BIOLOGY - GENE MUTATION

Gene Mutation

 

Introduction

 

            In the field of biology, mutations are changes to the genetic material (usually DNA or RNA).  Mutations can be caused by copying errors in the genetic material during cell division and by exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses, or can occur deliberately under cellular control during processes such as meiosis or hypermutation.  In multicellular organisms, mutations can be subdivided into germline mutations, which can be passed on to progeny and somatic mutations, which cannot be transmitted to progeny.  Mutations, when accidental, often lead to the malfunction or death of a cell and can cause cancer.  Mutations are considered the driving force of evolution, where less favorable (or deleterious) mutations are removed from the gene pool by natural selection, while more favorable (beneficial or advantageous) ones tend to accumulate.

 

Gene Mutation

 

            This is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that would make up a gene.  The gene mutations range in size from a single DNA building block, or DNA base, to a large segment of a chromosome.  This mutation in a gene’s DNA sequence can alter the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the gene and consequently cause changes in the way a cell behaves.  It can alter in way that the sequence of each gene determines the amino acid sequence for the protein it encodes.  The DNA sequence is then interpreted in groups of three nucleotide bases, called codons.

 

            There are two ways in which gene mutations occur:

 

They can be inherited from a parent. 

This is called hereditary mutations since it is passed from parent to child.  Similarly, it is also called germline mutations because they are present in the egg and sperm which are called germ cells.  This type of mutation is present throughout a person’s life in practically every cell in the body.  However, De novo mutations (new mutations) may occur if mutations are only in an egg or sperm cell or those that occur just after fertilization.  It would explain genetic disorders in which an affected child has a mutation in every cell even though there no family history of the disorder has. 

 

They can be acquired during a person’s lifetime.

Acquired mutations or somatic mutations occur in the DNA of individual cells at some time during a person’s life.  Changes could take place environmental factors such as ultraviolet radiation from the sun, or if a mistake is made as of DNA copies itself during cell division.  Ultraviolet light and other certain chemicals can damage DNA by altering nucleotides bases so that they look like other nucleotide bases.  Consequently, when the DNA strands are separated and copied, the altered base will pair with an incorrect base and cause a mutation.  Another way that such environmental agents cause mutation is by breaking the bonds between oxygen and phosphate groups for it will create a mutated form of the gene paving the way for a possibility that the mutated gene will produce a protein that functions differently.

 

            Furthermore, mutation may also occur through mistakes that are created during DNA duplication.  Although this situation is rare at about once in every 100,000,000 bases, mutation will still be a result when the DNA polymerase makes a mistake.  It is also called as somatic as it refers to cells other than sperm and egg cells which, conversely to that of inherited mutation, cannot be passed on to the next generation. 

 

In some instances, mutations will occur in a single cell within an early embryo.  During growth and development, the individual will have some cells with the mutation and some cells without the genetic change.  This condition is called mosaicism.  Genetic changes are either rare or common in the population.  A normal variation in the DNA which also occurs in more than 1 percent of the population is called polymorphism.  This variation is responsible for making the normal differences between people such as eye color, hair color, and blood type. 

 

 

 

How Will Gene Mutations Affect Health and Development?

 

            Each cell in our body depends on the proper job of thousands of protein just to function correctly.  As critical as it is, a simple involvement of gene mutation will deter one or more of these proteins from working appropriately.  Because mutation will change a gene’s instructions for making a protein, it will accordingly cause protein malfunction if not missing entirely.  This protein malfunction will then disrupt the normal development in the body or cause a medical condition.  Such condition is called genetic disorder which is literally caused by mutations.  At some extent, gene mutations can even cause a severe damage to an embryo preventing it from surviving until birth.  These severe and serious effects of mutations are in contrary to life. 

 

            Significantly, genetic disorders are caused by mutations making a gene function improperly and not that genes themselves can cause disease.  Most of our diseases originally come from our genes.  However, mutations are neither harmful nor helpful (neutral mutation).  The harmfulness or helpfulness of mutations depends on the environment.  There would be undesirable and favorable mutations depending on the environment.  It is not simple to give examples of favorable or unfavorable mutations since it is not usually known as to what extent a trait is genetically fixed and to what extent it reflects a reaction to the environment.  Moreover, science hasn’t known what genes will affect a specific trait.  Even so, a mutation may be favorable in the sense that it permits survival in an unfavorable environment and yet be unfavorable in a better environment. 

 

 

Appendices

Nucleotide – one of the structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA.  It consists of a base (one of four chemicals: adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine) plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphoric acid.

 

Codons – these are three bases in a DNA or RNA sequence which specify a single amino acid. 

A Literature Review on Articles and Studies Featuring the Effectiveness of Computer-based Training

Literature Review

 

The following articles and studies feature the effectiveness of computer-based training.

 

Higgins, Gerry. (2002) Simulation for Skills Training in Medicine. The Journal of the Federation of American Scientists. Volume 55, Number 4. July / August 2002.

 

The work of Higgins (2002) dwells on the simulation of skills training in medicine with the use of computer technologies. Computer-based simulation has been used extensively in the airline industry and in the military for effective training of cognitive, perceptual and motor skills. Medical simulators may include both three-dimensional (3D) models of human anatomy displayed on a computer monitor coupled with a "haptics" device that conveys a sense of touch to the user. Advances in computer technology now permit realistic modeling of human anatomy and physiology. Computer-based simulations are now regularly used for training military medics in emergency and trauma skills. The American College of Surgeons and other accreditation organizations are now encouraging the use of virtual reality simulation trainers for assessment of technical proficiency in medicine.

According to the author, many studies have found simulation to be an extremely effective training instrument. (Higgins, 2002) These include studies in which a meta-analysis of the simulation literature has been performed to provide a more sensitive measure of the benefits of this type of training, using "field effects analysis" and other statistical methods. Moreover, there are several ways in which simulation-training efficacy can be measured. The measure most commonly used in aviation and the military for determination of simulation-based training efficacy is "transfer," that is, how much student performance can be transferred from the simulator to actual, real world procedures. The performance of a student trained only on a simulator can be compared to a control student trained with conventional methods by testing both students on the same criterion task. These data are evaluated using statistical tests designed specifically to compare simulation performance with actual performance in the real world. The results determine transference.

The author concluded that computer-based medical simulators would not replace traditional training methods. (Higgins, 2002) Hands on experience with real patients with the supervision of an experienced instructor cannot be replaced but advanced medical simulators can provide an ideal environment to try new techniques and procedures (and refresh one's skills) without risk to a patient.

 

Dutton, J., Dutton, M., & Perry, J. (1999) Do Online Students Perform As Well As Traditional Students? North Carolina State University.

 

The collective study of the authors intended to investigate the effectiveness of student performance with comparison to the traditional mode of training. The results of their study demonstrate that online students can perform at least as well as traditional students. They do not show that any student, randomly selected, can do as well in an online class. Undoubtedly self-selection means that students with greater computer skills and/or greater maturity are more likely to opt for an online course. However we have reduced the effects of those factors in this study. The subject matter of the course reduces variability in computer skills in this case. And in the empirical work we have controlled for maturity differences to the extent we could. So our results provide support for further development of online course delivery.

 

Goldberg, M. W. (1997) CALOS: First Results From an Experiment in Computer-Aided Learning. Proceedings of the ACM's 28th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education.

 

The work of Goldberg (1997) examined the results of the experiment undertaken to gauge the effectivity of a selected population. The results of the study provide that students in the WWW-only offering achieved roughly the same level of academic performance, as did the group of students in the lecture-only offering. As one might expect, students with access to both sources on information achieved a higher level of performance.

 

Green, R. & Gentemann, K. (2001) Technology in the Curriculum: An Assessment of the Impact of On-Line Courses. Available: http://assessment.gmu.edu/reports/Eng302. [Accessed 03/05/03]

 

            Another study is made by Green and Gentemann (2001) assessing the impact of online courses. The study uncovered that there were no significant pre- and post-course differences on the items related to students expectations and perceived benefits for Online Course against teacher instructed courses. Furthermore, the study asserted that there were no significant differences between students in the Online Courses compared to students in the teacher instructed courses for course retention or course grade. Nonetheless there were increases in the amount of time and the purposes for which students used computers.

 

Jones, G. R. (1997) Cyberschools: An Education Renaissance. Jones Digital Century, Inc. pp. 58 & 128.

 

In a similar study made by Jones (1997) describes the current conditions of cyberschools and their respective effects to the learnings acquired by the students. According to the study, all mediums of communications have their advantages and disadvantages. But the research really does show there is no significant difference in the student's ability to learn using technology-based education tools. And not just for computer-aided teaching. Long ago research into whether television was an inferior learning tool proved there is no real difference between learning from TV and learning from the traditional classroom it was reported time and again in research on how we learn at all levels that electronic instruction--either via teleconference or computer conference-- can be as effective as traditional classroom-based lectures and face-to-face discussion. On-line students have test scores equal to those in conventional classrooms.

 

Smeaton, A. & Keogh, G. (1999) An Analysis of the Use of Virtual Delivery of Undergraduate Lectures. Computers and Education - Vol. 32 pp. 83-94

 

 

The work of Smeaton and Keogh (1999), they analyzed the use of the virtual methodology of delivering undergraduate lectures. The study uncovered that when virtual lectures are used in place of traditional delivery methods there is no significant difference in attainment level as measured by end of year examination marks.

 

Swann, LaDon, Floyd Branson, and Allen Talbert. (2003) Educators Beliefs Regarding Computer-Based Instruction. Journal of Extension Volume 41 Number 1. February.

 

The study of Swann et al (2003) intended to measure the educators’ beliefs regarding computer-based instruction. According to the study, the "one-size fits all" approach may not be the most effective way of delivering instruction to Purdue Extension educators. They prefer a variety of delivery systems when receiving in-service training. A combination of Computer Based Instruction (CBI), the Web, electronic mail, Internet chat software, Internet discussion groups, satellite teleconference, phone conferencing, small group interactions, hands-on activities, and face-to-face lecture would be preferred to the use of only one or two delivery methods. Based on the participants' comments from the pre-training questionnaire, pure lecture alone, without other activities such as field experiences, was the least preferred method of acquiring new technical information by educators.

In addition, they recommended that Purdue Extension would benefit by creating an assessment team composed of educators and specialists to compile a list of in-service training programs currently conducted by Purdue Extension. (Swann et al, 2003) A prioritized list based on audience size, frequency of occurrence, funding sources, and multi-departmental involvement will aid in concentrating efforts and resources toward the development of high-priority CBI training modules useful in conjunction with traditional lecture formats or as stand-alone training modules for educators.

In addition, they added that any CBI should include some form of interaction with the instructor and other participants. (Swann et al, 2003) Ideally, the interaction would be a shortened face-to-face session to assist in processing the information from the CBI module through clarification of difficult concepts. Alternative methods of interaction between instructor and participants could include the use of conference phone calls, two-way video conferencing, and Internet chat rooms and discussion groups.

 

Ryder, Martin. (1996) Affordances and Constraints of the Internet for Learning and Instruction. Presented to a joint session of the Association for Educational Communications Technology. Brent Wilson University of Colorado at Denver. February.     According to Ryder (1996) the Internet promises dramatic changes in the way we learn and teach, the way we interact as a society. The changes of a coming epoch are already taking shape. In higher education, most students have access to Internet resources. But many who have access have shown reluctance to make use of those resources. An attempt to understand this reluctance has led to an analysis using James Gibson's model of affordances. This paper contrasts the Internet with other fundamental educational infrastructures throughout history. It offers an analysis of literacy, printing and electronic publishing in terms of human affordances along with the constraints associated with each medium. He used the term affordance to describe a potential for action, the perceived capacity of an object to enable the assertive will of the actor. (Ryder, 1996) The term was coined by psychologist James Gibson to describe the action possibilities posed by objects in the real world. According to the author, certain objects afford opportunities for action. An affordance is a value-rich ecological object that is understood by direct perception. Perception informs the individual of affordances. Action transforms affordances into effectivities that extend human capabilities.   He added that when one speaks of affordances in the study of media, one should be cautioned as designers to resist the assumption that a given medium affords a specific set of learning outcomes. (Ryder, 1996) In reality, learning is distributed between the medium, the learner and the context.  There is nothing inherent in the Internet that guarantees learning. But in a specific context involving learning activities, such as research, collaboration, self expression, and reflection, the Internet offers multiple affordances, so numerous that it may be a mistake for us to treat it as a medium. It is really an infrastructure that brings together media, tools, people, places and information, expanding the range of human capabilities. He added that in contemplating what the future might hold for education it is sometimes useful to gaze into the past. (Ryder, 1996) Knowledge in the modern period followed logocentric patterns with one-to-many relationships. The postmodern period promises yet greater dissemination marked by a many-to-many relationships. The developments brought about by technology allow for new possibilities. He noted that the public is seeing trends in education toward distributed, collaborative models of learning. Agency is shifting from center to periphery, from teacher to learner, from author to reader, from librarian to researcher, from curriculum to context. The affordances of public expression have exploded, allowing any school child to represent herself before a worldwide community of learners. The affordances of information retrieval have advanced to the point where a simple query can yield a flood of information.

He asserted that this is where the modern and postmodern minds collide.  (Ryder, 1996) To the modern mind, there is too much information. The world is exploding with ideas and perspectives that cannot possibly be consumed. One must control what people read so that truth might prevail over misinformation, so that quality might prevail over mediocrity, so that correct ideas might prevail over anarchy. But to the postmodern mind, attempts to control information are futile and naive. What control exists in the postmodern world will emerge -- not from the center, but from the periphery. The genie is out of the bottle. There is no chance of forcing him back.

Modern educators have learned how to utilize constraints of the environment as a means of scaffolding in the instructional process. Constraints can limit a field of information, making it more manageable for learners. Constraints of grammar and syntax are necessary for language acquisition. General social behavior is learned from constraints involving etiquette and protocol. It has been shown that the Internet overcomes many of the constraints imposed by traditional educational infrastructures. But the freedoms that suddenly emerge are frightening. The modern educator might be tempted to impose artificial constraints on the medium in order to control and manage the educational environment. Software is available at this moment that allows a teacher or parent to filter information and restrict access to objectionable sources on the net. We acknowledge that such artificially imposed constraints may be necessary in the short run to mitigate controversial dilemmas and situations that challenge traditional thinking. But we are persuaded that the real challenge for education is to discover the natural constraints associated with a highly connected and deeply fragmented world. A set of rules or policy guidebook for the postmodern will not be found. But out of distributed knowledge, we are seeing the emergence of a new ethic with an entailing structure of distributed control. The challenge for the postmodern educator is to discover the capabilities and natural constraints associated with distributed pedagogy for scaffolding learners in the age of information.

 

Sources:

Higgins, Gerry. (2002) Simulation for Skills Training in Medicine. The Journal of the Federation of American Scientists. Volume 55, Number 4. July / August 2002.

 

Dutton, J., Dutton, M., & Perry, J. (1999) Do Online Students Perform As Well As Traditional Students? North Carolina State University.

 

Goldberg, M. W. (1997) CALOS: First Results From an Experiment in Computer-Aided Learning. Proceedings of the ACM's 28th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education.

 

Green, R. & Gentemann, K. (2001) Technology in the Curriculum: An Assessment of the Impact of On-Line Courses. Available: http://assessment.gmu.edu/reports/Eng302. [Accessed 03/05/03]

 

Jones, G. R. (1997) Cyberschools: An Education Renaissance. Jones Digital Century, Inc. pp. 58 & 128.

 

Smeaton, A. & Keogh, G. (1999) An Analysis of the Use of Virtual Delivery of Undergraduate Lectures. Computers and Education - Vol. 32 pp. 83-94

 

Swann, LaDon, Floyd Branson, and Allen Talbert. (2003) Educators Beliefs Regarding Computer-Based Instruction. Journal of Extension Volume 41 Number 1. February.

 

Ryder, Martin. (1996) Affordances and Constraints of the Internet for Learning and Instruction. Presented to a joint session of the Association for Educational Communications Technology. Brent Wilson University of Colorado at Denver. February.

Case study assignment question and instructions on (Starbucks' International Operations)

1) The case study send to you is the PDF file

2) You need to only answer this question: Careful analysis and management of risks not only mitigate losses but also provide superior returns. In the light of this statement, do you think Starbucks did not analyze and manage the risks invovled in the different market it entered?

3) It should not be answered in a comprehension style but rather base on understanding the theory and concept.

4) The assessment criteria are:
a) Structure and flow of arguments
b) Originality of work & evidence of reading beyond the textbook
c) In-depth analyses of the case material and external reading
d) As it is only 1 question, I need at least 5 literature references but not more than 8 to be made reliable sources such as books, academic journals, websites of organisations such as the IMF, world bank, research publications. An example of a research organisation is the McKinsey Quarterly at www.mckinseyquarterly.com

5) Just 2 weeks ago, you have done a 3000 words essay for me in 1 day.

Sample Journal Article about Crack a form of cocaine, created by “mixing cocaine crystal or powder... with water and baking soda or sodium bicarbonate

Summary of Journal Article and its Significance. Crack is a form of cocaine, created by “mixing cocaine crystal or powder... with water and baking soda or sodium bicarbonate (Smart, 1991, p.13).” The produced remains of the drug could then be readily burned and smoked through cigarettes or special pipes. Based from the review of a wide range of valid studies, there is prevalent use of crack among high-risk or known drug-using groups; one study indicated 96% of street youths implicated in crime and drugs in Miami use crack profoundly (Smart, 1991, p.13). These crack users are typically young males and females, and many of the users have undergone domestic violence and extreme depression. Additionally, crack users also abuse other forms of drugs such as marijuana and alcohol (Smart, 1991, p.13). The study concludes that crack users experience adverse physical, psychological, neurological, and behavioral effects such as muscle weakness, seizures, stroke, hemorrhage, paranoia, extreme depression, and violent actions (Smart, 1991, p.13). Likewise, maternal cocaine abuse leads to premature development of the fetus, low birth weight, and increased abnormalities in the infant (Smart, 1991, p.13).

            The journal article provided important information for the parents or friends of crack users who could prevent them from continued crack abuse or could support them through rehabilitation and professional assistance. Also, these data are beneficial for potential abusers of crack, specifically the youth, since they are now conscious of the countless negative effects of the drug. Lastly, although current programs exist to educate the public about drug abuse and its effects, there are no sufficient projects that are specifically focused on crack abuse. Hence, the data presented in the article could serve as a wake-up call for the government and the concerned authority to generate effective programs in academes or communities where there is prevalent crack abuse.

 

 

The global war on terror

            This paper will discuss the topic regarding the global war on terror. It will attempt to examine if the global war on terror can be used to explain and to examine the ongoing civil wars that are occurring in the different parts of the globe. It will also try to identify and to investigate the different responses that a government or a nation can apply in order to defeat terrorism.

            Before going further into the definition of these important questions, equally pertinent conditions must be first satisfied. Some questions must be first answered in order to truly comprehend the nature and the explanations that will be suggested in this paper. A significant portion therefore must be allocated on explaining the nature, origin and characteristics of a act that is labeled as terroristic or before we are to classify someone as a terrorist.

            Due to its wide and broad scope the meaning and definition of terrorism can be classified differently by various organizations and societies and groups. The  Dictionary states that terrorism is a policy that aims to strike and to plant terror and fear to people or it is the employment of methods that would sow fear and terror to a group of people (2004). Meanwhile, the  Dictionary defines terrorism as an act of terrorizing or a system of sowing and creating terror or intimidation aimed at someone (1998). The United Nations also has its own formulated definition of the word terrorism. The definition states that “terrorism is an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent actions, employed by semi clandestine individuals, group or state actors for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons” ( 2003). The immediate human victims of violence are generally chosen randomly or selectively, from a target population, and serve as message ( 2003).

            also proposes another definition. He stated that an act of terrorism is the "peacetime equivalent of a war crime." ( 2002) In November 2004, a UN panel described terrorism as any act: "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act." ( 2002)

The European Union meanwhile defines terrorism as specific criminal offences against persons and property which seriously damages a country or an international organization, seriously intimidating a population or compelling a Government or international organization to perform or abstain from performing any act, seriously destabilizing or destroying the fundamental political, constitutional, economic or social structures of a country or an international organization (2002).

            It is therefore important to note that each organization has its own meanings and definition with regards to the word terrorism. This varied definition of the word stems from the fact that different actions and acts are considered by some organizations as terroristic while other movements and international bodies do not classify an act as terroristic. Although the there are different definitions with regards to the word terrorism, a basic tenet that is uniformly advanced by all the international bodies mentioned is that they unanimously determined that terrorism pertains to the disseminate terror, killings and destruction through the use of unconventional practices and methods. Unlike in a field of battle where a soldier or a combatant can see his enemy, terrorism and terrorist used ordinary objects and situations to gain advantage in order to maximize the death toll and injury. They remain hidden and silent waiting for the right opportunity to strike and to spread destruction. An important aspect of terrorism is that it uses fear and intimidation to destroy and to demolish the will and psyche of a people by striking at an unknown time and place. Terrorism does not only targets soldiers and combatants but it forwards the idea that battles and fight should be fought by targeting civilians and non-combatants.

            Terrorism can be classified on the way terrorists are oriented. Every terrorist group have their own aims and goals in order to rationalize and explain to the society the justifications of their acts. They must have a goal and an aim that would enable them to recruit new members and to gain financial or material supports from influential people and organizations. Basically terrorist groups can be classified as religious terrorists, nationalist terrorists, left-wing/right-wing terrorists, racist terrorists and anti-Communist terrorists ( 2004).

Each of these classifications of terrorist has an aim to main or to intimidate a specific group of people depending on their classification. Religious terrorists are aimed at people or societies that are perceived by their religion as dangerous while racial terrorists meanwhile, vents their anger and frustration at a specific ethnic groups ( 1999). Some examples of religious terrorist groups are the Al Qaeda of Bin Laden, Abu Sayyaf in the Philippines, Muslim Brotherhood International in Morocco, Hamas and Hezbollah in Israel. Aside from religious and racial terrorist, nationalist terrorists are groups that advocate the independence or autonomy of a specific province, geographical unit of a country. Nationalist terrorism is an act where terrorists attempt to form an independent state against governments and groups of people that they consider as occupiers and oppressors ( 1999). Nationalist terrorism has also been used to describe groups attempting to create a state that upholds the rights, tradition and customs that are inherent in a group of people (1999).

Some example of this classification is the IRA (Irish Revolutionary Army) in Ireland, Kosovo Liberation Army in Kosovo and ETA (Basque Fatherland and Liberty) located in Spain and Southern France. It is important to note that this classification can encompass a single group. For example, the terrorist group named Fatah which is active in Palestine can be classified as a religious terrorist organization since it funnels its hatred to Israel but it is also a nationalist terrorist group since it is fighting for the rights of the Palestinians to govern their territories.

The global war on terror was launched by the United States against terrorist organization called Al Qaeda headed by Osama Bin Laden who financed and planned the September 11 attack on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. This global war on terror or simply war on terror was a response of the United States and President  against group of individuals and nation estates who advocates and supports terroristic activities. This war unlike any other war that America fought in the past is a war that is without boundaries. While past wars were fought by professional soldiers with equipments and weapons supplied by the government, the global war on terror primarily uses covert operatives, remote surveillance, diplomacy and use of massive propaganda to defeat an unseen enemy. The first step in this war was the invasion of Afghanistan by U.S. and the coalition forces in order to capture Osama Bin Laden and to punish the Taliban government for helping and aiding Al Qaeda. Before the commencement of hostilities between America and the Taliban, members of the Special Forces were sent to the northern part of Afghanistan to support and train the Northern Alliance in their hunt for Osama Bin Laden. Due to the technological superiority of the Coalition Forces Operation Enduring Freedom was a success.

Although  and other high ranking individuals in the Taliban government were not captured, the Coalition forces reinvigorated the national economy and revived the democracy inside that country. The second phase of the global war on terror is the invasion of Iraq. Iraq was invaded by Coalition Forces headed by the United States and Great Britain because the intelligence networks of these two governments stated that Iraq is manufacturing biological, chemical and nuclear weapons that will be passed on to terrorist and terrorist groups (2004).

The Coalition also noted that Iraq and former sponsors terrorism by providing training grounds and financial support for terrorist organizations ( 2004). In the war against Iraq, the Coalition was again successful in using superior technological advances and rapid mobilization to quickly defeat Iraqi forces and seize Baghdad forcing  into hiding. Although Iraqi insurgency is taking a toll on American personnel and logistical supply, Iraq now has its democratically elected president and parliament.

The global war on terror that was started by America was received favorably and unfavorably by certain sectors of American society and some head of states that were not part of the Coalition. One of the main arguments levied by some sectors is that the war on terror is flaw because it uses the military to punish and to enforce the law while crimes such as bombing and other terrorist acts are similar in substance to crimes like murder (2002). Proponents of this argument also argued that since terrorist acts are considered crimes, the police not the military must have the sole authority to investigate and to solve the event.

Other groups also stated that the war against terror can be classified as an act of terror itself since various abuses and oppressions are committed by military personnel on prisoners and civilians (2003). Examples of the abuses carried out by the U.S. military are the prisoner abuse at Bagram Collection Point in Afghanistan and the Abu Ghraib Prison in Iraq (2004). Critics also pointed out the human rights of an accused terrorist and other significant laws and treaties such as the Geneva Convention and the right to counsel by the accused are being violated and denied.  Critics further reiterated that prisoners were imprisoned in a location (Guantanamo Bay Detention Center) where American law are not applied and where constant mental, emotional and physical torture is applied to make the terrorist confess (2004).

Critics also said that the global war is causing unnecessary civilian casualties and injury. Different agencies have different figures with regards to the total number of deaths among Iraqi and Afghan civilians. According to the Iraqi Ministry of Health, the number of killed civilians was pegged at 3, 853 during the invasion. These deaths do not only disrupts the society by creating orphans and widows but it also fosters hostility and enmity against the occupying force (2004).

Other critics of the war also added that the global war on terror would turn into a perpetual war where American resources, materials and lives will be drained just to eradicate terrorism (2003). They argued that terrorism is a violent method in achieving an aim and those methods can never be erased. They claimed that the true solution to the problem of terrorism is the going to the root of the problem which is inequality and discrimination.

Supporters of the war meanwhile contended that the war has a beneficial use to America and to the countries that would be freed from the yoke of terrorism. They argued that the continuing global war on terror would provide added security and stability inside and outside America while delivering democracy and freedom to the people of these countries (2004). In the case of Iraq, the Bush Administration emphasized the presence of biological, nuclear and chemicals weapons that can be used against American citizens before invading Iraq. The global war on terror can also be a deterrent and a silent stick to other nations and states that sponsors terrorism. It sends a clear message that a country can be invaded and its leaders deposed if it supports and harbors terrorists groups ( 2004). 

At this point, the global war against terrorism can be used as an outline or a framework that can be applied to any situation and event. The label “war on terror” can be used in identifying various elements and groups in the society as advocates of terrorism and highlighting nonviolent actions that would neutralize these groups. This is possible since terrorism can be used to denote a group that uses violence and indiscriminate killing to achieve its goals and aims. An example of this aspect can be found in the Spanish setting. During the 1950’s, a group called ETA (Euskadi Ta Askatasna or Basque Fatherland and Liberty) was established in the Basque province of the country (2002). This organization was aimed at achieving the independence of the Basque Provinces from both the central governments of Spain and France at any cost. It also advocated for the formation of an independent state that revolves around Basque culture and tradition ( 2002).   

To achieve these aims, the ETA is notorious for planting bombs in populated places and conducting assassinations of prominent Spanish politicians and law enforcement agencies. it is also prominent in kidnapping and other crimes in order to disrupt the economy of the country. For the members of the ETA, their actions are justifiable since in their perspective, the Basque people are oppressed and are not given the same attention when compared to other Spaniards residing in other provinces ( 2002). The feeling therefore of being alone and different is nurtured in the mind of an ordinary Basque leading him to the conclusion that violence, fear and intimidation are the only way to achieve what is necessary for his people (2002).

In the eyes of the Spanish government, these lawless actions made by the ETA are reason in order to hunt them down and to eliminate the group n order to restore peace and tranquility. They use the police to search for Basque terrorists and their supporters. Because of this action-reaction cycle with regards to terroristic activities, both the Spanish government and the Basque nationalists are missing a significant point. Terrorism clouds the judgement and proper perception of the two camps. While the other side is causing panic and fear while the other side is preventing and eliminating fear and terror, the root cause of the problem is not solve. In this “terror war” the proper question to be asked is: What are the needs of the Basque society that would end this conflict? Only when the identified and true needs and necessity of a people is satisfied can terrorism be stopped. In the case of Spain and Basque provinces, limited autonomy can be offered by the government to quell terrorism without using force and the military.

Another aspect of the “global war on terror” aside from identifying terrorist groups is that terrorism can be used as a voice or a medium for repressed groups of individual inside the society that are speechless and inarticulate to voice out their demands. This aspect can be illustrated in the case of Palestine and Israel. Israel is one of the dominant nations in the Holy Land. Its territories encompass areas that are predominantly of Arab descent and most of the political and military power is held by Israel ( 2002). The Palestinians therefore see that they are oppressed and neglected by the Israeli government so various Islamic radicals banded together to form Hezbollah, Fatah and other anti Zionist terrorist groups that aims for the establishment of a separate Palestinian state in the Holy Land ( 2002). To articulate their goals and desires, they started to use suicide bombers and carbombs to make the Israeli government give in to their demands. These acts of violence are voices being pronounced by the Palestinian people regarding their social and political condition. Although it is morally and legally wrong to use violence and kill people just to forward an aspiration, these acts are signs that something is wrong about the way a government treats and deals with its people.

There are other people that the global war on terror is a framework to understand the conflict that exist between the East and the West and between the modern and antiquated countries of the globe. The West represented by the United States is imposing its rule, culture and tradition to the East exemplified by the countries that have radical Islamic elements. The United States through its war on terror is advancing the ideas and concepts that are intrinsic to the American society to other societies at the detriment of the indigenous culture like Islam ( 2002). At this aspect, the global war on terror can be labeled as a war against two schools of thought that literally clings to each other’s belief.  For believers of Islam, the global war on terror is a step that reinforces the notion of regional domination lead by the United States

The global war on terror can also be used as a framework to identify certain negative perceptions of a society in relation to another society. It can be said that U.S. invaded Iraq and Afghanistan in order to restore order and democracy to the country. There is a perception therefore that Islamic states have undemocratic and authoritarian rule that must be eliminated by the West through the use of actions that emanates from the phrase “global war on terror” (2004). It would be justifiable therefore to use terrorism as pretext for deposing and installing leaders that are “democratic’.

Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. These can include realignments of the political system reorganization and reexamination certain fundamental values, outlooks and policies. Stricter immigration laws and policies can be implemented by various governments in order to deter or minimize their vulnerability against terrorist acts ( 2004). Since the September 11, 2001, attacks were carried out by foreigners who entered the United States due to lax airport security and slow response to intelligence reports, steps must be taken to avoid this costly mistakes. Restructuring of the bureaucracy to enable faster transfer and verification of data must be implemented. Airport security and other aspects of national and internal defense must be wholly integrated to one another to facilitate faster communication and data sharing and verification (2004). Harsh penalties for violations of immigration laws and denial of entry for persons who fosters hatred, advocated violence or is affiliated to a terrorist group.

Another step that can be used against terrorism is to diffuse and eradicate ill feeling and discrimination against Islam. In many cities and countries in Europe today are populated by Muslims and Arabs and in order to erase stigma and cultural animosity between Muslims and the native population, proper information campaign and other related policies must be take place ( 2002). Government and non government organizations must initiate talks and discourse with various religious and ethnic groups to expose a society to a culture that is unfamiliar to them. Through frequent association and connection with an object or group of people, the level of hostility against the group will be lessened.

Common targets of terrorists like places like mass transit vehicles, aircraft, office buildings, monments and parks must be well protected and securely maintained ( 2002). Constant inspection of individuals entering and exiting an establishment must be made mandatory to lessen the chance of terrorist activities. Another method is to place concrete barriers outside vital buildings and installations to prevent the damages that would occur if a terrorist uses a car bomb (2002). Aircraft cockpits must be kept locked during flights, while incorporating reinforced doors that would deter terrorist from hijacking a plane. The use of undercover air marshals on airplane flights can also help in deterring terrorism ( 2002).

The United States and other countries should also use pre-emptive strategy to eliminate terrorist leaders and members. This strategy calls for the capture, killing or disabling terrorist suspects. Incorporated in this step would be the identification of terrorist funds and bank accounts that can be held and freeze by banks in order to deny the terrorist from their financial assets. Another method of pre-emptive neutralization is the interrogation of suspected terrorists to obtain information about specific plots, targets and identities of the terrorists ( 2002).

Domestic intelligence and surveillance must also be strengthened. New technology on bugging and surveillance equipment and techniques can be used to obtain vital evidences. Extreme care must be taken so that no laws or legal rights are violated in obtaining evidences. Military actions can also be an effective response to the threat of terrorism. Military intervention can be implemented against countries where terrorists are based. That was the main justification for the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq and the continued presence of the Russian forces in Chechnya.

Despite the fact that the United States and the Coalition members are powerful, influential and technologically advanced when compared to terrorist there are obstacles and hindrances that must be faced on the global war on terror.  The reason while America is not winning the war against terror is because terrorist groups have now continued to operate using less sophisticated means. Terrorist groups know that the U.S. possesses modern devices and other gadgets to pinpoint hideouts and meeting points so they use less modern modes of communication like video tapes, audio tapes, signs and messengers. Terrorist have also reorganized in response to the counter terrorism being implemented by different government. They have banded in “human cells” that consist of two or three sleeper agents that would initiate a terrorist attack with minimal planning (2004).

 

 

 

Sample Essay Operations Management and Ethics Assignment

Operations Management and Ethics Assignment

 

Operational activities are central to the provision of services and/or goods. Every organization provides a product and service combination. Operations management has its origins in the study of ‘production’ or ‘manufacturing management.’ These terms still very much apply to manufacturing organizations that will have distinct operational activities that convert say, beans and rich tomato sauce into cans of baked beans to be sold by a retailer. Thus, operations management can be viewed as being part of a distinct function producing a product and service combination.

Operations management can be defined in many ways. It is the design, operation and improvement of the systems that create and deliver the firm’s primary product and service combinations. It is also the design, operation and improvement of the internal and external systems, resources and technologies that create and deliver the firm’s primary product and service combinations (Lowson, 2002). Operations management is made up made up of members of the management team whose major task is the immediate supervision of the workers themselves.

Most of the time situations call for ethical decisions from operations managers. These situations are concerning products, working practices, resources, impact upon local population and investment issues.

            Take for example a situation in an oil company. Accidents at oil companies largely result from poor training. While oil companies worldwide spend millions on training, more is being spent on making employees feel cared for than on being ethically responsible. For example, oil companies usually spend money on construction of a personal training facility; while at the same time conduct an annual employee survey to measure their satisfaction. There are usually no actions on improvements of training for employees or conducting ethical measures in avoiding or minimizing oils spill accidents.

            Changes should be made from investments in operational improvements. It is better that oil companies invest money to advance plant operations, which would result in a reduction in recordable injury rates for oil companies. Long-term and ethical operations management strategies can play a significant and major role in a company's future financial performance and the environmental affects worldwide.

As for specific programs and practices, a corporate code of conduct is viewed as being most important in any company. Such a code must reflect and reinforce the values and principles of an organization. Rounding out the top five programs are ethics training for all members of the organization, CSR programs, ombudsman services and help lines.

In summary, employees need to have a code to set the ethics foundation, training to help people truly understand it, and programs that permit them to inquire about and report ethical violations. But before employees can have a code to follow, operations management has the role of providing it to them and seeing to it that it be followed.

Thesis on Changing Roles of Library and Information Profession: Case Study in Vietnam

Chapter 1

The Problem and Its Background

 

“Change has a considerable psychological impact on the human mind. To the fearful it is threatening because it means that things may get worse. To the hopeful it is encouraging because things may get better. To the confident it is inspiring because the challenge exists to make things better”

King Whitney Jr.

1.1 Origins of the Study

The aim of this research study is to investigate the perceptions of library and information professionals (c) in the Learning Resource Centres (LRCs). The study focus on the significance changes to the LRC’ physical building, organisational structure, information delivery, the integration of library management system, and how these changes have transform the professional identity and impact on the role of the library and information professionals in Vietnam.

The LRCs recently built in Northeastern, North Central Coast, South Central Coast and Mekong River Delta Regional Universities in Vietnam as a result of philanthropies educational project.

The motivation for undertaking this study arose from the researcher’s role as a manager of the LRCs project with RMIT University Vietnam from 2002 to 2005, in particular the involvement and management of the development of information resources and training programs. The emphasis of the project was to provide the practical development of products and services for online delivery, and improvements in labour skills and competencies (Wilmoth 2004).

This was consistent with the objectives developed by the Ministry of Technology and Environment set out for the Library Division (Development Plan for the National Library System 1996-2000) in Vietnam. The Government has recognised the fundamental role of information technology and resource-based learning in the transformation ahead (Tran 1998). It has indicated its intention to have the Universities of Vietnam linked nationally and internationally through the Internet, and to reform the higher education sector to modernise university management and teaching and learning methods. One of the most effective means of enabling Vietnam to bring University programs into the international information age is through developing places with high information intensity and good electronic platforms. Such places are learning resource centres which ‘combine the functions of traditional library, electronic library, learning platform, seminar and meeting room, study carrel, publication, exhibition and learning services centre’ (Wilmoth 2002, p.3). 

In foster a new learning resource centre model include the use of communications and information technology, and align with the reform of teaching and learning methodologies being implemented within the tertiary education system in Vietnam, there is a need to build up professional capability including skills, competencies and qualifications to manage the new global library environment. In addition, the Vietnamese’ library and information professionals need to recognise the challenges, to equip themselves with a wide range of new and transferable skills as part as knowledge-based organisation and to modify their roles ‘as a key to modernisation, industrialisation, and information literacy’ (Wilmoth 2004) to participate actively, innovatively and flexibly in the evolving and changing technology.

1.2 Background to the Study

Vietnam’s economic and social development faces a large gap between the demand for professional skills and the supply of graduates produced by local Universities in the past decades due to higher education in Vietnam had been followed the former Soviet Union with a multiplicity of small mono-disciplinary institutions with limited linkage between teaching and research.

In 1993, the Government re-assessed the structure of national education and issued a Decree Number 90/CP, committed to the notion that all individuals should have the right to study and pursue higher education. In ‘Higher Education Reform Agenda’ for 2006-2020, the Government has set a priority of “approaching the advanced education standards of the region and the world” for higher education (Decree No. 90/CP November 1993). The policy had an immediate and significant impact on the economy and progressively reengaged Vietnam with the international economy, according to Le Vu Hung, Vice Minister of Education and Training statement at the opening ceremony of The Vietnam Development Information Center. He noted that ‘Vietnam is in the process of shaping its development strategy for the 21st Century towards a knowledge-based economy to promote stable and sustainable development’ (The Vietnam Development Information Center, Hanoi 2001) and higher education need to redefine their vision for future development modify University core values and establish new policies in order to meet the requirements. In overall, ‘the country’s University system needs an overhaul’ as declared by Deputy Prime Minister Pham Gia Khiem at the International Forum on Viet Nam’s Higher Education Reform (VNEconomy 2004).

Additionally, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung in his speech at the Asia Society Texas Center 2008 has addressed the changes in policy will improved the higher education system’s quality, efficiency and skills, will met the economic and social development needs of Vietnam and will built more institutions that meet regional and international standards by 2020 (Asia Society 2009).

Hence, the Vietnamese government has recognised the fundamental role of information technology in education and training activities, encouraged Universities across the nation to construct a telecommunications infrastructure and implement the master plan to develop data communication network (resolutions 173/CP, 245/CP and 49/CP issued in 1975, 1976 and 1993 respectively). But the resources and financial inputs to implement or develop these new capabilities were neither available nor accessible due to the lack of common standard quality assurance among the Universities. In fact, lack of a formal legal management system from the government has reduced the ability of institution in design and implements an accreditation system, and lack of accountability in management that leads to extreme dependency (Kelly 2000). 

In Vietnam's Development Risk and Responsibility, Wilmoth (2004) reported that Vietnam in the past years has not sufficiently focused on speeding up the process of moving forward due to economic structure under socialist direction. In contrast, elsewhere around the world, teaching and learning methodology is experiencing a period of dramatic change; tertiary sectors have shifted focus towards learners’ needs, as shown by an unprecedented increase in the electronic distribution of learning resources according to Wilmoth (2004). Moreover, many institutions are moving away from a ‘programs’ approach and towards a ‘relationships’ mindset that is ‘aimed at harnessing the entire range of resources of the educational, consultancy and research community to meet the client’s needs’ as indicated by Down, Martin & et al. (2004, p. 6).

Although, the Government has acknowledged the rapid introduction of new technology in high education, Vietnamese Universities respond notoriously slow to the rapid pace of the country’s economic and technological development due to the shortage of information technology expertise and the financial infrastructure that supports the higher education system. Besides, lack of direct foreign investment into higher education sector has caused many difficulties in enhancing quality and competitiveness, especially when planning to breach the gap in education, health, and scientific research (Wilmoth 2004). In recommendations, the country’s universities need to revised the mission and vision; expanded the management and planning systems; reviewed teaching and learning activities; overlooked the research and development efforts; and improved lecturing staff, study materials, students and student assistance programs in order to be competitive in the globalising knowledge economy (Global Education Digest 2006, Varghese 2007 and World bank 2007).

Based on the context of globalisation, the Government recognised Universities are no longer only part of the national system, funded and protected by the Government (Ginkel 2002), more specially, University education has become mass education, involved a far greater proportion of the population than ever before as indicated in the International Association of Universities’ mission of statement:

 “….[the university] must continue to adapt and change if the challenges are to be met. It will remain an institution central to societies throughout the world as long as its activities make a difference to better the conditions of human kind”

(IAU 2001 p.1).

Therefore, in 2000 the MOET welcomed the entry of international Universities, in particular The Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT), to establish educational programs in Vietnam and to assist Vietnamese Universities in develop a long-term strategic plans to ‘complement and fulfil the country higher education’s goals’ (Nguyen 2000).

 

 

1.3 Research Questions

The study proposes to examine the changes in the roles of library information professionals in Vietnam within the context of three research questions:

1.        How are the information services in Vietnamese University LRCs changing as a result of the philanthropies education project?

2.       Among the library information professionals involved in the LRCs project in Vietnam, are there differences in perceptions/ expectations between the Vietnamese and Australian cohorts in respect to changing roles, skills and capabilities for the profession? The Australian cohorts include both those who have acted as consultants to the project and those who have worked in the LRCs on secondment.

3.       How do the expectations of LRC management personnel in Vietnam compare with staff in non-managerial positions? For example, changes in physical spaces, access and teaching and learning methods will necessitate changes in work practices.

 

1.4 Scope of Study

The study focuses on library information professionals’ perceptions in relation to changing roles within a flexible learning context. It has an exploratory intent, and it seeks to build national competency standards guidelines in providing collaborative support in new learning environments (Fowell & Levy 1995; Walton, Day & Edwards 1996; Hughes, Hewson & Nightingale 1997).

  1.5 Significance and Outcome

During the last 30 years, library information professionals have undergone a revolution, driven by the tremendous advances in information technology (Dilevko & Harris 1997). Reed (1995) and DuMon (1989) explore the changes in the occupation of librarian as a result of the introduction of the new information and communications technologies in their study, believed a change in name to "library information professional" or “information specialist” had proposes wide ranges of new hybrid jobs in library and information sector. As expecting to combine traditional duties with tasks involving or corresponding with a rapid flow of information, library information professionals in Vietnam need to embrace information technology skills in addition information services and technical resources skills (Von Ungern-Sternberg 2000) when “pursuit and processing information” (Lancaster 1983).

To date, there has been a lack of significant research to investigate the new roles and skills required by library professionals in Vietnam within the new learning environment. The Information Management Curriculum Development in Viet Nam project in 2002 was completed by the Regional Section of Asia and Oceania (RSAO) to assist the development of library and information services and the library profession in the region (IFLA, Annual Report, 2002). However, the project only addressed the guidelines and standards to improve library services and systems, not the standards of competency and performance of librarians.

The outcomes of this study will be presented as strategies to support the transition of the professional librarians in Vietnam. The findings will be a significant proposition in the future development and design of librarianship and information management, business planning and management, or in IT management.

Further, information on librarians’ performances collected in the study will provide valuable insight for library and information services training development. Ultimately, the study may be able to provide an assurance data for Vietnam Library Association (VLA) in support their objective to ‘enhance the roles and positions of librarians and library institutions’ (CDNL 2007). 

 

1.6 Definitions

The following terms have been used in the study according to the following definition:

Competency: ‘The quality of being adequately or well qualified physically and intellectually’ (Collins Essential English Dictionary 2006).

The definition of ‘competency’ was also based on the National Training Quality Council Australia (1992) statement: ‘as the specification of the knowledge and skills and the application of that knowledge and skill to the standard of performance expected in the workplace and to industry standards, also the ability to perform tasks and duties to the standard expected in the workplace and industry’ (p. 10).

Under this view, competencies are the techniques, skills, knowledge and characteristics and distinct as ‘the sum of skills and knowledge’ (Bowles 2004, p. 55). Similarly, Woolworth and Westerman (1995) expanded ‘competencies that included not only knowledge, comprehension, and application but also analysis, synthesis, and evaluation’ (p. 53).

The competencies outlined in this study have been based on Competencies for Information Professionals of the 21st Century (2003), which notably connects professional and personal competencies, related to:

·         Knowledge of information resources, access, technology and management and the ability to use this knowledge as a basis for providing the highest quality information services; and

·         Attitudes, skills and values that enable practitioners to work effectively and contribute positively to their organisations, clients and profession.

Insofar as competencies are needed to accomplish collective goals, identifying core competencies enable library management personnel and library staff to sustain their ability to adapt to the changing environment and allow them to be better prepared for the ongoing changes in the digital world (Avery, Dahlin & Carver 2001).

Perception: ‘The ability to perceive’ (Collins Essential English Dictionary 2006). Koohang (1989) offers a sound definition for perception as ‘one’s ability to go beyond recognition to include an active gathering together of details and scattered particulars into an experienced whole for the purpose of seeing what is there’. Some hold that perception is the occurrence of sensory ideas in the mind, which in some way reveal the nature of their external causes. Others hold that perception is a direct awareness of the external, unmediated by prior knowledge of anything internal (Dancy 2000).

Role: ‘A task or function’ (Collins Essential English Dictionary 2006). Roles and responsibilities are defined in the study in relation to learning resource centre processes. The researcher has addressed the emerging roles and responsibilities of information professionals in facilitating and managing the new learning environment.

Skill: ‘Special ability or expertise enabling one to perform an activity very well such as a trade, requiring special training or expertise’ (Collins Essential English Dictionary 2006).

The definition of skill in this study includes ‘key skills’. Khaultahu (1990) describes key skills as ‘generic skills which individuals need in order to be effective members of a flexible, adaptable and competitive workforce’. In this study, skills are those abilities needed for the successful performance of the social and occupational roles that individuals have assumed.

 

 

Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

 

2.1 Chapter Overview      

Learning is an inevitable factor in every organizations and professions. Learning always conforms to the needs of the changing environment.  With this, this part of the research will be presenting recent literature reviews concerning the changing roles of library information professional in Vietnam. As indicated in the scope of the study, the library’s perception towards the changing roles within a flexible learning context is crucial for the development of information professionals.

 

2.2 The Library and Information Technology

In an era of advanced technology and globalization, the importance of integrating Information and Communications Technology (ICT) into almost all activities can hardly be denied. In fact, during the past decade, ICT use had consistently and relatively grew that it has made ubiquitous impacts on society and our daily lives (Luke, A. & Kapitzke, C. 2000). ICT has created such an impact that for most sectors, it has become a necessity instead of an option because of the intense competition dictated by it.

The education sector is one of those industries who have already adopted new technologies to help them improve and meet the changing needs in today’s environment. Basically, the Library system in most developed countries are no longer using In fact, schools around the world—mostly in developed countries—tend to jump on the bandwagon of computer-aided and Web-netted learning (Luke, A. & Kapitzke, C. 2000). As part of the integration of information communications technology in education, many educational enthusiasts have been able to developed electronic library system. Libraries are becoming increasingly automated in many Further Education Colleges installed in its Library management system for the past 10 years. Most previous system was UNIX based running over a network. Although it rarely failed when things did not go according to plan, it still had limited technical functions. What seemed new and innovative back then, although still robust and reliable, looked outdated by the start of a new Millennium. It was time for a major re-think. The extensive use of information technology improved the efficiency in delivering library services, enhance and speed up access to the library collections and optimize use of available staff resources. Through the Online Public Access, Internet facilities and multimedia terminals, information in electronic and multimedia formats has fast become an integral part of the library's resources. Remote access to library services including web renewal service, online reservation service and email enquiry service gives the public greater convenience and faster than Traditional Library System.

            The Online Public Access enables searching the entire collections of Libraries. In addition to a wide range of search options, such as author, title, subject etc.

            In contrast, there are no national or international standards yet for the selection and appraisal of Internet resources due to their evolving nature and complex characteristics. For libraries, when selecting Internet resources, they should not only take into account the serviceability and relevance of those resources to the library goals and missions, but also cost, technology, and compatibility to existent information resources.

 

 

 

 

2.3 The Role of Library Information Professionals

            The Library Information Professional is considered today as one who plays an important role in the not only in educational learning community but also by different organizations around the globe both local and international.  The main objective of being a Information Professional is to ensure that the researchers like students and other educational team members are effective and efficient users of different knowledge and information.  Herein, to be able to achieve such mission, the Information Professional performs for essential functions; as teacher, instructional partner, information specialist and program coordinator. One of the functions played by the Library Information Professional is being a teacher. As teacher, Library Information Professional is responsible in collaborating with members of the educational learning community, most especially with the students in analyzing learning requirements and information needs. In addition, the Library Information Professional must have the ability to locate and use different resources in order to meet such needs. The after discovering the resources to meet the learning and information needs of the members of the educational learning community, the Library Information Professional as being a teacher, must have the ability to easily comprehend with such resources and must have the skills in communicating the information provided by the founded resources (Kearney, 2000). To become an effective teacher, Library Information Professional must be knowledgeable also about the latest research in relation with teaching and learning concept and be skilful enough to apply such findings in different situation, specifically, when the students needs to access, appraise, and utilize information that comes from numerous sources in order to learn, think, create an apply the new knowledge (Montgomery, 1991).

Aside from being a teacher, Library Information Professional also played a crucial role as an instructional partner. In this manner, the main responsibility of Library Information Professional is to collaborate with teachers and other members of the educational learning community to determine the links transversely with the information needs of the students, curricular matters, learning outcomes, and a wide range of electronic, print and non-print information resources. In addition, as Library Information Professional works along with the entire members of community from different aspects, one of the major roles of a Library Information Professional is to be able to develop practices, policies and curricula which may serve as guidelines for students to develop and improve the range of their information and communication skills as a whole. Being an instructional partner, Library Information Professional must also compel to the collaboration process. Herein, Library Information Professional works personally and strongly with each teacher in the critical and essential aspects of designing and creating authentic and reliable learning tasks. Further, Library Information Professional must also have the ability to assess and integrate both the information and communication skills needed to meet the standards of the subject matters.

            Another role that can be attached to Library Information Professional is to become an information specialist. In this manner, Library Information Professional provides efficient leadership and proficiency in both obtaining and appraising information resources in all aspects and formats. In addition, Library Information Professional has role in carrying out consciousness of the emerging information problems and issues into a combined and integrated relationships with administrators, teachers, and other members of learning community.  Library Information Professional also plays a crucial role in modeling and designing other strategies for discovering, accessing and assessing information in the internal and external aspects of the library media center.  Since, Library Information Professional is working in a surrounding that has been intensely influenced by the modern technology. In this regard, the Library Information Professional must be able to have deep knowledge in using highly developed electronic resources and uphold a continuous focus on the quality, ethical, and natural use of information accessible in more traditional resources.

            Lastly, Library Information Professional also plays an important role as a program administrator. One of the function of Library Information Professional as a program administrator is to collaboratively work with other members of the educational learning community in defining the policies and regulations of the Library Program and to direct and lead all other related activities. Moreover, as part of the responsibilities of Library Information Professional as a program instructor, Library Information Professional is convinced to the importance of the efficient use of information and information technology in order to ensure personal and economic growth for the students. In addition, being a program administrator, the Library Information Professional is also a promoter of the Library Program and he or she must provide information, vision, leadership and guidance to establish a better Library Program for the future generation.  Another responsibility that the Library Information Professional is facing is in terns of planning, executing and evaluating the program to make sure a successful and quality outcome for both day-to-day bass and general level. In this manner, Library Information Professional must be proficient in managing all resources for this program including, staff, costs facilities and equipments to execute such program. 

 

2.4 The Library and Information Professionals Changing Environment

            “For more than 500 years, the bulk of human knowledge and information has been stored as paper documents…Paper will be with us indefinitely but its importance as a means of finding, preserving and distributing information is already diminishing”- Bill Gates

Throughout the years, the world has moved from an industrial to a technological, information-based society. Skills needed to function in this age have changed dramatically, but the ultimate goal of education is still the same: to ensure that students are literate adults when they graduate from school. To achieve this goal in a technological age, those who are involved in the educational system must become information literate: able to access, evaluate, and use information (AASL & AECT, 1998). In addition, the educational team members must ensure that they used modern technology combined with their critical thinking so as to ensure the core objective of the educational system.

With regards to the development of information technology, professionals particularly to those who are engaged in library and information professions are experiencing changes in their roles.  The magnificent progress of digital information in the 21st century created great challenges among library and information professionals. In an age of great change in information sources, delivery modes and technologies, an important new role emerges for librarians.  Thus it is very vital for academic librarians to be more competitive and capable when it comes in leading technological changes in their campuses.  At the same time the function of librarians is both changing and becoming more central.

Having been able to determine the different major roles played by Library Information Professional in collaboration with other members of changing educational learning community, it is also equally important to determine different concepts that influence the role that Library Information Professional plays in Schools. The statement:  “Information literacy, media literacy and critical thinking have become central concepts in the role that the Library Information Professional roles”, implies that the three major concept that affects the performance of Library Information Professional include information literacy, media literacy and critical thinking.

 

 

 

2.4.1 Information Literacy

Service economies including the educational learning community nowadays are considered as information-based economy because they require the use of information to solve various types of problems and to provide services related to the solving of problems. Technology is significantly associated with modern-day service economies. Increased skills are required to be successful in such an environment. In the area of Library research, Library Information Professional gives emphasis to teaching students to achieve information literacy.  In this manner, Library Information Professional too must be literate in information. The technological changes for language and text in the Information Age has generated many new theories and models for elucidating and conducting literate work. Visual literacy, digital literacy, media literacy, network literacy, critical literacy, and multi-literacy are some of them. The library profession's response to the proliferation of information was to reconfigure the library skills instruction programs of the 1960s into a research framework called "information literacy" (CMLEA, 1997). Most of the information -science literature presents information literacy as an emerging approach rather than a fully defined, prescriptive model in which the Library Information Professional must fully understand (Luke & Kapitzke, 2000).

            Accordingly, information literacy means that an individual or group of individuals is competently equipped to take advantage on the chances provided which are intrinsic in the global information community. Information theory is regarded as a type of cognitive theory that is mechanistic and system-based. It proposes that people process information like what computers do. As with any system, information is received and processed by the individual, resulting in outputs that are behavioral (Spitzer, Eisenberg & Lowe, 1998). Although stated in less mechanical terms and with some modification, the current information literacy approach is based on cognitive information theories of how we process information internally. Information Literacy Standards for Student Learning defines information literacy, stating and defining standards, providing indicators of achieved behaviors, and establishing levels of acceptable proficiency (Lukenbill, 2002). In this manner, Library Information Professional who select resources to support literacy programs must be aware of these expectations and make acquisitions decisions in accordance with them.

Information Literacy Standards also gives attention to information content areas within the curriculum set by the Library Program. For example, the foreign language standards for grades K–4 state that students will be able to present information about family, school events, and their celebrations via letters on e-mail, or in audio and videotapes. To help students meet this standard, the school Library Information Professional must have the ability to select from a variety of sources, including print and community resources, the Internet, and technical production guides (Katz, 1992).

In addition, it can be noted that the modern day libraries are affected not only by changes in technology, but by social and cultural change as well. Considering the pivotal role that the information literacy project plays in the educational enterprise, information literacy proponents, specifically Library Information Professional should be mindful of the recent critical turn in educational theory and practice. This turn entails moving information literacy from the restrictions of the library to the arenas of language use and the social lives of the students, which in advanced economies comprise wall-to-wall multimodal information. It requires sociology of information to account for the material and political bases of language and text use in libraries and their programs.

As social practices, all literacy, including information literacy are situated responses to specific political economies of educational contexts and classrooms (Luke, 2000). Because the discursive and material resources framing library practices vary within and across institutional sites, so do their learning outcomes. Selective traditions of information usage comprising combinations of canons, genres, literacy programs and social relations creates specific outcomes for certain for students and this must be learned from the Library Information Professional. Furthermore, those traditions of use confer differential identities, positions, functions, and powers to individuals in proportion to their mastery of the languages and discourses valorized by the literate economy in which they operate. Hence, in the statement above, it shows that a Library Information Professional should have an in-depth knowledge about the entire concept of information so as to ensure that they will be able to provide a better educational system for the students. 

 

2.4.2 Media Literacy

In the contemporary periods, there emerges an explosion of educational practices and curriculum resource materials that make use of the broad concept of media literacy. Media literacy has been defined as the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate messages in a wide variety of forms (Aufderheide, 1993). It is a term used by an increasing rate of scholars and educators to refer to the process of critically analyzing and learning to create one's own messages in print, audio, video, and multimedia. Its emphasis is on the learning and teaching of these skills through using mass media texts in primarily school-based contexts (Alvarado et al, 1987; Brown, 1991; Hobbs, 1998). Media literacy, though, is a concept whose broad definition and range of applications lead to diverse approaches, creating some intriguing conflicts and tensions. Tyner (1992) has been able to draw parallels between the parable of the blind men and the elephant, in which each of whom senses a little part of the whole and existing media literacy movement in the US. Educators and scholars with disciplinary backgrounds in media studies, the fine and performing arts, history, psychology and sociology, education, and literary analysis each may vigorously defend one's own understanding of what it means to be able to access, scrutinize, evaluate, or create media texts without a full awareness of the extent of the complexity, depth, or integrity of various other approaches.

One of the major roles plays by Library Information Professional is to be responsible is to become an effective and efficient media educator. When combining literacy with media, people begin to shift from a print-based literary sphere to a visual world whereby cultural texts are composed of a host of nonlinear symbols and images that produce and generate meaning. Unlike the elite posturing of literacy within a privileged culture, the terrain of the popular is a crucial site of exploration and creativity so that the mediated “texts” that emerge from within the everyday are subject to critical analysis.

The reason why media literacy is significant for the modern generation has to do with the increasing deluge of visual, auditory, and multimedia messages that we’re exposed to, from television programs and commercials, to newspaper stories, billboards, radio announcements, sales catalogs, and information acquired from the Internet. This means that as a Library Information Professional they must engage themselves in modern activities regarding the comprehension of different media sources of this modern age in order to let the students be aware of the possible strength of media in broadening the learning capacity and ability of the students. Although literacy requires an engagement with a text in order to grasp with meanings and sense, more often than not, the messaged in multimedia are accepted without stopping to question and/or examine the ideas, values, or motives behind these messages and their producers. Inasmuch as the “intent” or “meaning” of the text is a focal point of literacy, comprehending the purpose and consequence of a given visual and illustrated images and text remains essential to media literacy. In addition, as part of the role of the Library Information Professional, they must also have the ability to be aware of the criticism faced by the concept of media literacy so that they may use this in teaching (Frechette, 2002).

There are key media literacy concepts used by most Library Information Professional educators and advocacy groups. These concepts are the result of many efforts to focus, narrow, and define the scope of media literacy since the 1980s. One of the overarching premises of media literacy is that reality is socially built. Consequently, the first principle of media literacy is that all media are constructions. Even though the media appear to be merely reflecting the world, they are carefully created through multimedia effects. With increased technological sophistication, the “seams” of most media texts are rendered invisible, making it difficult for people to perceive the media as the producers of reality, or manipulators of common sense. Herein the task of Library Information Professional, is to make visible the seams of the media that otherwise go unnoticed in the everyday lives of the students (Hobbs, 1998). The second principle of media literacy which also becomes an essential concept for Library Information Professional is that the media construct reality. As mentioned, literary theory has involved a preoccupation with the discovery of “Truth” as an enlightened intellectual process. Yet people now know that truth is not transcended, but is created in lives of the students. For Library Information Professional, the information provide educational learning community with certain viewpoints, opinions, and explanations of how the world works. Due to the fact that people are spending more and more time consuming media in all forms, the Library Information Professional must reiterate to the students on carefully examining the media’s influential role in packaging reality (Tyner, 1992).

While the media construct reality, people do not necessarily see, experience, or relate to the same reality as the one projected in the media. Hence the third factor is that the Library Information Professional should be able to help the students to negotiate meanings in media (audience analysis). Even though other members of educational learning community all consume and engage with media, Library Information Professional must be aware that individuals don’t all have the same experiences or interpretations. The individual pleasures, desires, and fears of the students may affect their understanding of media messages, as the levels of education, gender, age, race, ethnicity, and sexual concepts. It makes sense, then, that no two people will interpret a given message in exactly the same way (Frechette, 2002). However, by recognizing Media Literacy as one of the central concepts that influence the role that Library Information Professional plays, it may help the students, Library Information Professional and other learning community members, to constitute a strategy that may engender an integrated strategy for efficiently teach media resources in all aspects. Hence, it can be said that media literacy is truly a central concept that influence the way Library Information Professional functions at Schools, because media literacy serves as one of the basis in knowing whether a Library Information Professional are skillful enough in helping students gather information through the use of different resources.

 

2.4.3 Critical Thinking

Library Information Professional must examine the perceptions they hold of themselves. The survey conducted by DeGroff (1997) found that although Library Information Professionals placed a high value on all three roles described in the 1988 AASL and AECT guidelines, they were less likely to practice the role of instructional consultant. Furthermore, when they attempted to practice this role, they were more likely to participate in (1) designing literacy curriculum and instructional strategies, integrating information skills in content areas, and gathering books and other resources than (2) developing, implementing, and assessing these experiences (Wilson & MacNeil, 1998). Library Information Professional must have a clear comprehension of the role they will perform so they can discuss this with their administrator and then reinforce their words with actions.

In the statement above, it is said that critical thinking is considered as one of the central concepts that influence the role that the Library Information Professional is playing at Schools, aside from information literacy and media literacy. Although the ability to think critically has always been important, it is imperative for the people of this generation, specifically those who are involved in the learning community such as Library Information Professional. Critical thinking is the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome. It is used to describe thinking that is purposeful, reasoned, and purpose directed the type of thinking covered in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions when the thinker is using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the particular context and type of thinking task. Other definitions include the notions that critical thinking is the formation of logical inferences (Simon & Kaplan, 1989), the improvement of cohesive and logical reasoning patterns (Stahl & Stahl, 1991), and careful and deliberate determination of whether to accept, reject, or suspend judgment (Moore & Parker, 1994). All of these definitions capture the idea of a mental activity that will be useful for a particular cognitive task. The vital part of the concept of critical thinking denotes an evaluation component. Sometimes the word critical is used to convey something negative, as when we say, "She was critical of the movie." But, evaluation can and should be a constructive reflection of positive and negative attributes. When people think critically, they are assessing and evaluating the result of their thought processes--how good a decision is or how well a problem has been solved. Critical thinking also involves evaluating the thinking process--the reasoning that went into the conclusion we've arrived at or the kinds of factors considered in making a decision. Critical thinking may also be referred as directed thinking because it focuses on obtaining a desired outcome to his or her opinion.

            Critical thinking does not automatically result as a by-product of standard instruction in a content area. A systematic educational effort to improve thinking is needed to obtain these positive effects (Baron, 1990). Critical thinking instruction needs to overtly and self-consciously focus on the improvement of thinking, and the learning experience has to include multiple examples across domains in order to maximize transfer of learning.  In this manner, in the role that Library Information Professional is playing at Schools may be efficient if he or she recognizes critical thinking as a crucial aspect for their teaching and learning skills. The real goal of and instruction to improve thinking is transfer of information.

This means that transfer is use of critical thinking skills in a wide variety of contexts. The whole enterprise would be of minor value if these skills were only employed in the classroom or on issues and problems that are very similar to those given in class. Ideally, critical thinking skills should be used to recognize and resist unrealistic campaign promises, circular reasoning, faulty probability estimates, and weak arguments by analogy, or language designed to deceive or misinform wherever and whenever they are encountered. Critical thinkers should be better able to solve (or offer reasonable solutions to) real-world problems, whether it's the problem of nuclear war or how to set up a new video recorder. These skills should also be long lasting and useful for the many decades of critical thinking that most of us face (Halpern, 1996).

 

2.5 Core Competencies of Library and Information Professionals

From the study of Abels et al (2003) they defined competency as “The quality of being adequately or well qualified physically and intellectually.” Basically this definition was also based on the National Training Quality Council Australia (1992) statement: “as the specification of the knowledge and skills and the application of that knowledge and skill to the standard of performance expected in the workplace and to industry standards, also the ability to perform tasks and duties to the standard expected in the workplace and industry.”

Under this view, competencies are the techniques, skills, knowledge and characteristics and distinct as the sum of skills and knowledge (Bowles 2004, p. 55).  Similarly, Woolworth and Westerman (1995) expanded competencies that included not only knowledge, comprehension, and application but also analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (p. 53).

The competencies outlined in this study have been based on Competencies for Information Professionals of the 21st Century (2003), which notably connects professional and personal competencies, related to: “Knowledge of information resources, access, technology and management and the ability to use this knowledge as a basis for providing the highest quality information services.” In addition, the attitudes, skills and values that enable practitioners to work effectively and contribute positively to their organizations, clients and profession are crucial in one’s professionalism. Insofar as competencies are needed to accomplish collective goals, identifying core competencies enable library management personnel and library staff to sustain their ability to adapt to the changing environment and allow them to be better prepared for the ongoing changes in the digital world (Avery, Dahlin & Carver 2001). And for Library Information Professional to be competent, he/she should know his/her roles. Role is simply “A task or function” (Collins Essential English Dictionary 2006).

Roles and responsibilities are defined in the study in relation to learning resource centre processes. Basically, the researcher has addressed the emerging roles and responsibilities of information professionals in facilitating and managing the new learning environment. Aside from this, it is also vital for library professionals to identify their skills. Skill is a “special ability or expertise enabling one to perform an activity very well such as a trade, requiring special training or expertise” (Collins Essential English Dictionary 2006). Actually, the definition of skill in this study includes “key skills”. Khaultahu (1990) describes key skills as “generic skills which individuals need in order to be effective members of a flexible, adaptable and competitive workforce”. In this study, skills are those abilities needed for the successful performance of the social and occupational roles that individuals have assumed.

As pointed out in the previous discussions, library and information professionals are confronted with new challenges due to continues and increasing pace of change in the information world. With this regard, library and information professionals need to equip themselves with reconfigured sets of skills and knowledge to ensure their sustenance and survival. Library and information programs have been besieged to adapt to structural, contextual and operational factors of the emerging information market. And one primary concern of these programs has been to identify sets of core competencies future entry-level professionals may require for effective performance. In addition, they need to compose sets of competencies around distinct functional domains in which most of the professionals operate immediately after joining the profession.

In the paper of Griffiths and King (1985), they identified competencies around functions, operations and services within different institutional settings. From their research, they found out that library educators have been focusing on instructional needs within specific operational domains. Basically, the areas that have traditionally been targeted for a focused treatment include reference and information services, resource development, access and circulation services, management of organization, technical processes, and serials control. There have been changes in the terminology used for these functional domains, yet the primary substance for education and training has remained stable.

Apparently, in the study of Powell & Raber (1994) justified that a shift in focus from reference sources to reference service with an emphasis on user needs and behavior. In their research, they tested these shifts by collecting data from 48 instructors of reference and information courses. The most frequently taught skills were related to the reference interview and search strategy. Most teachers also gave attention to other reference and information services. The researchers also found that learning objectives and teaching methods exhibited considerable variety. Finally, there was a growing recognition of the systematic nature of reference work and the importance of evaluation.

With regards to the studies presented by Totten and Keys (1994), they presented a piece of management coursework in order to assess its relevance in producing top leaders for library organizations. For they study, they found out that change is inevitable and knowledge about creativity, risk taking, innovation and intuition needs to be successfully transferred through these courses. They contested that this transmit was helpful and inferred that an analytical model of leadership should be implemented in the curriculum. The model should include a discussion of the key elements of leadership, their interdependence, background, and use in the workplace. In the study of Wittenbach, Bordeianu & Wycisk (1992) which focused on the education and preparation of heads of cataloging and reference departments in the member libraries of the Association of Research Libraries rejected the hypothesis that experience in a department rather than managerial preparation or education was the determining factor in a person becoming a library head. These results proved the significance of formal or informal education and training opportunities for managerial positions.

Furthermore, Willner (1993) analyzed the role of the professional in providing business and financial services in the corporate sector. While the technology provided new opportunities, an additional expense was involved. It made financial management the fundamental competency for these professionals. In library schools obsolete dualism hampered the development of needed expertise. The author stressed that acceptance of theory, plus a rigorous approach to the application of a core in the financial management area, would help release the educational potential of professional for the corporate and business set-up.

 

From these researches, it is evident that foundation competencies are applicable in various work or operational settings. Thus, as verified by these researchers, the core competencies can be usefully applied to curriculum design efforts for formal library and information education program. Actually, the validated competencies provide an understanding of the core content of the curricula of library and information education programs. Knowledge competencies related to information dynamics, information technology applications, understanding of organizational environment and mission, and management capabilities are considered essential for future professionals. A similar orientation was revealed when skill components were examined.

Effective and intelligent application of information technology is obviously the foremost priority. There was a clear consensus that interconnectivity, emergence of a variety of nontraditional media, and new capabilities for resource sharing are changing the nature of library operations and services. Capabilities related to automation, database skills, development of information systems and utilities, and effective application of new technology were considered the hard-core content for the preparation of professionals.

 

2.6 Management of Change: Library and Information Professions in Vietnam

Organisation leaders particularly in Library and Information Professions in Vietnam often imposed power to their subordinates in order to have a socially responsible organisation. This effort usually changes not only the culture of the organisation but also their overall organisational process. Over the past years people, organisations particularly in library practices and the environment have evolved. Change is the only thing that is constant in this ever changing world. From the physical attributes of individuals, up to the environment, change is very evident. Just like the environment and people, businesses also undergoes changes, it can be either massive or minimal. Others practice the virtue of being socially responsible, while others are not. Often times, changes occur in the management of an organisation, in order to keep up with the competition. According to MacCalman and Paton (2000) the people who went home winners and on top have the common characteristics of effectively handling the changes in the situation. Changes in management is a process that any organisation must undergo, a business will not be complete if it never experienced change.

            Prior to discussing change management, the word change must be first defined. According to Davidson (2001) “change is the significant difference in what was before.” In business it means accomplishing tasks in a new format, following new directions, acquiring new technologies, new management procedures, acquisitions and merging and other important events in corporations.

            Organisations that resist changes will inevitably face wider exposure to risks and losses. There are a number of situations in which change is necessary within the organisation such as socially responsible activities that is being utilised by different companies in order to cope up with the competition. Aside from what was mentioned earlier, there are still many issues and concerns that are necessary for change in the organisation, however the most substantial thing is that organisations acknowledge that changes happen constantly for different reasons and the management must address these changes as soon as possible to prevent great losses.

            Why an organisation does undergo changes? What are the factors and reasons for undertaking it? According to MacCalman and Parton the most influential factor in changes in organisations is the external environment which instigates reaction. Some of the examples given by MacCalman and Parton in the external environment that triggers changes in the organisation are:

• Changes in technology being utilised
• Changes due to the increasing needs of information
• Changes due to competition
• Changes because of legislation by the government
• Changes due to modifications in the economy whether locally or internationally
• Changes in the communications media
• Changes in the value systems of the society

As seen in the current environment of Library and Information Professionals, the second factor that initiates change in the organisation is the internal changes which are the reactions of the organisation to the external changes. Aside from the responses there are also some factors that contribute to the internal changes, an example of this is a new marketing strategy for existing and new products with consideration to their stance of being socially responsible.

            And finally, changes in organisation happen if they try to act in advance in order to deal with the expected risks and difficulty. An example is when an organisation anticipates the problems that may occur and creates and devises plans to combat and negate the impact of those problems.

 

2.6.1 Transformation of Academic Libraries in Vietnam

In response to institutional, social, political, economic and international transformations changes, the advanced information and communication technologies such as the Internet and electronic libraries (Uvalic-Trumbic 2003) are critical success factors in rapid globalisation and development of flexible learning.

The Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) reported that demand for tertiary education places was increased by over 60% from 1995 to 2000, with a forecast further increase of approximately 30% by 2005 and a ratio of 140 university students for every 10,000 people and 200 per 10,000 by 2010 (Vietnam News October 2 2003, p.2). In order to consolidate that demand, academic libraries need to modernise their infrastructures especially the library services, resources and facilities including improvements in professional skills to provide up to date access to information (Sai Gon Giai Phong March 20 2001, p.1).

Several senior librarians in the country (Lam 1999; Ta 1999; Tran 2001; Vu 2001) have reported that many library collections still inadequate in size, collections, standards, security, and electronic linkages, and are not orientated to towards learning. Some libraries are currently experiencing a transition from a closed-access traditional print-based collection to open-access that holds a mix of print and electronic resources.  This has come about since the Vietnam National Assembly adopted an ordinance on libraries in December 2000 (Prime Minister Ordinance No 128/2000/QD-TTg).

The Ordinance recognised that libraries have an essential place in the country’s ambitious development program, and several initiatives are already underway from the government. By defined the functions and tasks of the library, the Ordinance articulated the library sectors as maintaining the national book heritage as well as collecting, storing and disseminating information to meet the demand on learning, teaching and researching. It’s also highlighted the important of improving library qualifications and national information infrastructure. For instance, activities such as the Development Plans for libraries, which include goals of developing a unified system of library networks, developing policies based on national standardization, sharing resources through networks, modernizing library techniques, and using advanced technologies for library activities and services.

  2.6.2 Learning Resource Centres Project

In 2000, RMIT University Major Projects Unit carried out research and evaluation on Vietnam Higher Education system. One of highly recommendation is to assist Vietnam’ Universities reform their teaching and learning methodology by develop a learning resources centre that ‘create, find and disseminate knowledge’ (Wilmoth 2002, p. 3). However, in order to develop international information resources, the University needs to improve and transform the existing library services and resources in able to provide access to vast amounts of data and up-to date information for academic staff, student, scholarly and scientific researches.

With the interests of strengthen the educational system, improve University’s learner-centered approach and streamline access to online resources, RMIT University has ‘making a positive contribution to Vietnam’ social and cultural development’ (Wilmoth, 2004, p. 200). By participated in philanthropies educational projects, the RMIT University Library has selected four prominent Vietnamese Universities based on socioeconomic aspects of the geographical and population of regional and provinces, namely:

(1)    Thai Nguyen University in North-eastern Region;

(2)  Hue University in North Central Coast Region;

(3)  Da Nang University in South Central Coast Region; and

(4)  Can Tho University in Mekong River Delta Region.

 

With key objectives of the LRCs project were to foster a student-centred and to promote a flexible learning environment. The project has also designed and implemented a new organisational structure, with consists of four Departments and grouped according to Information Services, Information Resources, Information Technology and Administration and Business Development core areas. Change in organisational has manifests the cultural values including develop new skills, new roles, formalise rewards systems, and comply with applicable regulations within the University.

The biggest challenges arose during the recruitment process was lack of skilled staff applied for the positions due to limitation number of qualified librarians in regional and provinces of Vietnam. Consequently, 80 per cent staff employed for the new LRC were non-library qualification background, mostly in education, information technology and languages disciplines.

            However, during the LRCs project gathers pace, extensive training activities have been conducted to assist existing staff to make the transition to their new roles and to training the new LRC staff, with special attention to skills development in new/emerging areas. The intensive study tour to RMIT University Library in Melbourne was offered to the Library Management and Senior Librarians, to provide an understanding of operational issues, management practices, policies and procedures with regard the implementation and management of a Learning Resource Centre.  Such consultations and trainings incorporated practical skills and theory enable LRC management and senior staff to make the best use of available resources and to share knowledge through personal, regional and international networks.

In addition, a number of Managers and Senior Librarians have received further training in Educational Leadership and Management in order to anticipate and respond to the changing needs.

2.6.3 Challenges

The completion of Learning Resource Centres project in Vietnam was a catalyst for change in Vietnamese educational practice. In particular, provides opportunities to the development of resource-based learning and offers access to a wide variety of resources that support the curriculum. In addition, provides programs and services that ensure the effective use of those resources and thus improve the quality of education in the institutions.

In fact, from a basic structure of traditional library which basic study hall conditions with a reference service drawing on locally held closed access print collections. Student identification of resources through a combination of access methods, including card catalogue systems and some electronically stored database files using the UNESCO CDS/ISIS system. The LRC is now as a place housing a vast collection of books and other resources for reference or loan and conduct information literacy programs, providing instruction in the effective use of information resources.

Moreover, substantial changes in resourcing and managing LRC services have been made and were categorised as follows:

·         In teaching delivery: increased emphasis on group study and independent learning.

·         In information technology: provided digitisation of information, online and course and related materials online.

·         In method of learning: defined as a transition from relatively passive learners to active participants in the teaching and learning process. This relates to a demand for access to a wide range of electronic resources.

·         In library responsibilities: observed as a shift from libraries providing basic services with only print materials; to an active centre, participating in the reform of national higher education system, providing an important gateway to learning and information resources.

·         In library holdings: a massive increase in print and academic journals resources and the substantial expansion of new collections, namely digital resources and audio-visual materials.

 

Within those changes, library information professionals in the LRC need to accustom with ‘library collections and services that soon will be largely electronic and Web-based’ (Bazillion 2001 p. 52). In deed, library and information professionals in Vietnam need to develop a ‘new awareness, new attitudes and beliefs’ (Fowell & Levy 1996) in order to meet the realities of technological and cultural change in the methods of seeking information.

 

2.7 Synthesis of Literature Reviews

The presentation shows that the statement is true when it noted that information literacy, media literacy and critical thinking are the central concept in the role that the Library Information Professional plays at school.  This is because each of the three concepts has its own goal and objective and when these three goals and objectives are integrated and combined it serve as a unique guide for Library Information Professionals in order to perform their tasks within and beyond the school limit.  Information literacy is based on the knowledge that must be acquired in order to take advantage on all the opportunities that can be availed in the information technology. On the other hand, media literacy refers to the obtained understanding regarding the discovery, accessing and evaluating all the possible media sources in which the Library Information Professionals may use to provide students better learning environment. And lastly, critical thinking means the ability of the Library Information Professionals to obtain and apply knowledge critically as a vital part of learning.

 

 

Chapter 3

Research Methods

This chapter explores the methodological strategies that used for this study, and describes how the data collected, processed and analysed.

 

3.1 Research Background 3.1.1 Research Focus

 

The research study examines the changing roles of Library Information Professionals (LIPs) in Vietnam.  Determine what going to observe and analyse, researcher needs to specify exactly who or what is to be studied and for what purpose (Babbie 2004).  According to social research, three of the most common and useful purposes are exploratory, description, and explanation.

As the subject of study relatively new in library sector of Vietnam, exploratory study considered to satisfy researcher’ inquisitiveness and desire for better understanding of the changes in new physical spaces, services, resources, and access that impact the LIPs within the new Learning Resource Centres (LRCs). Researcher looks for patterns, ideas to test the feasibility and to develop a reference tool for LIPs in Vietnam to employ in any subsequent study (Babbie 2004).

The chosen methods of data collection revolve around whether ‘the intent is to specify the type of information to be collected in advance of the study or to allow it to emerge from participants’ (Creswell 2009, p. 16).

 

Due to the complex nature and variety of roles that professional librarians play in Vietnam, the methodological approach preferred for the study ought to accommodate the key elements of the research focus and be able to:

·         Identify the roles of professional librarians in Vietnam being transformed by changes in technology, culture, and staffing;

·         Extract participant perspectives on a range of cognitive abilities and skills related to new technology;

·         Examine the expectations of professional librarians and non-professional librarians in this radical change;

·         Use multiple data collections techniques, such as questionnaires and interviews to present findings; and

·         Use data analysis techniques that reflect significant changes and expectations from participant viewpoint.

 

As Nelson et al. (1992) noted, the ‘choice of research approach depends upon the questions that are asked, and the questions depend on their context’ (Nelson et al. 1992, p. 2). Thus, the researcher reviews the research questions and ‘builds a complex, holistic picture’ (Creswell 2009, p. 15) in order to select a research approach that engages with range phenomena, such as social perspectives and participants’ viewpoints (Creswell 2009).

 

3.1.2 Research Questions

The following research questions guided the research study and design:

·         How are the information services in Vietnamese university LRCs changing as a result of the philanthropies education project?

·         Among the library information professionals involved in the LRCs project in Vietnam, are there differences in perceptions/ expectations between the Vietnamese and Australian cohorts in respect of changing roles, skills and capabilities for the profession? The Australian cohorts include both those who have acted as consultants to the project and those who have worked in the LRCs on secondment.

·         How do the expectations of LRC managers in Vietnam compare with staff in non-managerial positions? For example, changes in physical spaces, access and teaching and learning methods will necessitate changes in work practices.

 

3.2 Design Framework

Bryman (2004) refers research design to a framework for the collection and analysis of data. A choice of research design reflects decision about priority given to a ‘range of dimensions of the research process’ (p. 543).

The idea behind a design is that different kinds of issues logically demand different kinds of data-gathering arrangement so that the data will be relevant to the study. Researcher needs to establish the study sufficient and ‘capable of providing findings that can be generalised to situations’ (Jankowicz 2005, p. 190).

Meanwhile, methodology refers to more than a simple set of methods. For instance, Strauss and Corbin (2007) defined methodology as ‘a way of thinking about and studying social reality’ and methods as ‘a set of procedures and technique for gathering and analysing data’ (p. 3). 

Influence on choice of methodology also based on the conceptual framework presented by Bowles (1999). The framework, according to Bowles (1999), combines learning and performance with an effort to analyse outcomes by accounting for knowledge and skills, presented as a competency-based approach. Additionally, he acknowledges that ‘skills, knowledge and motivation have economic value because they enhance an organisation performance and ability to adapt to change’ (Bowles 1999, p. 51). The framework also identifies the key point that professional librarians’ effectiveness ought not to determine solely by task competencies, but requires learning activities supported by applied tools and a knowledge base that can integrate the individual’s development within the learning resources environment (Bowles 1999). Thus, the framework provides an essential literature review for research methodology development.

Conversely, Crotty (1998) makes a distinction on research framework, suggesting that processes relating to the selection of epistemology leads to a theoretical perspective and choice of methodology. The process involves four steps, and begins with the choice of epistemology, which is Secondly, it is necessary to notify the selection of epistemology as ‘theoretical perspective or philosophical stance [that] lies behind the methodology in questions’ (Crotty 1998, p. 3). The third step is the selection of methodology as ‘a strategy, plan of action, process or design’ Crotty (1998, p. 3) then links the selected methods to research outcomes. The final step involves a set of models proposed to be use in gathering and analysing the data.

Crotty (1998) connects the four components in a term that he defines as, ‘theory of knowledge embedded into theoretical perspective and thereby in the methodology’ (Crotty 1998, p. 3). Within his model, Crotty further discusses different theoretical orientations approach, such as postmodernism, feminism, critical inquiry, interpretivism, constructionism and positivism. The strength of Crotty’s model is providing a format for the researcher to conceptualise and clarify the foundation of the study. 

 

3.3 Research Approach 3.3.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches

As May (1996) expresses, the purpose of all research is ‘to understand and explain social phenomena, to focus attention on particular issues and to challenge conventionally held beliefs about the social and natural worlds' (p. 3). The researcher needs to distinguish the differences between quantitative and qualitative models in order to conceptualise the diversity of approaches and select an appropriate method for the study.

Denzin and Lincoln (2008) explain that the word qualitative ‘implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities and on processes and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured’ (p. 14). Creswell (2009) in other hand defines qualitative research is a means for ‘exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem’ (p. 4).  As much as Blaxter described, qualitative research is concerned with collecting and analysing information in as many forms, chiefly non-numeric, as possible. It tends to focus on exploring, and aims to ‘achieve depth rather than breadth’ (Blaxter et al.1996, p. 60).

In contrast, quantitative research typically emphasises the measurement and analyses of the fundamental relationship between variables (Denzin & Lincoln 2008). It is ‘a means for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables’ (Creswell 2009, p. 4). Furthermore, quantitative research is ‘concerned with the collection and analysis of data in numeric form’ according to Blaxter et al. (1996, p.60) and tends to emphasise relatively large-scale and ‘representative sets of data, and is often presented or perceived as being about the gathering of facts' (Blaxter et al., 1996, p. 60).

In fact, Becker (1996) observes that both qualitative and quantitative researchers ‘use a variety of forms, media and means to communicate their ideas and findings’ (p. 122). He says that qualitative and quantitative research is different in five significant ways, while addresses the same set of issues, namely:

(a) Uses of positivism and positivism;

(b) Acceptance of post-modern sensibilities;

(c) Capturing the individual’s point of view;

(d) Examining the constraints of everyday life; and

(e) Securing rich descriptions.

 

The five points described by Becker reflect ‘qualitative and quantitative scholar’s commitments to different styles of research, epistemologies, and different form of presentation’ (Denzin & Lincoln 2008b p. 16).

According to Bryman (2004), the distinction between quantitative and qualitative research is the different research strategies in terms of ‘using words for qualitative rather than numbers in quantitative’ (Creswell 2009, p. 3). Bryman (2004) suggests that key decisions on which research strategy should be adopted concerns choices of research design and research method. He describes the distinction between them as follows (p. 27):

·         Research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data, choice of research design reflects decisions about the priority being given to a range of dimensions of the research process; and

·         Research method is simply a technique for collecting data. It can involve a specific instrument, such as a self-completion questionnaire or a structured interview schedule, or participant observation.

 

Having determined the key decisions, Bryman points out that researchers need ‘to understand the idea of research strategy as a board orientation to social research’ (Bryman 2004, p. 27) and acknowledges quantitative or qualitative methods employed represents the principal orientation to the role of theory in relation to the research.

However, Byrman’s (2004) distinctions are not always perfect; the two terms are often confused according to Deacon, Bryman and Fenton (1998). For example, if a research design choice is a ‘case study’, also referred as ‘method’, then if research method defines as a technique for collecting data, then once the case study approached ‘it will not in its own right to provide data’ (Deacon, Bryman & Fenton 1998, p. 27)..

 

3.3.2     Characteristics of Qualitative Research

In the past years, a great deal of research in libraries has taken the form of quantitative research in order to ‘measures variables of interest, where hypotheses can be formulated and tested’ (Liebscher 1998, p. 16), for example statistics of library usage and loans. Talja (2000) observes that library research has shifting from data-gathering methods to the methods of data description, analysis, and interpretation, especially studies of information-seeking behaviour (Williamson 2002).

Since qualitative data in the form of words rather than data, has ‘multi-method focus’ that ‘analyses word, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting’ (Denzin, Lincoln 2007, Creswell 2009), it is essential for qualitative researchers to be aware of the influence of philosophy on strategies of research based on four philosophical paradigms. They include positivism, post-positivism, critical theory, and constructivism (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Without knowledge of related philosophy, they are likely to be confused when analysing qualitative data (Creswell 2009).

 

Further, researchers recognise the qualitative approach engaged with range phenomena, such as social perspectives and participant’s viewpoints (Creswell 2009). The range of phenomenal, for instance those expressed by Creswell (2009), are:

(a) need to think through the philosophical worldview assumptions that they brings to the study,

(b) strategy of inquiry that related to this worldview, and

(c) the specific methods or procedures of research that translate the approach into practice’ (Creswell 2009, p. 5) 

According to Guba (1990), the term ‘worldview’ has a meaning as ‘a basic set of beliefs that guide action’ (p. 17). It is essential for the researcher to be aware of the influence of philosophy on strategies of research, because without knowledge of related philosophy, they are likely to be confused when analysing data. As stated by Creswell (2009), the ‘types of beliefs held by individual researcher will often lead to embracing a qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods approach ‘in their study (Creswell 2009, p.6).

Merriam (1998) expresses that the key philosophical assumption about qualitative research based on ‘the view that reality is constructed by individuals interacting with social worlds’ (Merriam 1998, p.6). Creswell (2008) argues that qualitative research, as an inquiry process of understanding is ‘ascribe to social or human problems’ (p. 4). Hence, the philosophical assumptions that influence the practice of study identified to support researcher further understanding:

 

(1) The nature of reality (ontology)

As reality is subjective and multiple, the qualitative researcher thus uses quotes and themes that represent ‘multiple statements’, and provide ‘diverse perspectives on the phenomena being explored’ (Creswell 2007, p. 76).

(2) How we gain knowledge about what we know (epistemology)

When the qualitative researcher has an interactive relationship with phenomena, their status changes from being an observant ‘outsider’ to a participatory ‘insider’ in order to understand participant’ perspectives (Creswell 2007).

 

(3) The role of values (axiology)

As the qualitative researcher openly discusses the value-laden nature of study, this includes their own interpretation in conjunction with interpretation of participants. Hence, ‘biases value-laden nature of information gathered’ (Creswell 2007, p. 76)

 

(4) The language of research (rhetoric)

The qualitative researcher demonstrates the language applied in the study literary informal style, and is ‘based on definitions that evolve the study rather than being defined by researcher at the beginning of the study’ (Creswell 2007, p. 77).

 

(5) The process of research (methodology)

The qualitative researcher uses inductive logic, studies the topic and uses an emerging design, with ‘findings emerging from the data rather than the data being used’ (Creswell 2007, p. 77).

  3.4      Research Methods

According to Myers (2009), the choice of research method influences the way in which the researcher collects data. Given the scale and complexity of the study, a number of methods are considered in order to capture the diversity of information and data across a number of sources and ‘to gather the richest picture of the impact’ (Proctor, Lee & Riley 1998, p. 5). 

The nature and requirements of the study have led researcher to the determination of ‘involves the use and collection of a variety of empirical materials such as questionnaires, focus group, and interview’ (Denzin & Lincoln 2008, p. 4) in collecting and collating the required data and information.

However, in order to obtain quality data from participants where English is a second language or not spoken in the country, tools and techniques of data collections need to be considered and developed association within the participants' language and cultural to increase their cooperation. For that reason, methods chosen by ‘purposeful selection’ (Creswell 2009) means that data collected from the research settings and research participants will address research questions.

The online questionnaire method proposed for the first stage of data collection to answer the first research question. The collective population of the survey shared the same common characteristics which involved and working with LRCs project, the researcher found ‘data transmitted in electronic forms are much more flexible and greatly facilitates compared with print-base from’ (Williamson 2002, p. 103).

Subsequently, the focus group method selected to address the second and third research questions, to capture data on the perception of library information professional ‘from the inside perspective’ (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 6) and to ‘gain a relatively fast reaction in areas perceived as needing improvement or change’ (Hart 1995, p. 286).

The selection of participants, how the data designed and collected in both methods are described in the following section.

 

3.4.1 Online Questionnaire

 

3.4.1.1   Selection of participants

As the aim of first research question to seek the perspectives of library professionals, the online survey ought to design to gathers and combines the perceptions from all specialists and practitioners in a particular field (Powell 1997). In order to gain the perceptions of LIPs who were actually involved in LRCs project, the target population for the online questionnaire was selected purposefully to ‘determines the incidence, distribution, and interrelationships of certain variables within population’ (Williamson 2002).

Target population consists of the following:

(1)    LRC management and general staff recruited of the following LRCs:

(a) Can Tho University Learning Resource Center,

(b) Da Nang University Learning and Information Resource Center,

(c) Hue University Learning Resource Center, and

(d) Thai Nguyen University Learning Resource Center

(2)  Librarians in National Library of Vietnam (NLV);

(3)  RMIT University staff seconded to work in RMIT Vietnam’s LRC as part of their staff development;

(4)  RMIT University Library staff;

(5) Information management consultants from Australia, New Zealand and the Unites States; and

(6) Vietnam Development Libraries Network.

  

3.4.1.2   Design the questionnaire

Online questionnaires are often criticised due to many errors in coverage, non-responses, sampling, and measurement (Dillman 2000).

For example:

·         in coverage errors, ‘the result of not allowing all participants of the survey population to have an equal or nonzero chance of being sampled for participation in a survey’ (Dillman 2000, p. 9);

·         in sampling errors, ‘the result of attempting to survey only some, and not all, of the units in the survey population’ (Dillman 2000, p. 9); and

·         in measurement errors ‘the result of poor question wording or questions being presented in such a way that inaccurate or uninterpretable answers are obtained’ (Dillman, 2000, p. 11).

However, according to Crawford et al. (2001), the trend towards the use of online surveys in research is increasing due to several advantages over traditional survey methods in terms of cost, speed, appearance, flexibility, functionality, and usability (Bandilla et al., 2003; Dillman, 2000; Kwak and Radler, 2002).

In fact, Williamson (2002) outlines that online surveys are ‘relatively easy to set up and to administer’ (p. 105). For that reason, the researcher considered all the contributing factors that needed taken into account when designing and implementing the questionnaire, included the layout, format, and structure of the questions.

 

3.4.2 Format

A comprehensive total 46 question were developed and structured in three parts.

Part 1 consisted of three core questions related to library services and resources in order to recognise and identify participants’ perceptions of the library information services, information resources, and organisational attributes. A five point Likert scale were presented as a response options and participants indicated their ranking according to criteria from 1 ‘not at all important’ to 5 ‘highly important’.

Part 2 consisted 31 knowledge and skills outcomes questions, arranged in category of information services, information resources, information technology, and information management. The questions intended to identify the perceptions of library information profession current knowledge, skills and were measured on five point Likert scale based from ‘not at all important’ to ‘highly important’.

Part 3 consisted of 10 demographic questions, requested background information indicated their ages, professional qualifications, number of years working in the library sector and position in the library or LRC. An additional question on whether participants were willing to participate in a focus group interview and a comment box was included at the end of the questionnaire for additional findings.

 

3.4.3 Validity

The questionnaire was reviewed by other researchers to establish the face validity. The purpose of “validation” in qualitative research is to assess the “accuracy” of the findings and to review the questions, format, and the scales.

 

3.4.4 Reliability

As “reliability” which “refers to the stability of responses to multiple coders of date sets” (Creswell 2007p. 210), the questionnaire was pilot tested two weeks prior the release day to identify any potential for misunderstanding of questions or instructions and to evaluate the appropriateness of the scales used. This test was also performed to ensure the content ensure the content validity (Cluett, 2000) on the web site. Two participants in each target population group selected for pilot testing. Feedbacks on wording and lay out helped researcher fine-tune the terms and re-format of the structure in the best possible way (See Appendix A).

 

3.4.5 Survey

Finalised questionnaire published under the RMIT University School of Business Information Technology website on 5 October 2005 (http://www.rmit.edu.au/browse;ID=fzz5jyfj14bp),

An introduction comprised a brief explanation of what the survey was about, outlining all security and privacy practices associated with the survey and the approximate time it would take to complete the questionnaire presented at the top of the questionnaire.

Instructions also provided for each question and an appreciation to respondents for their cooperation at the very end of the questionnaire (See Appendix B).   

A translation of questionnaire was available on the top right corner on the screen to allow participant language preference (See Appendix C).   

Participants invited to complete an online questionnaire via e-mail with a brief description of the research study and a link to the online survey. Invitations e-mailed to the Directors of LRC and Director of National Library of Vietnam for disseminating to library staff. Respondents participated to the online survey under LRCs management jurisdiction due to computer facilities arrangement and Internet connectivity especially in Northern and Central provinces (See Appendix D).   

Direct e-mail invitation to staff in RMIT University Library after permission sought from the Library Director (See Appendix E).   

Direct e-mail invitations also sent out individually to information management consultants, including academics involved in development of training and professional development programs (See Appendix F).   

Reminder e-mails sent to non-responders after the second week of the survey (See Appendix G).  

 

3.4.6 Data Analysis

The survey was self-administered and was run for three weeks from 5 to 25 October 2005; with a total of 88 participants responding to the online questionnaire. Of the total, 69 per cent were female, and 31 per cent were male; with 47 per cent obtaining their qualification in Vietnam, 41 per cent were from Australian and twelve per cent were from America. The age of the participants ranged between 20 and 60 years.

The data obtained from the questionnaire were analysed using cross tabulations and chi square analyses calculated by SPSS. Responses to comment questions exported as literal text along with the responses to all other questions. The data collected has been coded, password-protected and stored securely at the School of Business Information Technology, RMIT University website. Access was restricted to the researcher and supervisor. 

The data collected from the online survey were extensive and provided a key base line data (Creswell 2003) and this followed by in-depth interviews or focus group discussions.

 

3.4.7 Focus Group

3.4.7.1   Description of the Participants

In the second stage of data collection, data collection had an evaluation focus, with the aims were:

·         To identify where possible changes in physical spaces, services, access and training programs benefit the library information professional and new graduate recruited, and

·         To identify the initial core competencies and skills necessary for a successful LRC services since the philanthropies educational project.

Following the initial questionnaire results, 64 per cent of respondents expressed their interest in attending the focus group. This enabled the researcher further opportunity to collect an in-depth data and to examine members of target population about their perceptions and opinions. In addition, to discuss their reactions and feelings about their roles within LRC that not covered in online questionnaire (Krueger 1994, Collis and Hussey 2003).

It was vital for researcher to identify a location that was readily accessible both physically and geographically (Gorman & Clayton 2005) and obtain the institutions’ approval when organise the focus groups. A letter seeking support in set up a focus group e-mailed to individual Director of Leaning Resource Centre and Library (See Appendix H).

Permission for organise and conduct focus groups granted in:

(a)  Can Tho University LRC,

(b)  Da Nang University LRC,

(c)    National Library of Vietnam, and

(d)  RMIT University Library

(See Appendix I)

Participants ranged from library directors; managers to library services personnel included reference librarians and library officer.

 

3.4.7.2  Description of the Process

When compared with online questionnaire method, Williamson (2002) notes that the focus groups method is inexpensive and easy to organise, but in fact, researcher found the process of selecting number, type of participants and reserving the focus group site were much more complicated and time consuming due to geographical location as most of the focus groups selected in Vietnam.

 

3.5 Schedule

In order to conduct the focus groups effectively in Vietnam, researcher contacted the LRC Managements and National Library of Vietnam directly and seek their assistance in organising focus group sessions according to researcher itinerary. A followed up telephone to confirm session dates, times, and thanked the managements for their responsiveness and the supports they gave to researcher (See Appendix J).

Written agenda for the focus group also e-mailed to the senior management, outlined the background information and the focus group’s purpose as courtesy (See Appendix K).

Focus group also conducted at RMIT University Library Melbourne campus after returned from Vietnam. Participants mainly were consultants and RMIT Library staff who seconded to LRCs project as part as professional development or provided training programs to the new LRCs employees.

In sum, a series of focus groups conducted over two weeks from 19 November to 2 December 2005. Eight focus groups held in Vietnam and Australia. The details of date, time and location are below.

 

Table 1: Details of Interviews Held in Australia and Vietnam

 

 

 

3.6 Format

The focus group was semi-structured, allowing individual reflection as well as group discussion. This provided an in-depth component to the study, especially when clarifying issues that arose in the questionnaire findings (Williamson, 2002). In addition, focus group can be very helpful because they elicit more in-depth information than a online survey (Gorman 1987) and able to trace any interesting ideas that might come up unexpectedly throughout the discussions (Rubin & Rubin 2005; Sommer & Sommer 2002).

A standard format was used for all focus groups for approximately two hours with group sizes varying from four to twelve, as ‘the size must be small enough for everyone to have opportunity to share insights and yet large enough to provide diversity of perceptions’ (Krueger, 1998, p. 27).

The focus group agenda distributed in order to maintain participants’ attention and to ensure each focus group conducted in the same way (see Appendix L).

After a welcome and thank you given to the participants, a brief introduction made explaining the purpose of the focus group. A prescribed consent form then explained and signed by all participants (see Appendix M). Translation consent form accompanied in respects the culture and language of the participants (See Appendix N).

Self-completion questionnaires (See Appendix O) were used in groups to assist with classifying participants as well as to pilot elements of the demographic and importance/ satisfaction questions.

Thirteen prescribed questions (See Appendix P) were discussed in semi-structured style, one at a time. The questions concentrated on the expectations of role changes; examining their perceptions of training and professional development. Questions of greatest importance placed at the beginning in order to obtain more detailed information related to the research purposes and help organise the transcription into meaningful sections as suggested by Stewart and Shamdasani (1990). During the discussion, participants occasionally expressed their own views in their specific context, within a specific culture, which caused difficulty for the researcher to analyse. Open discussion was scheduled for one and a half hours

 

3.7 Data Analysis

Eighty-four participants took part in the focus group. Of these, fourteen per cent of participants were senior management level, with eleven per cent holding higher degrees qualifications.

Self-completion data gathered from the survey entered into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, and responses codified according to the categories.

Data during discussions recorded on a small, handheld voice recorder SONY IC, and then transferred to an audio file for transcribed. Responses for each question aggregated from all eight focus groups and entered as a text file with related responses placed into groups. The transcripts were analysed and then coded according to the question numbers (Krueger 1994, Vaughn, Schumm & Sinagub, 1996).

Codes created according to the topics and used as categories to organise the data into areas. Once the data had been coded and summarised, the researcher looked for relationships among the categories that may suggest generalisations.

By personally transcribing the discussions, the researcher was able to develop a high degree of familiarity with the discussions material, recollect some of the issues and comments that focus groups had made and detect underlying meanings, which had been missed during the discussions. In addition to that, the personal transcription of the interviews allowed the researcher to sharpen her awareness of the issues. In brief, researcher was able to acquire a more insightful understanding of the phenomenon under investigation according to Miles and Huberman’s (1994) advised.

 

3.8 Ethical Considerations

Every researcher when conducting research with human participants need to consider the risks and benefits of research and maintain national ethical and scientific standards according to the Australian National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007) (National Statement).

Three general requirements based on the National Statement guidelines (2007) require researcher consideration when associates with ethical issue, namely:

·         justify any risks involved in the research,

·         the requirement for consent should be a voluntary choice, and

·         respect the privacy, confidentiality and cultural sensitivities of the participants.

In order to fulfil the requirements, researcher applied two ‘Applications for Ethics Approval of Research Involving Human Participants’ for each stage of data collections which online questionnaire and focus group discussion separately. The requirement of the Plain Language Statements (PLS) also followed to ensure that the plain language used when conducting the research.

Approval granted from the RMIT Business Human Research Ethics Sub-Committee with online questionnaire designated as Category 1 (formerly No Risk) and  focus group as Category 2 (formerly Minimal Risk) (See Appendix R).

 

3.9 Conclusion

During the data collections, researcher acknowledged that each approach reflected the unique qualities of social setting and context. While the online questionnaire method was relatively straightforward and easy for a novice researcher to implement, focus group interviews were a powerful way to gain insight into the librarians’ perceptions and expectations. Linguistic differences between interviewees and participants can be an issue embedded in many social relations when conducting an interview (Seidman 1998). The researcher was fluent in Vietnamese, thus able to conduct group discussions in Vietnamese and that make the collection progress much meaningful.

An analysis of findings from both the questionnaire and the focus group is presented in the following chapter.

 

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APPENDIXES

Appendix A – Feed back from online survey pilot testing

Appendix B - Online questionnaire in English

Appendix C  - Online questionnaire in Vietnamese

Appendix D  - Invitation Email to LRC Directors

Appendix E - Invitation Email to RMIT Library Director

Appendix F  - Invitation Email to Vietnam Development Libraries Network

Appendix G  - Reminder Email for survey

Appendix H  - Email permission for conduct a Focus group

Appendix I  - Granted permission from Directors

Appendix J  - Schedule of focus groups

Appendix K – Agenda of focus group

Appendix L  - Structure of Focus Group

Appendix M – Consent Form in English

Appendix N – Consent Form in Vietnamese

Appendix O – Focus Group Survey

Appendix P – Focus Group Prescribed questions

Appendix Q - Approval letter by the RMIT HREC 1

Appendix R - Approval letter by the RMIT HREC 2