Violence on Television

The National Institute of Mental Health revealed in its 1982 report that violent programs on television lead to aggressive behavior by children and teenagers who watch those programs.  The said report was confirmed and agitated the General Surgeon to conduct and extended and earlier study. As a result of these and other research findings, the American Psychological Association passed a resolution in February 1985 informing broadcasters and the public of the potential dangers that viewing violence on television can have for children.

Psychological research has shown that the children seeing violence on television may become less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others, more fearful of the world around them, and more likely to behave in aggressive or harmful ways toward others.

Studies show that children who watch a lot of TV are less aroused by violent scenes than are those who only watch a little; in other words, they're less bothered by violence in general, and less likely to see anything wrong with it. For instance, in several studies, those who watched a violent program instead of a nonviolent one were slower to intervene or to call for help when, a little later, they saw younger children fighting or playing destructively.

George Gerbner, Ph.D of the University of Pennsylvania has shown in his studies that children's TV shows contain about 20 violent acts each hour and also that children who too much exposed to television are more likely to think that the world is a mean and dangerous place.

It was noted that children often behave differently after they've been watching violent programs on TV. A study conducted at the Pennsylvania State University a included 100 preschool children who were observed both before and after watching television.  Some watched cartoons that contained aggressive and violent acts in them, and others watched shows that didn't have any kind of violence. The researchers observed that real differences between the kids who watched the violent shows and those who watched nonviolent ones.

Aletha Huston, Ph,D. of the University of Kansas revealed that 'children who watch the violent shows, even 'just funny' cartoons, were more likely to hit out at their playmates, argue, disobey class rules, leave tasks unfinished, and were less willing to wait for things than those who watched the nonviolent programs.'

Laboratory findings are further supported by field studies showing the long-range effects of televised violence. Leonard Eron, Ph.D., and his associates at the University of Illinois, discovered that children who spent many hours watching TV violence when they were in elementary school were likely to show a higher level of aggressive behavior when they became teenagers. By observing these youngsters until they were 30 years old, Dr. Eron found that the ones who'd watched a lot of TV when they were eight years old were more likely to be arrested and prosecuted for criminal acts as adults.

In the United States, violent crime is at its peak again, especially among the teenagers and it is noted that this trend is likely to continue. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention reports that between 1985 and 1994, there was a 40 percent increase in murders, rapes, robberies, and assaults reported to law enforcement agencies across the nation. What is even more alarming is the fact that despite their relatively low numbers in the population, the juveniles were responsible for 26 percent of this growth in violence.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation reveals that in the years between 1985 and 1995 there had been a 249 percent increase in gun-related murders committed by juveniles.  Furthermore, the year 1992 had in its record that three-quarters of the killings already involved guns when murder became the second leading cause of death among males 15-24 in the United States.  It is worth noting that the rapid increase of death for black and white older adolescents are firearm murders.

In 1994 alone, for example, juveniles were responsible for 14 percent of all violent crimes solved by authorities. The records show that they committed 20 percent of robberies, 14 percent of rapes, 13 percent of assaults, and 10 percent of murders.  With these numbers, taking of course the consideration of the fact that arrest rates recorded in 1992 remain constant, it is predicted that there will be a 22 percent increase in violence arrests for youth age 10-17 until the year 2010.

What is even worse is that the National Center for Juvenile Justice foresees that the number of youth age 10-17, who are arrested for violent crimes is more likely to double by the year 2010 if arrest rates continue to increase as they did between 1983 and 1992.  This projected growth between 1992 and 2010 is expected to vary among categories such as murders + 142 percent; rapes + 66 percent; robberies + 58 percent; and assault + 129 percent. 

 

Statistics shows that victims of violent crimes more likely involve youth age between 12 and 17 than any other age group except young adults age 18-24.  However, senior citizens, by contrast, are the least likely group to be victims of violent crime.  It is very disturbing that youth victimization is rapidly increasing but it is even more alarming to find out that the experience of being victimized by crime increases certain people’s inclination for perpetrating violence, juvenile crime, adult criminality, and adult violence toward family members.  Thus, if youth victimization is reduced youth violence will also be reduced as well. 

It also has been found out that black youth, along with recent Asian immigrants and gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth are also likely to become victims of violence stemming from 'hate crimes.'  Rates of victimization for young Hispanics are slightly lower than those for black and higher than those for white youth.

“In some areas of the country, it is now more likely for a black male between 15 and 25 to die from homicide than it was for a United States soldier to be killed on a tour of duty in Vietnam. ” New York Times, December 7, 1990.

The American Psychology Association also says that “regardless of race or cultural group, violence is most prevalent among the poor. Thus, although violence in nonurban areas is increasing, children in poor, unstable neighborhoods are more likely to be assaulted than their counterparts in affluent or stable suburbs. The ultimate violence is murder. Homicide has been the leading cause of death among African Americans age 15-34 since 1978. The lifetime risk of violent death for young black males is 1 in 27 and for black females, 1 in 17. By contrast, 1 in 205 young white males and 1 in 496 white females are murdered.”

In another angle, gang violence is important to be discussed, as juveniles are involved here.  Still in he United States, only a small percentage of youth join delinquent gangs, and relatively few gang members engage in violence. However, it is noted that in 3 out of 4 cases of murder and assault committed by juveniles, the perpetrators are likely to be gang members.

Studies indicate that in the 70s and 80s, cases of gang violence had significantly increased in both level and type of violence in the United States. Gangs now operate in all 50 states and in suburbia as well as the inner city. A survey of 35 cities in 1989 revealed a total of 1,439 gangs but the estimate today has escalated to about 2,000 gangs, with as many as 200,000 members. Until the 1970s, most gang members were 12-21 years old.  Today they can be anywhere as young as 9 or as old as 30. The younger and older gang members are mere reflections of the increasing involvement of gangs in drugs. Male gang members outnumber females 15 to 1, but the gender gap is slowly narrowing. Today's gang violence is deadlier than in the 1950s, when 'turf tiffs' were usually settled with switchblades or chains. Today, weapons of choice are AK-47s or Uzis, and drive-by shootings have replaced schoolyard rumbles.

Research findings show that three major national studies, The Surgeon General’s Commission Report (1972), The National Institute of Mental Health Ten-Year Follow-up (1982), The report of the American Psychological Association’s Task Force on Television in Society (1992), concluded that too much exposure on television violence is one of the most significant causes leading to social violence.

The three studies assert that watching violence in the televised form of media bring about negative effects.  According to the studies, watching television violence increases the viewer’s fear of becoming a victim of violence, with a resultant increase in self-protective behaviors and increased mistrust of others, desensitizes the viewer to violence, resulting in a calloused attitude toward violence directed at others and a decreased likelihood of taking action to help a victim of violence, increases the viewer’s appetite for becoming involved with violence, often demonstrates how desirable commodities can be obtained through the use of aggression and violence. Sexual violence in X- and R-rated videotapes widely available to teenagers has also been shown to cause an increase male aggression against females. (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry)

Also, the studies show that these effects are both short term and long lasting. A longitudinal study of boys found a significant relation between exposure to TV violence at 8 years of age and antisocial acts--including serious violent criminal offenses and spouse abuse--22 years later.  (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry)

In the article of Jean Tepperman that was published in the January-February 1997 edition of the Children’s Advocate newsmagazine, Tepperman  said that as an American child turns 18, he will have viewed about 200,000 violent acts on television alone.  She also added that the level of violence during Saturday morning cartoons is higher than during prime time. Prime time includes between three and five violent acts per hour, while Saturday morning cartoons show between 20 and 25 per hour.  Tepperman goes further by emphasizing the assertion of media-violence expert Ron Slaby that the violence in media is really damaging to children below eight years because "they don't have enough real-world experience to have a good sense of what's realistic. When we see a guy's head blown off, older people know this doesn't happen often. But younger kids don't know that. They may assume it's probable."  The article also reveals that television rarely shows negative consequences of violence. Children's programs are the least likely to depict long-term negative consequences of violence. They frequently portray violence as humorous.  Moreover, Tepperman explains that the programming on the television news contributes to media violence. News shows in the U.S., for instance, spend more than twice as much time on violent stories as Canadian news shows and are much more likely to open with a violent story.

The U.S. Surgeon General David Satcher recently released a report on youth violence which found that: "Exposure to violent media plays an important causal role in this societal problem" of youth violence, the draft report states. "From a public-health perspective, today's (media) consumption patterns are far from optimal. And for many children they are clearly harmful."

According to the Liberal Journal, college students who played the violent video game "Marathon 2" generated 43% more aggressive responses in later tests than those who played a nonviolent game. And in another study, researchers found that young black men who watched a violent rap music video were more likely to endorse the use of violence in a hypothetical conflict situation than those who watched a nonviolent rap video."

Maggie Fox, a Health and Science correspondent reported that adolescents who are exposed to television for more than hour are more likely to become violent than those who are not too exposed. In the report, it was found that only 5.7% of the adolescents who watched less than one hour of television committed aggressive acts against other people in later years, as compared to 22.5% of those who watched between one and three hours a day, and 28.8% (45% male - 12.7% female) who watched more than three hours daily. Male teenagers are the ones who are most influenced by it.
            Jeffrey Johnson of Columbia University in New York claimed that there is a "tendency to imitate behavior that people see on TV. We are social beings and we tend to want to try out things that we see other people doing, especially if we see the person rewarded for what they did or portrayed as a hero for it." Johnson added that “viewing media violence leads to a desensitization effect. The more violence that they see, the less negative, the more normal, it seems to them."  (Science, March 2002)

The National Television Violence Study, in its release on April 16, 1998, discovers that TV violence continues bring about risks of harm to children. The findings were able to come up with a conclusion that there was no change in the overall level of violence in reality programming across the three seasons. In the 1996-97 season, 39 percent of reality programs contained visually depicted violence compared with 37 percent in the 1995-96 season and 39 percent in the 1994-95 season.  Ratings based on age—like those used for movies and not television shows—actually increased children’s interest in restricted programs, but none of the content-based systems had this effect. Physical aggression is frequently condoned. Over 37% of violent programs feature "bad" characters who are never or rarely punished anywhere in the plot, and good characters are hardly ever criticized for violence. Seventy-five percent of violent scenes contain no form of punishment for the aggression. This glamorization of violence poses risks for the audience. Children will imitate violent characters who are heroic or attractive. Plots that can encourage aggression in young children are concentrated in programs and channels targeted to young viewers. In a typical week, there are over 800 violent portrayals that qualify as high risk for children below 7. Cartoons are primarily responsible.  Also, plots that can encourage aggression in older children and teens are concentrated in movies and dramas. Unlike younger children, adolescents are capable of discounting portrayals of violence that are highly fantastic, such as cartoons. Older viewers are susceptible primarily to more realistic portrayals of violence. In a typical week, there are nearly 400 episodes of violence that are considered high risk for teens. Most violence on television remains sanitized. Violence is typically shown with little or no harm to the victim. In fact, more than half of the violent incidents on television depict no physical injury or pain to the victim. (Liberation Journal)

Dr. Jane Ledingham says that children begin to notice and react to TV very early. By the age of three, children will willingly watch a show designed for them 95% of the time and will imitate someone on television as readily as they will imitate a live person (Parke and Kavanaugh, 1977). The average time children spend watching television rises from about two and a half hours per day at the age of five to about four hours a day at age twelve. During adolescence, average viewing time drops off to two to three hours a day (Liebert and Sprafkin, 1988).

Young children do not process information in the same way as adults. Nor do they have the experience or judgment to evaluate what they see. For example, children between the ages of six and ten may believe that most of what they see on TV is true to life. Since they watch a lot of TV, this makes them particularly vulnerable to the negative effects of television.

The results of studies on the effects of televised violence are consistent. By watching aggression, children learn how to be aggressive in new ways and they also draw conclusions about whether being aggressive to others will bring them rewards (Huesmann and Eron, 1986). Those children who see TV characters getting what they want by hitting are more likely to strike out themselves in imitation.

Even if the TV character has a so-called good reason for acting violently (as when a police officer is shown shooting down a criminal to protect others), this does not make young children less likely to imitate the aggressive act than when there is no good reason for the violence (Liss, Reinhart and Fredrikson, 1983).

In an important study carried out in Canada, children were found to have become significantly more aggressive two years after television was introduced to their town for the first time (Kimball and Zabrack, 1986). Children who prefer violent television shows when they are young have been found to be more aggressive later on, and this may be associated with trouble with the law in adulthood (Huesmann, 1986). Strong identification with a violent TV character and believing that the TV situation is realistic are both associated with greater aggressiveness (Huesmann and Eron,1986). In general, boys are more affected by violent shows that girls are (Lefkowitz, Eron, Walder and Huesmann, 1977).

Besides making children more likely to act aggressively, violence on television may have other harmful effects. First, it may lead children to accept more aggressive behavior in others (Drabman and Thomas, 1974). Second, it may make children more fearful as they come to believe that violence is as common in the real world as it is on television (Bryant, Careth and Brown, 1981).

But television is not always a negative influence. There is strong evidence that children's shows that were developed to teach academic and social skills can help children to learn effectively. In fact, research suggests that the positive effects of educational children's shows probably outweigh the negative effects of exposure to TV violence (Hearold, 1986).

If violence on television helps to make children more aggressive, it is still only a small part of the overall problem. Other factors in a child's life may be far more influential than TV. For example, pre-schoolers who were given guns and other "violent" toys to play with were found to commit more aggressive acts than pre-schoolers who had merely watched a television program with violent content (Potts, Huston and Wright, 1986).

Another major factor that determines how aggressive a child will be is how his or her parents behave. If parents ignore or approve of their child's aggressive behavior, or if they lose control too easily themselves, a TV control plan will not help. Similarly, if parents themselves exhibit violent behavior, they serve as role models for their children.

On the other hand, parents who show their children how to solve problems nonviolently and who consistently notice and praise their children for finding peaceful solutions to conflicts will have children who are less aggressive (Singer and Singer, 1986).

 Television violence does have a direct link in the violence exhibited by young children as well as teenagers. The more TV watched in the lifetime of the individual will only reinforce the wrong (or right) in that person’s life.  Television is a great means for communication as long as it communicates good principles and ideas. But when television gets violent, it looses its communication and educational appeal and becomes a tool for all that is evil in our society. Parents should know when to say "When" when it comes to the amount of time children spend in front of the television.

Works Cited

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Children and TV Violence. The

Youth Violence Epidemic. April 1999.

Bryant, J., R.A. Carveth and D. Brown. 1981. Television viewing and anxiety: An  experimental examination. Journal of Communication 31, 106-119.

Children's Advocate newsmagazine, published by Action Alliance for Children. January-

February 1997.

Comstock, G. (1991). Television in America. Newbury Park, CA; Sage Publications.

Dr. Jane Ledingham.  The Effects of Media Violence on Children. A Paper for The

National Clearinghouse on Family Violence

Hearold, S. 1986. A synthesis of 1043 effects of television on social behavior. In G.

Comstock (Ed.), Public Communications and Behavior: Volume I. New York: Academic Press.

Huesmann, L.R. Violence in the mass media, paper presented at the Third International Conference on Film

Regulation, London, England, 1992.

Huesmann, L.R. 1986. Psychological processes promoting the relation between exposure

to media violence and aggressive behavior by the viewer. Journal of Social

Issues 42, 125-139.

Huesmann, L.R. and L.D. Eron. 1986. Television and the Aggressive Child: A Cross National Comparison. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Huston, A.C., et al. Big world, small screen: The role of television in american society. Lincoln, NE:

University of Nebraska Press, 1992.

Jean Tepperman. TV: The Violence Teacher.

Just Hour of TV a Day Leads to Violence, Study Says - Maggie Fox, Health and Science Correspondent;     Reuters: March 28, 2002. The study, led by Jeffrey Johnson of Columbia University, was published in the journal "Science" during the last week of March, 2002.

Lefkowitz, M.M., L.D. Eron, L.D. Walder and L.R. Huesmann. 1977. Growing Up to be  Violent. New York: Pergamon Press.

Liebert, Robert, and Joyce Sprafkin. 1988. The Early Window. New York: Pergamon

Press.

Liss, M.B., L.C. Rienhardt and S. Fredrikson. 1983. TV heroes: The impact of rhetoric      and deeds. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 4, 175-187.

McCall, R.B., R.D. Parke and R.D. Kavanaugh. 1977. Imitation of live and

televised models by children one to three years of age. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 42, Serial No. 173.

National Institute of Mental Health (1982). Television and Behavior: Ten Years of

Scientific Progress and Implications for the Eighties, Volume 1. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Palmer, E.L. (1988). Television and America's Children: A Crisis of Neglect. New York:

Oxford University Press.

Potts, R., A.C. Huston and J.C. Wright. 1986. The effectsof television for and violent         

content on boys' attention and social behavior. Journal of Experimental Child     Psychology 41, 1-17.

St. Peters, M., M. Fitch, A.C. Huston, J.C. Wright and D.J. Eakins. 1991. Television and

families: What do young children watch with their parents? Child Development 63, 1409-1423.

Singer, D. and J. Singer. 1986 Family experiences and television viewing as predictors of

children's imagination, restlessness, and aggression. Journal of Social Issues 42, 107-124.

 

 

 

 

Different companies are fast emerging in the global market

Global Logistics and Supply Chain

 

-          Table of content

1.      Introduction

With the advent of information technology, different companies are fast emerging in the global market.  One of the companies admired in the global market is Nortel. Accordingly, the company is known to be the leader in providing communication capabilities which make the promise of Business made simple a reality for the target market. The next generation technologies, provided for both service provide and enterprise networks have been able to support multimedia as well as business-critical applications. The technologies of Nortel, are designed to help prevent or totally dispersed the barriers for having efficient company and those that hinders speed and effective performance. This is done by simplifying networks as well as connecting different stakeholders to the information they need. The company is operating in more than 150 nations all over the globe. Primarily, the main goal of this paper is to analyse the supply chain management approach of  and to determine their market entry strategies.  Furthermore, this report aims on identifying how Nortel Networks Corporation controls its global supply chain and aligns the global operations of the company. Lastly, this paper aims on comparing the global strategies of

 

2.      Manufacturing Strategies

Telecommunications industry like Nortel is fast becoming one of the major contributors to the business sector. In this industry there are various trends which affect the performance of the company (, 2003). In this generation, the major trends in the environment of Nortel and other telecommunications and manufacturing companies gravitate towards a global scale. With this, Nortel find them faced with the challenge of producing new and better products at reduced cost and market price. Aside from this, the globalization trend is also influencing the way Nortel operates in the global market. Additionally, globalization calls for the industry to design strategies which will ensure that the largest scope of innovations is taken hold of. With these shifts comes the important role that innovative activities play in the organization's management of its various aspects.

With these trends, Nortel should spark new passions. Innovation comes from the heart as well as the head. Companies that aren't afraid to innovate engage employee energies in a new and profoundly different way. When people are part of a cause and are not considered as just a cog in the wheel, their innovation quotient skyrockets. And above all, recognize that in today's economy, capital is plentiful; good ideas are scarce. Companies that look to incremental change to generate additional revenue will tend toward subsistence at best--eclipsed by companies that create an environment of innovation, spawning the new ideas that generate new wealth (2000). The environment where Nortel belongs monitor these trends through the use of the information technology system and the use of the internet to determine how these trends could impact their organizational performance and how they will be able to compete efficiently with these trends. However, the emergence of different telecommunication products and service providers has affected the organizational competitiveness of industries like Nortel. In this regard, the company has been able to use different manufacturing approaches to survive in the global market.

Based on the case given, it has been mentioned that Nortel has been able to use distinctive manufacturing strategy to sustain their competitive advantage. In doing so, the company has been able to change the structure of their 23 manufacturing sites to adapt to the situation in the global market and to ensure that they will be the number one choice of their clients in terms of system house (See Appendix 1). Part of the manufacturing strategy of the company is being ah production or process focused rather than product focused. With this, the company ensures that all their manufacturing process are able to meet the ISO 9000 standards. ISO 9000 has been described as the fundamentals of quality management system. The principal philosophy of ISO 9000 is to give a standardized approach that global company should follow and use. ISO 9000 is composed of different programs which vary according to the functions in order to give a structure on which a quality management program system can be efficiently used for the development of the operations of business organizations (, 2008). Accordingly, Nortel has been able to follow these standards to ensure quality manufacturing process. The company’s total quality culture involves team working and investing in their human capital. The company believes that employees are the main asset of the company and empowering them enhances productivity and adherence to quality products or services in the telecommunication industry. Aside from this, the company’s process focused approach which is known as systems house relies on strategic supply chain approach.

In this regard, the supply chain management approach in Nortel has become a key strategic initiative to improving service and reducing costs in order to remain competitive in today’s global economy ( 2001). SCM is business strategy focusing on the quick response to ever-changing market needs and shortened purchasing lead time, also adding value to increasingly demanding customers at the least cost and time (Water, 2007). The company’s global supply chain approach aims on having a good relationship to their global suppliers to provide quality products and services to their clients.

Like any other telecommunication industries, there are also some factors which affect the operation of the company. This includes the context of market changes. Based on the given case, the changes in the global telecommunication market have an enormous effect to industries like Nortel.  One of these changes include the deregulation of the industries which drove the competition to the traditional PTTs. Such companies are considered for having new ideas, demands as well as legacy systems.

Aside from these, the increasing competitions have also affected the global operation of Nortel. Accordingly, competitors are major threats to the business. It can be said that there are competitors who are in the business longer than Nortel. While these competitors has gradually developed its core competencies and technologies over a very long time period, some of the major technological assets that underpin Nortel’s contemporary competitiveness have initially been developed by other firms, and subsequently been acquired by Nortel. The firm’s inability to keep up with the global market or recognize its demand, creates a threat for them, a risk that they could be displaced by other industry leaders like Motorola, Sony Ericsson, Samsung, Nokia and others. The legal and political environment in the countries where they operate in could potentially affect the business negatively. Their apparent complacence could be used by their competitors to their advantage, and take Nortel by surprise, with the latter realizing too late that they are not the industry leader anymore. Customer discontent is also a very potent threat being faced by the company, connected to the hasty decrease in the separate product's life circle. The inevitability of using all the possible phone variants became one of the side effects of having wide product line, as Nortel products would show.

According to  (2004), the trends and regulations at the network operator level heavily influence the telecommunications industry. Despite their immense size, telecommunication products providers are often at the mercy of international regulations and the demands of national operators, particularly in terms of industry standards. As s result, companies such as Nokia engage in significant and often skilful lobbying efforts at the European Union and other regulatory levels to create favorable standards that allow them a degree of certainty in their production cycles. Today, the telecommunications industry is affected by the global trends of increasingly mobile technology, with progressively greater importance placed on speed, data and multimedia advancements. Moreover, the industry is affected by a tendency to be overly optimistic about the implementation of this new technology, leading many firms to create an excess supply of equipment that the marker has not been quite ready to absorb. While Europe and the United States have been the primary targets for telecommunication growth during the 1990s telecommunications boom, and even during the slowdowns, suppliers and operators are beginning to focus on emerging markets with higher growth potential like what Nortel has been doing.

 

3.      Market Entry strategies

In the business arena, it is important that an business industries must be knowledgeable about the different marketing strategies that must be utilized in order to make the business prolong its competitiveness and stay in the marketing world, locally and internationally.  The management of an enterprise that are considering entry into a foreign market must be able to make decisions focusing on uncertain and changeable circumstances that might be faced.  Hence, their decision must include the consideration of the mode of market entry to be used. 

Internationally, entry modes have long been distinguished as closely related to varying degrees of resource commitment, exposure to risks, control and profit return.  Past studies have shown that the choice of entry modes depends on different types of factors, including firm-specific factors ( 1997), industry-specific and country-specific factors ( 1997).  Entering a new market is a complex decision which must be given focus and attention.  With the goal of establishing a business that would be recognized and patronized by consumers, more and more entrepreneurs are trying to enter the market swiftly. There are different motivations for market entry.  One of the motivational factors to enter an international market is the chance given by this investment to make the company become more competitive among its rivals.  It can be said that one’s an industry becomes a multinational company, there is an implication that such company has been able to establish a competitive position in the marketplace not only in the local but most especially to the global arena. Marketing entry is also capable in making a certain business enhance and expand its business portfolio. Based on the case study, Nortel has been able to use an effective market entry approach to become a competitive industry in the market. Based on the given case, it can be said that Nortel has been able to use Joint Venture approach as their marketing entry strategy.

It is said that the joint venture mode happen by having a venture with other bigger and competitive companies in the telecommunication industries like LG. An international joint venture is a distinct enterprise or multi-organizational agreement, created as an alliance between two or more parents organizations working across country borders in designing and managing the venture ( 1996).

In order to do so, the company must ensure that the company is willing to have a joint venture with Nortel. In addition, Nortel has also been able to use a third party stakeholder to help them in designing and implementing joint venture with an existing telecommunication industry in the global market,  For instance, banks, government agencies, union officials, suppliers, distributors and legal officials often make critical contributions in designing-implementing parts of an international joint venture. Enterprises with little prior experience in setting-up joint venture almost always underestimate the impact of third party involvement.

Nortel has been able to use global supply chain approach with their global partners through joint venture and merger and acquisition. Based on the given case, the company has been able to merge with stable industries in the global market and also acquire small industries with good marketability and reputation. The company made it sure that they are able to have competitive position in the market place.

The company makes sure that their global supply chain partners will help them achieve competitive advantage in the market. Accordingly, interdependence and participation of suppliers and manufacturers in product design, innovation, as well as research and development characterize the current international business environment resulting to competitive position ( 2001;2002; 2003) like what Nortel is experiencing. Their global supply chain process has accommodated their global strategies to meet and satisfy the needs of their target market. The high cost of acquiring leading-edge, technology-based equipment and an accompanying highly skilled research and labor force makes contract manufacturing a highly attractive alternative for many companies (1998; 2004).

It can be said that Nortel has been able to use the most appropriate mode of market entry which include joint venture, merging and acquisition to make it products be known in the international market. Further, this method has also been able to make Nortel diversify its products to other products. In the case of Nortel, the company used joint venture and merger and acquisitions to stay in the competitive market and perform better within the marketplace, by providing innovative and new products in terms of telecommunication through the ideas that the management gain because of merging with and acquiring other companies. It shows that without such strategy, the company may not be able to expand its business portfolio and reach more and more customers from local to international market. 

               It can be concluded that the right choice of market entry mode along with the concept of strategic management and other efficient marketing approach, can make a company succeed in achieving its goal of providing quality products with their target market.  However, decisions should be made strategic also. This means, that the company should have the ability to decide which among the market entry mode can be helpful to the company itself and suitable for the international market that the company will consider.

 

4.      Compare and contrast with Nokia

Different telecommunication industries have been emerging in the global market and each of these industries are trying to provide their unique strategies and approaches.

5.      Conclusion

6.      References

7.      Appendix

Appendix 1

Nortel Networks Systems House

Supply Chain Position

 

Erickson Theory

Erik Erikson’s Theory

Introduction

A good theory is useful as a basis for any fundamentals or innovation like in technology, system, or education. A good theory should not contradict itself and have a consistency no matter how complicated the situation, question, or intellectual measurement used to it. The theory should pass in a series of test and proved true or wrong in any manner of falsification. And the last is that the theory has a supported data, because in one way or another, criticisms and scrutiny will try to break the idea of the theory.

Good theories allow the people to describe, predict, and explain the things that people do and their behavior. In the study of Erikson’s Theory, the learning in the classroom can have a better chance to be improved, most especially with the aid of the teachers.

Erikson’s Eight Stages of Social/Emotional Development

1.      Learning Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)

This characteristic is usually worked on during the first and second year of a child’s life. Depending on how the child is nurtured and cared for and loved, a foundation of trust, security, and optimism is developed. There is also varying degrees of insecurity and mistrustfulness are developed when the child is not given the nurturing care that he or she needs.

 

 

2.      Learning Autonomy versus Shame (Will)

The second “psychosocial crisis” that Erikson identified generally occurs between 18 months and 4 years of age. This stage focuses on the development of the child’s “will” and developing a sense of autonomy. The word “No” often becomes a regular staple of the child’s vocabulary. If the child is “well-parented” and satisfactorily works out or resolves this issue, she or he will emerge as a self-assured and proud child. However, if the child is not adequately parented she or he may emerge from this stage, to varying degrees, ashamed and unsure.

3.      Learning Initiative versus guilt (Purpose)

The third stage generally occurs sometime during what Erikson calls the “play age,” between 3.5 and about 5 years of age, before the child enters her or his first year of formal school. During this stage children develop their capacity for imagination, fantasy, and active play while learning how to cooperate with others, lead others, and follow the lead of others. A child without a strong foundation and without adequately resolving the specific challenges of this stage may become immobilized by guilt - fearful, attracted to the fringes of groups, heavily dependent on adults. In this case the child’s development of her or his imagination and play skills is restricted.

4.      Learning Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence)

The fourth stage is encountered primarily during the elementary school years and may include some junior high years. This stage focuses on the development of “formal skills” of life, skills that enable a child to succeed at activities that are governed by a relatively complex set of formal rules. Such skills are teamwork within a sport, organizing and completing homework, studying and mastering academic subject areas.

5.      Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity)

The fifth stage generally occurs between the ages of 13 and 20. This stage calls on adolescents to identify a self-image that satisfactorily represents their own. This effort involves experimentation, and finding one’s place within the world that often leads to rebellion, minor delinquency, and self-doubt. However, the adolescent that satisfactorily resolves this question will transform self-doubt and self-consciousness into self-certainty, develop a constructive identity, and will expect to succeed. Adolescents who have not adequately mastered the previous stages will often falter. There is a tendency for middle and upper class adolescents to experiment for a longer period than their counterparts, as their development is afforded a longer gestation before they are expected to make life-long decisions.

6.      Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)

The sixth stage of Erikson’s theory of social-emotional development generally occurs during the individual’s life as a young adult. The focus of this stage is on the development of intimacy, developing a capacity for genuine and lasting friendship or marriage.

7.      Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care)

The seventh stage of social-emotional development is focused on the development of one’s capacity for generosity and caring. The roles of marriage and parenthood demand this, as does working productively and creatively.

8.      Learning Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom)

The last stage of Erikson’s development theory is focused on the development of integrity confidence and social-emotional balance that enables a person to be proud and happy with their defined role in life. However, if even one of the previous stages is not appropriately resolved, this capacity for satisfaction is compromised and can lead to despair.

Discussion

To Erikson, physical growth follows a biological timetable. Anything that grows has a ground plan and out of this ground plan parts arise. He believed that because we are social animals, the society has also evolved certain social orders, roles, and demands that are parallel with physical growth. For example, when a child achieves control of his muscle movement, we then expect him to explore his surroundings under parental guidance; or when a child has command of his language and is capable of taking care of rudimentary tasks; society expects him to attend school. Both physical and social epigenetic principles mature in different stages. The interaction between physical, cognitive, and social growth during maturation in each stage of life creates a sequence of developmental crises that become central to the child’s growth ( 1998).

As a developmental theory, each stage represents a major psychological crisis that one faces in life. Depending on the manner in which the crisis is resolved, one's cognition is formed. Such a resolution, according to Erikson, provides the basis for the development of a conflict or dilemma for the next stage of development. In other words, each stage affects the next stage. Unsuccessful resolution of a stage may negatively effect the development of later stages in life (1998).

Implications and Applications

As a teacher, the theory of Erickson is helpful in understanding the process of learning of an individual starting from its childhood. Many teachers in today’s generation are keep on finding the right way to make the students be more focus on their study. And with the use of the theory, the teacher can understand better the needs of each student according to their age.

Most students search for an identity, and therefore many learners begin to adopt idols, ideas, heroes, and cliques can be remarkably clannish and cruel in the exclusion of others. Every step can be learned just with a proper guidance and input of applicable or appropriate ideas. Just like how does a baby starting to crawl, students will first develop their sense of understanding and interest before demonstrating the things that they learned.

Sample Essay Racism a social problem that has been occured many years ago and also passed through many changes

Racism: a social a problem

 

Racism: Historical Overview

            Racism – a social problem that has been occurred many years ago and also passed through many changes. Slavery is one of the oldest and yet the most harmful of all. In the early 16th century, Peru had encountered the inhuman way of slavery in the colonial economic system which finally introduced the great and the never ended debate concerning to the questions of human rights. The important personalities including the Martin Luther King, Jr. Baptist pastor and also Nobel Laureate, led the struggle for the civil rights in the United States until its assassination in 1968. Racism is a phenomenon with continues risen through two opposite opinions and always intense confrontations when it comes to the black citizens. Many people support the human rights to everyone as the same. There are many instances on how the black citizens had been treated through the years by the white citizens. This had happened because there some of the people believed that the black people are thought to represent the society as the lower rank compared to the whites. In the earlier days of the 20th century, the image of racism was largely black and white. Today, racism had become multi-colored as well as multicultural. With the high increase of diverse populations who entered and maintain the communities all over the country, racism had expanded and includes the antagonism between the people of many cultures.  

            In the 21st century had brought many attempts changes in the society. There are legislations and memorandum which is against the discrimination in its many forms. The     affirmative action had been used as a key to the assurance of the individuals’ equality and opportunity for employment, for the housing, and for the other types of advancements. The television shows also had changed formats and characters to have a political correctness. Nevertheless, the society intelligently and pleasantly maintains its separate point of views in the issues regarding the races. Ancient barriers still exist owing to the truth that it is still not possible to legislate the hearts of men. There will always be those citizens who will fight for the change while the others resist, which seeks to maintain the status quo. These are all issues of the economy, the power, and the control which is not easily relinquished. Inasmuch as racism is still an institutional ideology, there still no improvement unless many individuals work and unite towards it.

Ecological Perspective on the Racism

            In the further study of the racism it has been detect that as an ideology the racism had been lessen in the time of 1940s, though some of the countries including the South Africa it has been supported of the political leadership. When it comes to the talk of the other countries this will remain as a plane mythology. The overwhelming majority of the scientific opinion in the social as well as biological sciences, however, now rejects the notion that the large human populations, this includes the so-called white, black, and yellow races as well, behave differently this is because of their physical appearance, or  they can be said to be as genetically superior or inferior to one another. Genetic differences between the population groups do exist, of course. None of these group differences had yet been shown to affect the personality, intelligence, as well as any ability that significantly can relate to the social behavior.

            In the modern arena, the underlying assumption regarding the term "racism" is a belief that differences in the culture, in the values, and/or the practices of some ethnic/religious groups are also "too different" and are likely to threaten the "community values" and social cohesion. Note in the evolution: as belief in racial differences and racial superiority had lessen in polite society, some parties expand the meaning of racism in order to condemn political decisions including the worrying about too much immigration (even of poor whites), prefer of the one’s own culture, preferring, fearing to the radical Islam, and the implementation of the effective counterterrorist measures (Pipes, 2005). This attempts to delegitimize the political differences that must be rejected. Racism refers to racial issues, not to views on the immigration, the culture, the religion, the ideology, the law enforcement, or the military strategy. But it we cannot refuse that racism had already taken many forms and also had evolved or even changed through the decades. It did assumed new forms and also did articulate regarding the new antagonisms in different situations.

            Taking what happened in the Britain as one of the situation of the effect of the racism in the environment wherein the black and the Asian people who’s having a hard time looking for the job. The jobseekers had no longer contended with the problems stemming from their recent arrival. The laws which is against the discrimination of the in the employment had been in the place for over the decade. Looking at the background of the stability and the formal rights, the minority ethnic groups of the Britons were expecting to take up the same opportunities in the employment to enjoy by the people. All of the expected they suggest the changes in the employment pattern of the black people. This lead to nowhere and they are converging with the employments patterns of whites and the earlier injustice as well as the imbalances that continue setting the boundaries within the change can occur. (Racism and Antiracism, 58)

            In accordance to the to Goldenberg David Theo, the racist culture along with the laws there are many programs that had been made and though the absence of the available opportunities including the preferential treatment programs for the college admissions as well as hiring and promotions seems a modest means one of the necessary but not simply for the integration and for the advancing of the incorporative politics. The programs have been served to draw those the said voices into the academic and the professional positions which had tended to be silence by their exclusion, these voices that mostly proved resistant to the mainstream appropriation. (Racism Culture, 232).

            Racism had survived at this moment it is less intense and it is intellectually respectable than it was a century ago. But human beings are continuing to mistreat on their ethnic identities as their basis. Furthermore, we have returned to the chronological starting point of the said inquiry. Even before racism had started, Christians persecuted Jews and Muslims due to their beliefs and their behavior. The Crusades were not had fought under the banner of white, the Aryan, or the Indo-European superiority or the divine right of Herrenvolk to rule over the lesser breeds. The conflicts were defined today that would call cultural rather than racial terms. The line between “culturalism” and racism is not that difficult to cross. Culture and even religion can also become essential zed to the point that they can serve it as a functional equivalent of biological racism, as to some extent occurred recently in the perception of blacks in the United States and Britain, and of Muslims in several predominantly Christian nations (Fredrickson, 2002).

 

 

Trends in Effects of Racism Measured by the Women's Median Wage a proportion of the Men's and the Non-whites' as the proportion of the Whites, 1939 and 1972

 

 

1939

1972

Nonwhites/whites

0

0

Nonwhites women/ white women

37.9

86.8

Nonwhite men/white men

45

70

                                                                        Figure 1.

            The figure1 shows the effect of the racism which was measured by the Women’s Median a proportion of the Men’s and the No-whites’ to the proportion to the whites. This figure shows the higher the ratio the greater the effect of the racism. By this time we can see that the greater the effect of the racism is on the Non -whites’ women and white women’ which means that the most criticized people are those non-white women's.

 

Labeling Perspective of the Racism

            In the issue of the labeling in the particular and the position of the racist is more complicated that is why it is very important to have a careful scenario and have to think of a situation through which it should be analyzed it well because this will have a potential to polarize. It was indeed impressive to see the moment that the charges of racism had made a sense due to the fact that they strike a nerve; they have the ability to educate the public and will force a constructive change in the policy. On the most recent and yet an exact example is the Bertram Aristotle’s charge about the U.S. policy toward the Haiti which was racist due to the fact that immigrants who are black were turned back but when we look at the other side the white Cuban immigrants were totally welcomed though fleeing Cuba for the many of which have the same reasons Haitians were fleeing. The trouble in the idea of the racism is that it is unavoidable to take on the personal meaning even if trying to use this impersonally which connote the systems as well as the structures of the racial oppression as the institutionalized racism. The popular mind do not understand in the idea that the racism is refers to the objectives or the structural realities that the social scientist and the Third World should know. Most of the people especially the European Americans they define racism as the feeling and the attitudes as well as the actions. Many of the white college students have the same problem and have immediately confuse regarding the objectives and the subjective racism. This has had felt them that they are being attacked personally as being racist though that is not the proper intention.

            There are so many African American whether intellectual or militants have seized upon the objective-subjective distinction to the argument that the black people cannot be the racist because they don’t have the power to institute or to uphold the structures of dominations. It was a great assumption that the Black people cannot be racist and they should serves as a green light among the some Africans Americans to the legitimacy and the expression of the crude stereotypes and the hatreds of the ethnic groups which are commonly the Jews, their expressions which will be unacceptable if being voiced by the Whites.

            Discrimination is the manifestation of racism. It involves keeping the radicalized group apart, setting them aside designated spaces for it will leave under the certain, presumably restrictive conditions. It also imposes differential treatment on the group in the different kinds of fields in the social life. The treatment wherein the group has to participates in line with the render in the inferior.

            For the further understanding regarding the discrimination and the labeling in the racism, we can take the example of the South Africa, wherein the term “apartheid” had designed. This is the form of the organization in the economic production that made the blacks as not only a segregated group but as well as the socially dominated. The formulation of Ernest W. Burgess explains on how cities grow outward from the central business districts in Chicago. The process of the distribution had took place in this formulation wherein the people relocates and individuals as well as groups which was depending on their residence and their occupation.       

CONCLUSION

The term racism is now increasingly used and defined to mean something far beyond its dictionary definition. This is because racism is not a stagnant thing and is continues and constantly evolving and changing. Racism is no longer just about the color, it is a racism that is not just only directed at those with darker skins, from the past colonial territories, but at the newer categories. It is racism, that is, that cannot be a color-coded, and this directed as it is at poor whites and to the Asians as well. Racism includes all aspects of discrimination in education, work, religion, income, and many more.

            If we look at the issue further we have been infer that the best job to explain the problem is the ecological perspective. This had been used because there are so many instances wherein racism has been the issue in the environmental and the social problem of a person or even the group of people. In this arena we can determine that the racism had been rooted in the small unit of the society. This small unit will lead be a very good basis to determine the discrimination of the other people to the others. There are so many reasons why does people kept on discriminating the other cultures and one of which is the color which was the basis of the other group in recruitment. The belief of the other race is also an important and yet the most reliable reason why they isolate themselves to the others which was given to the fact that this belief will lead to the influence of the groups. The black people are always the victims of this system wherein they had find a hard time in relating to the other nations and as well as to the other races. This will also influence to them to improve, excel, and to diversify their culture despite of the discrimination they encountering in the hand of the other races. Most of them still believe that the black people have the same rights to the other kinds of races, besides they are all humans.

Policy to Make in the Racism Issue

            The discussion of the issue regarding racism is broad and need much explanation as well as further analysis. The racism is one of the issues that the any society needs to fix out. Though we know that it is such a hard task to do but then if we should try to reflect on the effect of this then that would be the great reward anyone can received. Anything huge issue can start fixing in small pieces of things.  First and foremost, the family should start it all. Home is the foundation of every attitude of the child, that is why the parents should teach their children on not to discriminate the other races in this manner the child will know and he will bring this as he grows old. Aside from that, the school should teach every student the proper way of respecting other students who are in different races. This will be the training ground of the students to maximize its talents and admitting the other races as well as its belief. The United Nations (UN) also was a great bridge for the other countries as well as the other nations to unite and made an organization that will lead to them to know and discover the strengths, the beliefs as well as the culture of one another. The government also should have a legal matter regarding this issue that will push through this kind of policy by implementing such laws that the masses should follow. This will minimize the racism and will be unite each and everyone.

Comparison on the development of nonprofit social service regimes in Hong Kong and any other two places and examine the factors leading to their differences

HONG KONG

 

There adapts the ‘social origins theory’ by and did argue that the nonprofit regime in Hong Kong can be characterized as statist–corporatist. As the statist–corporatist regime displays the hybrid character of both a statist and a corporatist regime: its statist character can be seen in the high degree of autonomy of the state, its tendency to limit freedom of association and the low commitment to social provision. (2005) Its corporatist character is evident in the high level of participation by designated nonprofit organizations in selected areas of social provision under state funding. It is shown how the development of this nonprofit regime was historically shaped by four factors; namely, the interest of the colonial state in maintaining domination, economic and public financial policy, the historical formation of the welfare system and political regime change. The was distinct historical forces and the path of development in an Asian state that might affect nonprofit development. (2005) Aside, Yun-wing Sung argues that Hong Kong needs to redefine its strategy of being a service center for manufacturing on the Asian mainland and look to broader business services and high technology. And  echoes the point that Hong Kong must improve its technology infrastructure and invest in technology research and development. According to , global economic changes pressure Asian firms to redefine their approach to national business systems and integrate themselves more fully into global networks.

 

 

 

 

Thus, the recent and projected growth of cities and the increasing share of Asia's population living in urban areas, at the same time as the region becomes more integrated with the global economy will pose challenges for leaders. Development issues are approached broadly and technology chiefly enters the discussion as technology policy and infrastructure in Hong Kong. Domestic and international business appears indirectly, mostly as commentary on Thailand's small business enterprises, reference to Hong Kong's industrial restructuring and general observations on business networks. Political analysis receives the most attention, particularly the debate over democratization at the intranational scale; multinational relations are given secondary importance. (2003) The emerging nonprofit service regimes have operated within the social contexts and the nonprofit law in Asia is evolving out of a national security context rather than a civil liberties context. Existing laws and regulations throughout the region reflect the security concerns of former colonial regimes,   the social control orientation of various types of authoritarian regimes and the historical tradition of state dominance over the economy and society like the ‘engaging in acts that harm the public interest’ (South Korea); ‘engaging in activities detrimental to the national interest’ (Hong Kong); for ‘being managed in a manner contrary to public order, good morals, or the security of the state’ (Thailand) to allude to some continuing problems in the nonprofit enabling environment and suggested the need for greatly increased public understanding and support for the regimes that will affect the future development of the non-profit services in strengthening management and better systems of governance. (2003)

 

 

 

 

The regimes often referred to as civil society and in some countries are beginning to receive substantial support from their own citizens and governments. Furthermore, a vibrant nonprofit social regimes, requires and emerges from a society that values pluralism, autonomy and innovation and acknowledges the legitimate role of private actors to participate in the formulation and implementation of public policy. (  2003)

 

 

THAILAND

 

Moreover, Thailand's nonprofit regimes have long viewed by the country's various military governments as a potential if not actual competitor for power, is increasingly recognized as essential to the nation's economic and social development efforts. (1991) The distrust of the state and the wariness of its administration have by no means disappeared, as many grassroots development and advocacy organizations continue to be suspected of harboring communist or other political sentiments that the state deems hostile. Nevertheless, recent long-range plans issued by the government openly call for cooperation with a wide array of nonprofit organizations, including those active in rural development. The nonprofit regimes in Thailand, has its origins in religion. From its earliest times, Buddhism has been a significant source of philanthropy and social service, and remains so today. (1991) Buddhism also served as a source of political stability, which is why its treatment under various regimes has been notably different from that accorded other nonprofits.

 

 

 

During the post-World War II era, non-religious organizations came to the fore, particularly advocacy and development groups. In spite of periods of suppression, such groups continue to grow in number and type of activity in relation to the evolution of its nonprofit organizations, describes the types of Thai nonprofit organizations and relations among the state, this suppression of non-governmental and nonprofit activity lasted until the latter part of the 1980s. The unregistered groups began to revive their activities, and new groups formed, slowly assuming an increasingly active role in the development of Thai society. (1991) Today, most of the public oriented organizations devoted to development were founded during the late 1980s. Since the fall of Saigon and Phnom Penh in 1975, Thailand has experienced an influx of Vietnamese, Laotian, and Cambodian refugees, most of which have been placed in refugee camps just inside the Thai border, the situation has influenced the composition of the Thai nonprofit services. Ideally, only three types of nonprofit regimes are recognized and registered by the Thai government: associations, labor unions and federations, and foundations. Other terms exist, such as councils and leagues, but to acquire legal status they must register under one of the three legally acceptable terms. All registered nonprofits are non-political; they must, in fact, declare themselves non-political under their written statement of objectives. Political parties are, on the other hand, registered separately and, of course, allowed to have political objectives. Unregistered organizations, including development and religious groups, may or may not be recognized by the government, but do relate to Thailand's nonprofit sector, either as component or borderline entities (1991).  

 

 

 

Grassroots organizations and advocacy groups usually do not register with government agencies, often because of burdensome endowment or membership requirements. (1985) Beyond development and advocacy groups, various unregistered centers and institutions in Thailand operate action projects and/or research programs. Many religious organizations are also unregistered. Every village has a temple or what engaged in religious philanthropic activities. Umbrella groups that do not register are those that coordinate a variety of types of organizations working on particular projects.  (1985) Thus, in modern times, the Thai society has been vigorously indoctrinated with nationalistic sentiments that were supposed to serve as a "psychological foundation" for the Thai (1985 ). After the reign of Rama VI, the government started the process of democratization. However, the constitutional government that came to power after the 1932 coup d'etat shifted its priorities away from the questions of ethnicity and nationality. Since the government did not support the nonprofit sector, international nonprofit organizations provided a substantial contribution to the development of the Thai nonprofit regime. (1985) The Thai nonprofit sector comprises associations and foundations engaged in philanthropy, economic and social development, health and social services, advocacy, and cultural and recreational activities. In general, these organizations meet the criteria of the structural/operational definition of the nonprofit sector suggested by  and (1992), they are formally organized, they are separate from the government and operate primarily or largely for the public at large, they do not distribute income in excess of expenses among their own members, they are self-governing and they include a meaningful degree of voluntarism. (1992)

 

 

SOUTH KOREA

 

South Korea’s nonprofit regime has been invisible in the country’s institutional landscape mainly due to the deep-rooted tradition of state-centered society. Thus, any statistics on the sector as a whole do not exist. Despite this, several components of the nonprofit regime, such as religious organizations, membership organizations, private educational institutions, and welfare organizations, have grown since the early part of the 20th century. These developments were joined by labor movements and the rise of civil society organizations in the mid-1980s. (1994) Aside, the South Korean nonprofit sector has been shaped and has developed as a comparable entity to the state and business sector. South Korean society has evolved dramatically since the 19th century. To cope with the new challenges posed by the Western powers in the 19th century, Korea had to adopt an open-door policy in order to achieve a new standard of civilization. Although the Korean government made belated efforts to pursue open-door policies, it could not successfully survive in the new East Asian international order of the early 20th century. The end of Japanese colonial rule (1909-1945) and the building of the Republic of Korea in 1948 brought about a liberal democratic political system and modern social life. Since then an abundance of political groups, voluntary associations and social movements have been founded, though this situation has experienced disjunctive moments, such as the Korean War of 1950-53, the military coups of 1961 and 1980, and authoritarian rule. (1994) These associations and movements are closely related to the role and characteristics of the South Korean state.

 

 

Aside, definitions and concepts concerning the institutions and associations located in the area between the state and business reflect a distinct Korean history and social formations. Such conceptualizations are closely tied to the ways that societies have developed to define and provide public goods and social services and to resolve social and political conflicts. In South Korea, the area between the state and business has not been commonly understood as a single institutional regime. (1994) Traditional Confucian culture and successive authoritarian regimes have retarded development of an autonomous and independent nonprofit sector in South Korea. It is imperative to clarify and analyze these factors considering that numerous nonprofit organizations have recently emerged and that their influence is growing ever stronger. It is not easy to outline the boundaries of the nonprofit sector in South Korea, since historically there has been no obvious distinction between the state and civil society. (1997) The familiar conceptual ambiguities that surround the subject of civil society have generated a scholarly debate on whether or not South Korea can be said to have a civil society. While civil society in the sense of a non-state arena is well developed in South Korea, civil society in the sense of associational groups is not. Before 1945, the nonprofit sector was dependent on the state and as a result it built no indigenous capacity. Kinship-based and centralized agrarian social systems did not develop into a civil society with diversity and dynamics. (1997)

 

 

 

 

 

 

Therefore, kinship or village-based voluntary organizations dominated over any emergence of an independent civil society. Even though the rural gentry class had formed their own autonomous social boundaries, ordinary people could not form any kind of civil organizations, with the exception of self-help organizations and many service-oriented religious groups and charity or enlightening institutions were also founded during this period. Korea has been increasingly influenced by nongovernmental civil organizations since liberation in 1945. (1999) The Korean experience of the nonprofit sector in the post-Liberation period can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage encompasses the period before the early 1960s when the primary goal of the state was to maintain national security. Most nonprofit organizations in those days were service-oriented, providing welfare services or implementing development projects for the poor, and were mostly supported, if not established, by foreign aid. In this period Korean society was still agrarian, and community and blood-based associations were popular. (1999) The realm of civil society in an agrarian society was in one’s neighbors, communities and religious activities. Nevertheless, many political groups and social movements appeared in the changing Korean society, expanding the social sphere dramatically. They were ideologically diverse and successful in mobilizing people. Shortly after the liberation there were strong labor and peasant movements that resisted military rule by the United States and the right.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Consequently, the revolutionary movement broke out in April of 1960 when students and intellectuals revolted against the undemocratic state. The second stage began with the authoritarian developmental state. It lasted from the early 1960s until 1987 when the authoritarian regime fell under the Great Democratic Movement. Rapid growth of the economy resulted in the differentiation of society and the development of a middle class. (1992) Civil society organizations are new actors in South Korean society especially after the economic crisis of 1997. Sometimes they influence the behavior of the state and business. The reason the role of civil society organizations is highlighted in the reform process is that political parties cannot serve as a leading force of the reform. In South Korea, it is much easier for civic engagement and citizens’ participation in politics to contact civil society organizations than political parties. Under these circumstances, civil society organizations assume the role of monitoring the government and the law-making process. (1997)  Furthermore, the pressure they exert on the government and parties to adapt their policy alternatives intensified. Major civil society organizations have equipped themselves with research institutes and policy commissions to strengthen their policy-presenting capacity. Groups of civil society organizations have been emerging in South Korean society since democratization started in earnest in 1987. South Korean civil society was very much dependent on the state and had little indigenous capacity as a result. In this sense there is no true civil society in South Korea. (1992)

 

 

 

 

 

In South Korea it seems that most NGOs have five crucial characteristics of the structural-operational definition of nonprofit organizations used by the Johns Hopkins Comparative Nonprofit Sector Project (1999). This means that most NGOs are organized, private, self-governing, non-profit-distributing, and voluntary. Some NGOs exhibit these five characteristics more clearly than others. There are some NGOs that do not fit well into this definition. In South Korea there are many incorporated foundations that are established by the government under special laws. They are on the borderline between the private and the public. These specially incorporated foundations are prevalent in the fields of research and education, culture and art, and international exchange and cooperation. The growth of civil society organizations in South Korea reflects their increasing role and capacity. Growing awareness of the need for popular participation in governance, combined with disenchantment with the performance of the government and recognition of its limited capabilities, has contributed to the growth of civil society. (1999) Socio-economic factors, such as economic development and differentiation of society, have also contributed to the growth of South Korean civil society. Civic organizations have attained impressive legitimacy in South Korean society during the last decade. However, the role of other actors should be emphasized, such as the media, trade unions, service-providers, and professional organizations that have been involved in the development of civil society. South Korean political circles are also keenly aware of the rising tide of these civic organizations. It seems that bureaucrats and chaebols (big business) still remain suspicious of civil organizations, but they could not ignore the influence and strength of civil and labor groups. Civic groups and labor unions are now important powerful players in the governance of South Korean society. (1999)

 

Social origins theory

 

The particular constellations of social, economic and historical developments that lead to these different regimes can differ from place to place. Each nonprofit regime is a byproduct of a complex set of historical forces with distinctive patterns that can be analyzed and compared.

 

 

Types of nonprofit regimes

 

 

Type of nonprofit regimes

Government spending

Size of nonprofit sector

Forms of financing

 

Some distinctive features

1.     liberal

 

Low

Large

private giving

a strong middle-class

2.     corporatist

High

Large

government support

 

state entering into collaboration with key social elites

3.     social democratic

High

Small

private giving

 

A strong working-class

4.     statist

Low

Small

fees and service charge

An authoritarian state

 

 

Nonprofit Regimes According to the Social Origins Theory

 

Government Social Nonprofit Scale

Welfare Spending Low High

Low Statist Liberal

High Social democratic Corporatist

 

Source:  (1998).

 

The understanding of nonprofit organizations in a comparative context has been framed by the pioneering work of (1998). In data collected through the  (JHCNSP), they propose a new theoretical approach to explaining patterns of nonprofit development internationally. Their “social origins” theory constitutes a valuable new perspective in comparative third-sector research. Nonetheless, it still rests on a two-sector view of society and the assumptions of the prevailing government failure approach in understanding the role of nonprofit organizations. Salamon and Anheier tested existing nonprofit theories against data assembled on eight countries as part of the JHCNSP (1998).  Finding none of the theories adequate to explain the variations among countries in the size, the composition, the financing of the respective nonprofit regimes, they proposed the social origins approach. In contrast to the single-factor explanations advanced in the context of neoclassical government market failure models, the social origins theory focuses on a broad range of societal, political, and economic factors in explaining the nonprofit phenomenon in a comparative perspective. (1998) There emphasizes that institutional choices about whether to rely on market, nonprofit, or state provision of social and other key services are heavily constrained by historical development and evolving societal patterns (1998). Moreover, the social origins theory (1998) identifies four more or less distinct routes of nonprofit development or four types of nonprofit regimes building on earlier work (1990) that each of the four regimes is characterized by two key dimensions: the extent of government social welfare spending and the scale of the nonprofit sector. In the so-called liberal regime, low government social welfare spending is associated with a relatively large nonprofit sector. At the opposite extreme is the social democratic regime. (1998) The state has assumed the task of sheltering the working class against social risks so that little room is left for service-providing nonprofit organizations. High government social welfare spending therefore goes together with a relatively small part of the nonprofit sector. In between these two models are two additional regimes characterized as the corporatist regime and the statist regime. In the former, the state has made common cause with nonprofit institutions, so that the scale of the nonprofit sector increases with the growth of government social welfare spending. In the second one, the state retains control of social welfare related activities so that both government social welfare spending and nonprofit development remain highly constrained. (1998) The social origins approach is a good illustration of how observation sentences can be made only in the light of a conceptual framework or a categorical system that gives them meaning. As based on a static dichotomy between government and nonprofit service providers, the social origins approach fails to take into account the evolutionary character and the time dimension of the nonprofit phenomenon. Nonprofit organizations are vital components of local human service delivery systems, often providing an important link between the reliance of individuals on public assistance and their transition to economic self-sufficiency and practitioners that nonprofits represent a viable alternative to the direct government provision of social services. In addition, accompanying the devolution of social services and welfare reform in the 1990s, nonprofits were expected to assume an increasingly larger role in building the human capital of local communities. Even now, as Congress debates the reauthorization of the 1996 federal welfare reform bill, nonprofits continue to serve as the mediating institutions that move clients from welfare to work. ( 1987)

 

 

The status of human service nonprofits as key elements of local service delivery systems often overshadows their competition with other groups for financial support and political legitimacy. Indeed, like most organizations, human service nonprofits operate in competitive environments, where financial and political resources can be scarce and groups often must be entrepreneurial to attract funding and clients. In these competitive structures, some human service nonprofits thrive and succeed, expanding their funding and client bases and even their political influence ( 1987). Moreover, in the past few decades, the availability of government funding from grants, contracts, and other payments grew substantially as a percentage of the budgets of these groups (1995). More recently, the devolution and privatization of social service programs under welfare reform further changed this mix, as states and localities experimented with different service delivery mechanisms. Local social service systems are embedded in the larger sociopolitical environment. Social service systems composed of a constellation of organizations, including secular human service nonprofits, faith-based organizations, and for-profit enterprises exist within and across jurisdictions. Government plays a significant role in these systems by providing substantial financial resources, regulations and the articulation of public goals (1995). Although government is a prominent player, the nonprofit human service sector historically has been crucial in these service delivery systems. Also, in an environment characterized by an increasing emphasis on market forces to allocate public goods, nonprofit providers find themselves in direct competition with other sectors over funding, legitimacy in the public domain, and even clients and staff (1998).