and so do the systems that undergrid them. Communication policymakers, in lieu, have increased access on factors and a variety of international variables to consider in making decisions. Through this, policies are allocated and prioritized in organisational responsibilities, inconsistencies and jurisdictional disputes will be addressed and possible coordination of communication policy in international labor mechanisms (, 1990, ).

Conclusion

            Economic policies depend on the level of economic development of a country. This is not based on political, social or cultural frameworks, as many economists claimed, that hinder economic growth. The thinking of the countries purports not on a short- or medium-tem improvements but rather long-term and sustainable, holistic improvements. Though economic policies are continuously being linked to other societal constructs, it is only right to say that they are indeed interrelated; however, economic policies are only part of an overall strategy of the country, to say.  

            It is evident that economic policies are legitimately based on competitive perspectives – efforts are always directed and inclined to creating acceleration that create strong pressures and externalities; thus, the governments and states had created, in effect, a more uncertainty and more risks to safety and security. What I am trying to say is that governments created the problems and to address such problems governments created economic policies.

            Another point to ponder conforms to the fact that adopting economic policies has marginal costs. Such costs are often felt by those who are the bottom. Other aspects may be jeopardized like poverty. There is a strategy for this however, that is government prioritization. Economic policies must always built upon a sense of equilibrium between the needs of the people and the demand of the society in general while not forgetting the domestic economy.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bibliography

 

PROFESSIONAL NURSING- JOURNAL ARTICLE ANNOTATION

Professional Nursing - Journal Article Annotation

 

Nurses face an endless variety of situations which involves clients, family members, health care staff, and peers. Each of the situations that nurses face pose new experiences and problems involving clients’ care, different approaches to resolving problems, and different results as to whether approaches were successful.

Each clinical situation that nurses face everyday requires careful and thoughtful analysis for accurate and sound clinical decisions and plans to be developed for each client.

            The article argues that critical thinking is indeed an essential part of the nursing profession. It is not enough that a nurse has abstract knowledge; he or she also has to develop the intellectual capacity to contextualize and to adjust what he/she knows in particular cases.

The key ideas that the authors and are trying to communicate in this article are the relationship of critical thinking and intuitive practice to the expertise in nursing. It is true that aside for developing this while still a student nurse, nurses also gain knowledge through their experiences. Every clinical experience becomes a lesson which will serve as a guide and information for the nurse.

It is not only the authors that consider critical thinking and intuitive practice as important, but other authors in the nursing discipline as well. In every clinical situation, it is important for a nurse to think critically and make sound judgments so that clients ultimately receive the very best nursing care. Critical thinking is not a simple step-by-step, linear process that can be learned overnight. It is a process acquired only through hard work, commitment, and an active curiosity toward learning.

Nurses are responsible for making accurate and appropriate clinical decisions. Critical thinking is very important as no two clients have the same needs. The nurse after assessment and diagnosis has to employ critical thinking skills for a client’s particular condition.

Intuition is simply a result of common experiences and applied to new ones. After a nurse has been exposed to a certain situation and is exposed to another similar situation, the nurse uses her intuition along with her critical thinking skills to develop an approach for the client. Intuition in nursing thus develops as a nurse’s clinical experience increases.

A nurse is always challenged to observe each of his or her clients closely, search for and examine ideas and judgments about the problems that the clients face. Additionally the nurse has to consider scientific principles that he/she have learned and relate this to the clients’ problem, recognize the problems, and develop the right approach to nursing care as appropriate to the situation and problem of the client.

Intuition is thus considered by authors as a trigger which brings about in the nurse an analytical process that leads them in a search to acquire data that confirms what they have sensed in the client or in a particular situation. Intuition thus triggers the nurse to apply his/her critical thinking skills in a situation in order to come up with the right thing to do or the right answer to a problem being presented.

Nurses must not make snap judgments just by their intuition alone. This could jeopardize the client’s situation and perhaps affect the nursing quality of care for the patient.

As a student nurse, knowing and understanding what critical thinking is and its importance very important. The article points out that a student nurse has to develop this skill. Critical thinking begins for a student when the student seriously asks questions, and in continuing way attempts to answer questions like “what do I really know about this nursing care situation?” or “how do I know it?” This is actually a process which is developed within the student nurse with the aid of other individuals like the educators.

Students in nursing must learn nursing by consciously practicing reasoning skills needed in nursing. Students in nursing must also critically reason their way through nursing principles, concepts and theories as much as possible so that appropriate and accurate application of knowledge occurs naturally in clinical practice.

As stated in the article, the purpose of reflective, critical thinking is to ensure that the nurse has the depth of knowledge necessary to immediately comprehend the practice situation so that safe, effective, quality nursing care is provided to the clients. Intuitive practice and critical thinking can significantly affect the quality of care delivered by the nurses to their patients.

It is important to remember that the quality of nursing practice depends on the nurse’s ability to use all types of cognitive and emotional cues associated with a situation to trigger critical thinking and then to select effective nursing interventions.

A nurse cannot safely act on intuition alone that is why critical thinking and intuition both have to go together in order to achieve expertise in the nursing profession. Intuition requires critical thinking as much as critical thinking needs intuition.

 

The Impact of Modernization Theory in The Country

With the unique aim of the country in political change and independence, the position of the country in the face of the world also changes. Within the concept of modernization in accepting and mobilizing the new ideas will definitely create changes in the society. With regards to the impact of modernization there includes the secularism, literacy, urbanization, and the mass communications.

Modernization is also referred to be the “Western Life” or the Westernization, because of the impacts it leaves to other developing countries. A nation that is developed and modernized perfectly resembles to be industrialized. Basically the economic structures, socio-political aspect, culture, behavior, and attitudes, and leading science and technology institution became the essential points or criteria of a country to develop and stimulate the potentials for growth. This is the start of the modernization (Ojo, 2004).   

The modernization theory holistically changes the norms in the society into commercialization, democratic and peaceful, the occupational mobility, improvement in literacy level, enriching the community, stability and gradual change. The modernization theory is based on the assumption because of the pre-colonial and pre-modern society that is characterized by violence, poverty, and primitivism. As against with the dependency theory, the modernization theory accepts all the assumption with the idea of balancing the cause and effects that are present in the environment of the society.

 

According to the current status of the country with regards to modernization, Zimbabwe is at the pace ready for progress. The openness of the country and their necessary adjustments in the programs that will improve the socio-economic status of the country is a great indication that Zimbabwe is ready to face the risks that involves in the changes. To achieve the success in the development, the structures in the society and the economic cycle should be developed as well. Therefore, encouraging the small and medium entrepreneurs became one the finest strategies employed in the country. This is an action by giving the opportunities to the people to explore their potentials through the effective training in management, quality production, marketing aspects, and many others that are associated with the corporate world. With the continuous success, the national economy can be supported by the domestic market. 

Sexual Harrasment in the Workplace

I NEED 2 PAGES FOR THE FOLLOWING PLEASE INCLUDE INTRODUCTION, CONCLUSION AND REFERENCES THANKS.

Consider the following case:

Peggy had been working for a real estate agency for two months. During this time she developed a friendship with another fellow real estate agent, John. John helped Peggy learn the various policies and procedures of the office.

During a recent office party John asked if Peggy would be interested in going to dinner together the next night. Peggy said no, explaining that she had made other plans already.

A week later Peggy got her first big sale and this accomplishment was announced to the other real estate agents. Later that day she walked by John’s desk and John patted her on the buttocks and said, “Congratulations, the first one is always the toughest to get!”

Peggy was very uncomfortable with the incident and the next day asked to speak with her supervisor, Mike. Mike, who was busy trying to negotiate a real estate deal for a customer, listened as Peggy explained what happened but kept interrupting her to answer the phone.

Once Peggy finished her story Mike stated that since this was not an incident of sexual harassment there was nothing he could do. He told her to let him know if anything more serious happens and then he will talk with John about the problem. Following that statement Mike picked up the phone and continued with the negotiation.

The above case describes a single incident that occurred between co-workers, one day at work, along with the subsequent meeting Peggy had with her boss the following morning to report the incident. Peggy believes the incident is sexual harassment. The case gives students an opportunity to carefully consider what is, and what is not, sexual harassment.

What is sexual harassment in the workplace? Was John guilty of sexual harassment?

If you were Peggy, what would you do?

What is an organization's responsibility in regard to sexual harassment among co workers or supervisor subordinate pairs? Do you think that Mike responded appropriately to the problem?

Outline a brief personnel policy that an organization could adopt to protect itself from sexual harassment lawsuits.

The Impact of Modernization Theory in The Country

With the unique aim of the country in political change and independence, the position of the country in the face of the world also changes. Within the concept of modernization in accepting and mobilizing the new ideas will definitely create changes in the society. With regards to the impact of modernization there includes the secularism, literacy, urbanization, and the mass communications.

Modernization is also referred to be the “Western Life” or the Westernization, because of the impacts it leaves to other developing countries. A nation that is developed and modernized perfectly resembles to be industrialized. Basically the economic structures, socio-political aspect, culture, behavior, and attitudes, and leading science and technology institution became the essential points or criteria of a country to develop and stimulate the potentials for growth. This is the start of the modernization (Ojo, 2004).   

The modernization theory holistically changes the norms in the society into commercialization, democratic and peaceful, the occupational mobility, improvement in literacy level, enriching the community, stability and gradual change. The modernization theory is based on the assumption because of the pre-colonial and pre-modern society that is characterized by violence, poverty, and primitivism. As against with the dependency theory, the modernization theory accepts all the assumption with the idea of balancing the cause and effects that are present in the environment of the society.

 

According to the current status of the country with regards to modernization, Zimbabwe is at the pace ready for progress. The openness of the country and their necessary adjustments in the programs that will improve the socio-economic status of the country is a great indication that Zimbabwe is ready to face the risks that involves in the changes. To achieve the success in the development, the structures in the society and the economic cycle should be developed as well. Therefore, encouraging the small and medium entrepreneurs became one the finest strategies employed in the country. This is an action by giving the opportunities to the people to explore their potentials through the effective training in management, quality production, marketing aspects, and many others that are associated with the corporate world. With the continuous success, the national economy can be supported by the domestic market. 

Organizational Behavior foundation Theories

Organizational Behavior

Textbooks

Organizational Behavior: Foundation, Theories, and Analyses

            This textbook by John Miner is one of comprehensive and useful textbooks that tackle the issues regarding the different aspects of organizational behavior or OB. The book tackles the history of application of OB as well as different studies and principles that are related to the said subject such as philosophy and psychology. Furthermore, the book also focuses on the development of OB from the past studies up to the present. Above all, it focuses on the different theories that are related to the different aspects of OB such as motivation, leadership, systems concept of organization and bureaucracy-related concepts. All of the said concepts were tackled using the first and second-generation of OB.

            Just like, the textbook of McShane & Travaglione, this book focuses on the different trends as well as current developments in terms of the application and aspects of OB like globalization as well as technology. On the other hand, this book can give additional information regarding the different theories from different generations regarding the studies of the OB. This can help those people who are working in Singapore to know more regarding the different aspects that are connected with the OB that will help them to understand their differences in terms of cultures and other needs. Furthermore, this text will give students of OB with depth information regarding the evolution and development of OB, as well as the different important theories that are connected with it.

Emotions in the Workplace: Understanding the Structure and Role of Emotions in Organizational Behavior

            This textbook edited Kanfer focuses on emotion as the main aspects that can affect the issue of OB. It tackles the issues regarding the impact of emotions at work. Furthermore, it also tackles the basic of the different emotion models, together with the measures as well as the individual differences. Above all, it tackles the different issues regarding the impact of emotion in the different rules and regulations as well as policy making inside an organization. It also tackles the impact of emotions regarding the customer service as well as the relationship of the work-family interface.

            The content of this textbook is related to the textbook of McShane & Travaglione, in a way that it focuses on the importance of emotions in the aspect of OB. Furthermore, it also focuses on the individualism and the aspect of team work. However, this textbook gives a depth presentation and explanation of the impact of emotion in the performance of each individual as well as the relationship of the individuals in a group. Furthermore, this book will give more theories and explanations regarding the different problems that are connected with the emotions and the different solutions that can be applied.

            This book can help different organizations and individuals in Singapore, more particularly, those who are working with multi-cultural organization, to know more regarding the importance of emotions in workplace. Furthermore, this can help different management to consider emotions in their policy and decision-making process. On the other hand, this study will give the students knowledge regarding the impact of emotion in overall performance of an individual and how it can affect team work as well as customer relationship.

Managing Organizational Behavior

            This book by Ronald Sims offers a wide range of topics regarding the different aspects about OB. It focuses on the impact of perception, attitudes as well as personality in the OB. Aside from that, the books also tackles the different issues and aspects about the OB with connection to each individual as well as groups. Furthermore, it also tackles the different problems the solutions that can be encountered by OB.

            This book is connected with the textbook of McShane & Travaglione, in a sense that it gives importance on the connection of the OB with the customer relationship of different companies and organizations. Furthermore, just like all of the previous books that have been reviewed, this book also focuses on the different motivational factor that can affect the working performance of individual as well as group. On the other hand, unlike McShane & Travaglione, Sims gives focus on the different aspects of communications and how it can help to solve different problems that are associated with emotions, attitudes, personality and other aspects of OB.

            Unlike, the first two books, this book focuses on the different problems that can be encountered as well as solutions that can be done in order to solve those problems in OB. This can help different businesses and organizations in Singapore in managing their OB, as well as helping to manage the human resource and relationship of different stakeholders. Furthermore, it can help the students with different ideas regarding the possible problems that they can encounter in the real world as well as the different solutions that can be applied and implemented in order to solve it.

Journals

Organizational Behavior in the New Organizational Era

            This journal by Denise Rousseau focuses on the different changes in the organization that can impact the different aspects of OB. Furthermore, the study pointed out the new era in the organizational research due to the different aspects such as globalization and technology. In addition, the study focuses on the new employment relations and the different employment arrangements as well as other transitions. The study also tackles different aspects of motivation such as accessing rewards and its allocations, performance measurement and management, as well as the relationship of goal setting and self-management. The study also gives importance on the changing needs of organizations in terms of communication such as the organizational learning and the information processing.

            Just like McShane & Travaglione, Rousseau, focuses on the different development and changes that affects the entire management of OB. It tackles the issues of technology as well as globalization or the existence of different culture. Furthermore, it also give emphasize on the different organizational change, together with the individual changes. On the other hand, this study will help to show the different aspects regarding the organizational learning as well as the aspect of self-management. This study will help those individual and groups in organizations and businesses in Singapore regarding the different aspects of self-management, in order to improve their individual performance. Furthermore, it will also give more information regarding the different aspects of motivation, particularly in financial rewards. This will support the different ideas from Sims, regarding the condition in the real world that can help those students of OB.

Organizational Behavior: Affect in the Workplace

            This journal by Arthur Brief and Howard Weiss focuses on the study regarding on the impact of the organizational behavior in the working environment. Just like the textbook of McShane & Travaglione, the study also focuses on the history or the development of studies regarding on the impact of emotions and feeling of employees in the working environment. The study also focuses on the different aspects regarding the affective status of job satisfaction. Above all, the different factors regarding the production of different moods and emotions at workplace, different stressful events and conditions at work, leadership, work group characteristics, as well as the physical settings were all discussed.

            This study can help different management of different organizations and businesses in Singapore in knowing the different aspects that can impact the job satisfactory, and eventually the overall performance of their employees. This study will give the students more ideas regarding on how the working environment can affect the employees’ thoughts, feelings as well as actions, and likewise. Furthermore, it will also give depth discussion of the different aspects of the working environment such as the physical, or the design, location and material aspects in the working station; and the emotional aspects such as the leadership, events and conditions, work group characteristics as well as the reward and punishment system.

Organizational Behavior

            This journal byfocuses on the different review regarding the different studies and books about OB. And just like McShane & Travaglione, Wilpert, also focuses on the different theoretical development of OB as well as the different cultural factors that are associated with the OB. It also gives importance on the different organizational symbolism like myths and stories in the organization theory. Furthermore, it also gives emphasis on the different aspects of the organizational climate such as structural, perceptual, interactive as well as cultural. The study also focuses on motivation in the financial aspect in terms of performance feedback, social control potential as well as purchasing power. It also shows issues regarding leadership, control as well as power.

            This study can help those organizations and businesses in Singapore because it tackles the different hazardous work systems that must be prevented in order to maintain good relationship with the employees and staffs. The said study is connected with the different aspects such as emotions, feelings and more importantly culture. Furthermore, this can help the students of OB regarding the different perspective of different authors regarding the impact of cultures and emotions in the management of OB. It will also give addition information to Rousseau about the organizational learning.   

 

 

Internet Sources

Historical Background of Organizational Behavior

            This online article prepared by Edward Wertheim focuses on the historical development of the different theories and studies regarding the OB. It contains four categories of OB theories development which is consists of: Taylorism and Scientific Management; the Human Relations Movement; Theory X and Theory Y; and the Schools of Thought regarding the Organizational Behavior. This article provide the basics and backgrounds information regarding the historical aspects of OB.

            Just like McShane & Travaglione, Wertheim also focuses on the importance of motivation in the OB. On the other hand, Wertheim article give more emphasis on the different important motivational theories that are important in improving the performance of employees. This article will help different organizations and businesses in Singapore regarding the different aspects that must be considered in order to keep the enthusiasm of employees in working as well as to bring out the best of skills and abilities of each and every employee for the sake of improved overall performance. Furthermore, this article will give the students the idea regarding the important motivational theories that must be considered in managing OB.

Organizational Behavior

            This online article by Don Clark focuses on the different basic information regarding the OB such as its definition and topics related to it like human behavior, change, leadership and teams. Furthermore, it also provides information regarding the different elements of organizational behavior and models of organizational behavior. It also gives emphasis on the social systems, culture as well as the individualization. Clark also offers a preview regarding the organization development that is associated with the quality of work life, action learning and change.

            Unlike Wertheim, Clark focuses on the basic of OB, and other information that are related to it. Furthermore, like McShane & Travaglione, Clark also gives emphasis on the different changes that are associated with OB. This article will give more information regarding the different basic or raw information regarding the OB like its elements and models. The said information will be helpful for organizations and businesses in Singapore as well as students of OB regarding the different basic information regarding OB. Above all; it will serve as a helpful start for those who are not that familiar with OB.

Conclusion

            Organizational Behavior or OB is one of the most talked-about issues in terms of management and human resource. There are many aspects and information that are related with it, and this varies from personality, emotion and feelings, group relationship, motivation, attitudes, and other psychological and management aspects. The textbook of McShane & Travaglione had been able to show the different application of OB by using different case studies. However, there are other important and depth information that are needed to be considered in order to fully understand the OB. Using all of the resources that have been mentioned in this paper, there are different and new information that had helped the author to understand more regarding OB. One of this is the historical development of OB as well as the different theories that are related to it, such as motivation. Furthermore, personality and other psychological aspect of an individual can greatly impact the physical and emotional working environment, and vice versa. Team work of group relationship is also an important aspect in OB. In addition, culture is considered as one of the most important aspects that must be considered in any working relationship in any organization and business. The said aspect is important due to the growing number of multinational companies and multi-cultural companies.

            Communication plays an important role in managing the organizational behavior. This can be done by managing effective communication channel and medium that can help to lessen the different negative impact of cultural differences.

Chapter 2

 

 

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

 

            There says that an effective science teaching is concern in having standard student learning as possible that is without spending too much on laboratory tests and experiments as there is right option to have the needed adjustments in teaching science through using alternative materials that are home-based that can be easily completed in lieu of shaping student experiences that encourage them to perform better in laboratory experiments during science class activities. Thus,  and  suggested that, flexibility in teaching science and learning such use of alternative tools can possibly be given in useful ways within home-based resources that is available for easy learning as well as interaction between science teachers and their students with such support provided for using alternative experiments of inexpensive costs.

            Aside, there should be the improved access to science tools and resources of use as there can be provision of system services and the development of materials and resources that is of good cost for buying in catering to diverse experiment approach respectively. The opportunities for applying home-based alternative materials gives better criticism on student as the science classes are to be practical in terms of experimentation process and its actualization. In a way, certain online materials found in the web will allow appropriate delivery as a form of alternative materials that can be in book style as well as in interactive mode in terms of having formative evaluation in offering better communication channel for teacher and student interactions.

Understanding of teacher-focused science laboratories

            It can be true that amidst basic schools, having a science lab is barely unique as for example public schools in the Philippines have laboratories where the grouping of students are in clusters of interaction with others. The students can be trained to use home-based alternative tools for learning science with imperative strategies in demonstrating success on science projects, as the students will be involved in hands-on activities and do interaction ways in science lessons but such outcomes can be predestined. There may be some cosmetic interaction between teacher and student, and even some superficial freedom allowed for independent research; nonetheless, the results of experiments and projects seldom conflict with teacher expectations. What passes for student learning is really nothing more than student work shadowing the self-fulfilling prophecy of the instructor. Students are not factored into the equation at all because learning is assumed to have little relationship to their contributions. Thus, in realizing home-based alternative tools for science classes, the students must have the opportunity to shape the content, flow and direction of lessons. In other words, they must become actively involved in the process of learning. Teachers cannot be the hub around which the classroom rotates. They must be responsible for a supportive classroom environment which allows for discovery, discussion, wisdom and cohort of alternative ideas as science institution in the Philippines, there can be cases that students are allowed to become full partners in the learning loop being recognized as vital part of learning in science lab which recognizes certain quality in student achievements.

            Moreover, traditional science labs are designed to conform to the special interest of the teacher coordinator. Once established, they tend to be restricted by the vision of the architect of the lab, never generating learning beyond fixed, limited precepts and that by doing things right, there obscure the opportunity to do the right things. Quality education is immersed in the concept of doing the right things. The science lab in the Philippines should be dedicated to developing a passion for the quest for quality in each student that encourage students to understand that learning is ongoing despite materials used are just home-based and the journey never stops and the tools they acquire will enable each of them to become lifelong learners. The path they cut on their journey using these tools of knowledge will become the roadmap for a new generation of learners who desire to do the right things. The classroom teacher helps determine the color of the folder used by individual students and encourages students to work in teams to complete assignments in completing lab experiments. There say that success is a journey and not a destination and the science teacher must become an advocate for a student-centered curriculum which demands improved student achievement, an enriched school culture and participative community, necessary to help the school stretch its emerging vision.

 

 

            Furthermore, there must acknowledge that as stewards of education institution, people can prepare students for a life, fluid and variable being shaped by learning. The student classroom should be the world, possibilities of life should not be limited by rote learning dictated by teachers who do not have the capacity to understand that students are their customers, but should be celebrated by educators who envision a multiplicity of life experiences which can be valued and applied to real life. being stuck behind a teacher’s desk is a dangerous place from which to view humanity, schools should not be closed compounds, akin to prisons, with closed walls and heavy gates. Schools should be the marketplace for ideas. There must create compelling vision for quality schools as the latter will be at the cutting edge of an exciting new paradigm.

            Amicably, science has played an outstanding role in our life in recent years and is now changing our entire existence in such important aspects as health, transportation, communication and power. The social, economic and political implications are both national and international in character. There is ample need to be familiar with applications and implications of principles of science to be able to live effectively in a technological world and to be intelligent concerning the complicated problems with which they must deal as citizens in the democratic society. Philippines regardless of geographic location and race should experience a broad and balanced education which will equip students with good occupation of reasonable opportunity for growth and social usefulness as well as stimulate curiosity and cultivate the ability to think rationally and develop ethical values which should under gird life in democratic society.

Need for Experiences with Apparatus and Materials 

            Because the modern school is concerned not only with providing a background of functional subject matter but also with the development of individuality and responsible participation in our democratic society, experiences and activities for students become increasingly important. While it may seem to some that firsthand contact with the apparatus and materials of science is obviously essential, there are many present-day schools where the practice belies this belief. In many classes the use of textbooks and recitation procedures is stressed, while the use of demonstrations, laboratory work and student projects is minimized, if not lacking entirely. Students read and talk about scientific devices and procedures rather than actually work with them. This is particularly true in general science classes where many teachers and administrators make no apologies for having limited facilities and equipment for direct student experience in the classroom.

            The science educators have long recognized the advantage of firsthand, direct experience. This is exemplified particularly in science where many of the concepts, as well as the techniques and devices, are new to the beginner in the field. These new terms, principles and materials are made meaningful by actual use. The laboratory method which has been the very essence of science for many years has been deemed so important that its use has been carried into many other areas of study. Psychologists have determined, on the basis of findings over a period of years, that learning by doing has many advantages over mere reading about principles, concepts and applications. Student experience with actual materials and phenomena is desirable and necessary in order to understand important facts and principles as the laboratory experiments may be made firsthand experience.

Principles and Applications

            Many principles of science are quite abstract to high-school students who are meeting them for the first time. Students try to learn important laws and generalizations by memorizing them. Well-planned and executed demonstrations and firsthand experiences in the laboratory can make important principles and applications more meaningful than oral or written explanation. Perhaps it should be pointed out that demonstrations, laboratory work, projects and field trips in themselves do not automatically make principles and applications meaningful to the student. Carefully used, they give meaning to what would be otherwise vague abstractions. Laboratory experiments can provide for all these if carefully planned and carried out wherein students participate with the teacher in planning the laboratory activities, the situation calls for initiative and resourcefulness on their part. The usual laboratory situation with limited equipment necessitating that two or more work together on laboratory experiments engenders cooperation. The use of student projects and special reports is another opportunity for initiative and resourcefulness.

 

            In handling any apparatus whether with experiments, demonstrations, or special projects, initiative must be shown in thinking through the particular materials needed, in setting up the apparatus, in improvising and substituting for parts which are not available, and in adjusting and repairing the apparatus which can be related to the problem of critical thinking working with apparatus necessitates thinking in solving the problem for which the apparatus is being used. Thus, students may not learn equally well from books as some of them are interested in the handling of apparatus. Interests which students have in radio, electricity, chemistry, machinery, and the like may well be discovered, explored, and encouraged in connection with activities involved in demonstrations, laboratory work, and projects. One of the advantages of science teaching is the range of activities which can be utilized to provide a wide variety of teaching procedures and motivations. There should be little excuse for monotony in the science classroom.

            The use of apparatus and materials in such situations as dramatic demonstrations, silent demonstrations and experiences in critical thinking, visual material, auditory presentation and special exhibits suggests something of the range and interesting variety which the science teacher has as resources. The visual or auditory device becomes the procedure to illustrate principle and its applications and in some case, handmade slide may be used with a demonstration, a motion picture with a discussion, a recording with a laboratory experiment, or a filmstrip with a student report. Since there has been some lack of agreement in terminology and associated meaning, it is desirable to indicate briefly what is meant by each of these five types of experiences with apparatus and materials.

Science Laboratory Work-out

            The school laboratory work usually involves the carrying out of experiments by groups as there is a problem for which an answer is being sought. While in many cases laboratory manual or workbook is followed, such need not be the case. Frequently, students in the class work on the same experiments at the same time, although it is often very desirable that more than one kind of experiment be undertaken by different students or groups. In an individual laboratory experiment each student manipulates the apparatus and carries out the steps necessary to find answers to definite questions. Laboratory experiments in school may be quantitative or qualitative. Examples of the latter include the preparation of hydrogen and a study of its properties and the connection of bells or lights in series and in parallel, with the advantages and limitations of each. Examples of quantitative experiments include the determining of the linear coefficients of expansion of different metal rods, or finding the percentage of acetic acid in a sample of vinegar.

 

 

 

 

The Utilization of Non-expensive Materials and Apparatus

            In many cases, the most important outcome in connection with apparatus and materials is obtained from the experience in their use, even when the results are quantitative; thus, the equipment is not necessarily elaborate or expensive. While some pieces of apparatus such as balances, voltmeters, and motors should be purchased, much of the experimental work may be carried out satisfactorily with inexpensive equipment improvised from materials from the home, ten-cent store, or salvage store. Students can bring materials and devices from the home: tin cans, wire from discarded devices, motors, pumps, bottles, parts of autos or tractors, boxes, radios, and the like. There are psychological advantages in the use of familiar materials and in the fact that they have been supplied by the students themselves. Such inexpensive equipment is often more effective than commercially made equipment. The latter, with its fine finish, elaborate arrangement, technical appearance, and its working parts obscured, is often less realistic and functional than that made from familiar material. Good learning experiences are a desirable outcome of the planning, improvising, and repairing of homemade equipment. Here, too, are opportunities for providing for the varied individual differences and interests. Suggestions for numerous homemade and improvised devices are given in Part Two.  It should be pointed out that some good commercially made apparatus is also desirable and necessary; this is particularly true where corresponding equipment cannot be made easily. A supply of usable commercial equipment should be built up in a school over a period of years. A wide range of desirable student experience can be obtained only when there is an adequate supply of both commercial and homemade equipment.

Need for Readily Available Resources

            In providing better student experiences requires careful planning. Since there is no blueprint for procedure, plans for experiences for each group of students have to be made anew each time. The same courses cannot be provided for different students year after year using the same assignment, lab experiment, motion pictures, guide sheets, and tests, and really provide experiences appropriate to their varying needs for a wealth of materials, procedures, devices and activities with which to plan. One way of making available such a wealth of materials and suggestions is by means of resource units. While these have undergone some changes in theory and practice in the past few years in the hands of different authors and teachers, 6 the fundamental idea involved is simple and functional. As the term suggests, a resource unit is simply the accumulation in one place of all the resources which could be used for teacher and student experiences in connection with one of the major units into which the course or area has been organized. There constitute or represent the resources available, from which choice could be made in providing the experiences for a particular group of students. Not all the specific possibilities assembled in the resource unit would be utilized at any one time, but they would be at hand for possible use to meet the wide range of interests and needs of different groups. The resource units should be continuously evolving as alternative home-based materials should be added when the unit is not being taught and unworkable material discarded. The use of references, free and low-cost pamphlets, articles from current magazines, films and recordings, are alternative resources which keep the unit in continuous growth and the teacher on the alert to keep it growing and up to date.

            The experimentation can occur in the laboratory only to the extent that students work in terms of problems which they feel. It does not matter that the problems which they attempt to solve have been problems which students before them have worked upon and problems the answers to which the teacher knows. The important point is that the student work on a problem the answer to which he does not know. Students can approach such problems intelligently as they participate in isolating and refining problems and planning for their solution. The implications of such planning include provisions for different problems for different students, different procedures to be used with different problems, and a wealth of resources to be used in the problem solution. The sources of problems for laboratory investigation may be found in a variety of activities of the individual and of the group. The problems may arise in class discussions or in project work. They may arise as a result of the student's school experience outside his work in science. They may come up in the student's reading or as a result of previous laboratory investigation. The sensitive teacher will be aware of those problems having implications for laboratory investigation and may make mention of the fact at the time that they arise, with an indication that they may be profitably investigated in the laboratory. Where a laboratory is to serve a single subject area, such as chemistry, it is necessary that primary provision be made for the techniques and procedures of that field. In spite of such specialization there should be at least demonstration facilities of a quite general nature not only because of the desirability of being able to use the room for classes in other fields but also because of the enrichment which can be provided in any particular field by calling upon the content of another field.

            The need for a wide variety of facilities within a single laboratory is even more imperative. In those cases where the laboratory serves not only the chemistry and physics classes but the general science classes as well, it is essential to make provision for the specialized fields as well as the more general ones. For example, there should be adequate equipment and supplies for many students to have experience with electricity at the same time. Similar provisions are necessary in other areas where a number of students are to be served. In addition to such provisions of a general nature, there should be facilities to serve the needs of the general science classes.  A major aspect of the work of the science teacher is to provide equipment, and to keep it in working order. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to meet the needs of young people in their study of science without physical facilities. The provision of adequate equipment is a continuous process since there are always different approaches and new devices to be utilized. Equipment companies are generally sensitive to the need for better apparatus and devote considerable time and expense to the provision of new equipment; keeping abreast of these developments requires continuous effort on the part of the teacher. In addition to this effort there remains the problem of maintenance of equipment. Repairs and adjustments are regular operations in a laboratory, while the devising of equipment to meet particular needs furnishes still further demand for competence on the part of the teacher. The science teacher should be sensitive to the needs of the students and to the general conditions of the science laboratory. Finally, the science teacher should have administrative ability adequate to the needs of his situation and he should be familiar with the administrative policies and procedures of the school, particularly as they have bearing on the work in science.

PROVISION OF ALTERNATIVE LAB MATERIALS

            The nature of the materials to be obtained for science teaching depends upon the general nature of the work of the school. Where the procedures are of formal nature, the problem of securing supplies and equipment is rather standardized and not difficult. Standard catalogs from the equipment companies list and describe nearly all materials needed for the traditional work in science. In addition to these catalogs of equipment and supplies, there are lists of minimum equipment which have been compiled by various companies and by teachers. Such minimum lists are based generally upon materials supplied by the companies compiling the lists. A science program depending upon such a list of minimum equipment and materials may place little or no dependence upon the local resources. It has the advantage of being relatively easy to administer if the finances are adequate. However, it is not likely to be closely related to the needs and interests of the students and to the activities of the community. Many students may not be challenged by instruction which is so standardized. Recognition for their contributions to the development of teaching equipment should be given to the apparatus companies which have been responsible for the development of functional and tested apparatus. In many instances various units are planned so that pieces of equipment may be purchased with the assurance that it work satisfactorily. The science teacher can learn much about equipment and its use and about various ways of demonstrating and guiding the work of the students.

Alternative Source

            The science teacher should explore fully the possibilities of obtaining both equipment and supplies from sources in or near the community. Such sources serve to provide equipment and supplies very quickly, eliminating the delay involved when orders must be placed with companies at a distance. Not only is it then unnecessary to wait, but also the materials may be examined for suitability, quality, quantity, size and relative cost. A further advantage in making local purchases is that they may be negotiated through the students, thus giving students a more active part in building up the resources in the science field. Their participation in this activity makes their work more meaningful and gives them a greater pride in the school. An advantage of local purchasing not to be overlooked is the developing of a closer relationship between the school and the community. The public thus learns something of the work of the school, and the students in turn learn of the relationship between the school and the community. The lists which follow are suggestive only. Local sources differ considerably from one community to another; thus the science teacher should visit systematically all the potential sources of his community, noting what each source have to offer. The equipment and materials obtainable in each of these vary greatly, but the list following each source is suggestive of the resources which the science teacher may expect to find.

Research Evidence for Alternative Experiment Materials 

            There explores the effectiveness of improvising home-based available materials for teaching science through chemistry in the Philippines within cases for culture of improvisation for teaching the sciences in the region. The scarcity and cost of imported materials for teaching science has remained a major challenge to teaching sciences in developing countries, and the fact that many teachers from developing countries tend to wait for materials before they can teach continuously for science education in provinces. In the experiment study, second year students from three public high schools were sampled to determine whether there will be a significant difference in their performance when taught using expensive materials compared to when taught using home-based substitutes. The study reveals that whereas their attitudes towards alternative materials may not be as positive as their attitudes towards expensive materials, their performances did not differ when taught as they were unaware of which material was home-based or not.

 

            The result of this study proved that science education will flourish if teachers and probably other developing countries can begin to improvise local materials for science instruction. One of the problems confronting science teachers for instance in the Philippines, is a lack of materials for science teaching and insufficient money to acquire certain desired materials used for lab exercises. There is a general acknowledgement of the lack of resources is a genuine problem in teaching science in the country and that resourceful teachers need to look for alternatives that can help them carry on with their work (1991,1988;1988). In the absence of ideal resources, the teachers would improvise. Another issue pertinent to this research is the need for science students in developing countries to begin to see science, especially chemistry, as an everyday practical reality, not just as a set of scientific procedures and activities with no relationship to real life. Students often tend to see chemistry and other sciences as hard to understand and its core ideas as abstract and remote from everyday life (1999). This means that more should be done to make science friendlier and more real to them. It is important to emphasize here that an understanding of science should empower students to engage in discussions and decision-making processes that see science as part of everyday social issues ( 2003). Even what scientists call symbolic representations, which characterize chemistry learning, have been described as a major vehicle for viewing the world (2000;  1991; 1997; 1997).

 

            Improvisation in teaching deals with making judgments about what to do with a piece of material or equipment in the classroom to solve a scientific or technological problem (1975; 1982; 1984). It means finding alternatives that would still function as the unavailable ideal resource. Some writers in developing countries have asserted that this process of improvisation should become part of the teacher education programs. (1983) defined improvisation as the act of using alternative materials and resources to facilitate instruction whenever there is a lack or shortage of some specific firsthand teaching aids. The goal is to help teachers learn to design and construct materials and resources that would enhance their functions in the absence of the regular materials. Thus,  (2003) addressed the fact that teacher education candidates seem to develop a limited ability to use science in discussing and arguing a complex environmental issue as the phenomenon as possibly stemming from their lack of a firm conceptual framework about science. When teachers are trained in contexts where the practical and experiential aspect of chemistry is omitted due to the unavailability of imported processed materials and equipments, it becomes practically impossible for such teachers to develop for example, practical conceptual framework about science through chemistry class.

 

            Furthermore,  (1989) suggested that improvisation becomes an area of specialization in teacher education and educational technology courses. This perspective is in line with other recent theories of teacher professional development. These theories focus on seeking a broader teacher education curriculum that goes beyond ‘’concepts of content and reproduction which tend to not empower teachers by rendering them unreflective and compliant consumers and reproducers of good knowledge’’ (2003; 1994; 1998). Therefore, Improvisation in science education is of a paramount importance in developing countries and  (1979) saw that the improvisation in science education as involving role substitution or role simulation as the improvisation should involve adaptation or modification of original materials and equipment to get them to perform new functions in the laboratory.