british airways problems Essay

british airways problems Essay
1. Introduction: The history, development, and growth of the company over time (before and after the case)
2. SWOT analysis for the company at the time
1. The identification of the company's internal strengths and weaknesses
2. The nature of the external environment in terms of opportunities and threats
3. Identification and description of the problem presented in the case study
4. Exploration of alternative solutions for the problem
5. Recommendation of the best solution among the different alternatives explored

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INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Intercultural Communication

1. Introduction

The continuing growth in international business relations increases the occurrence of business negotiations among people from different countries and cultures. This creates significant challenges for international managers unfamiliar with the norms of different groups. Many of the difficult challenges in conducting international human resource management arise from the differences in the country’s culture. The cultural characteristics of the country and multinational enterprises vary significantly. Oftentimes, these differences clash and are even worsen with lack of knowledge and sensitivity of business people towards these differences. As a result, the frequent mistakes both in the business and personal interactions take place. Even when the differences are understood, some mistakenly assume that their own way of doing things is the best way to conduct a business. Thus, decisions are made that alienate the foreign counterparts or the people to whom they interact form other countries.

1.1     Intercultural Communication Theories

Intercultural communication is basically the communication between different cultures which is also known as cross-cultural communication. Intercultural communication theories posit that globalizing forces of economic integration, tourism and migration are important forces that provide a rationale for increased intercultural communication. However, this form of communication is complex for a number of reasons. First it is difficult to communicate across social boundaries because of factors such as social stereotypes. Second, the concept of culture itself is already complex. It is a socially sensitive subject such as people who tend to approach it from the viewpoint of their own culture ( & , 2002, ). 

1.2 Definition of Culture: Defining Culture

Culture provides predictability of humankind. Since human life can be quite inefficient, culture offers predictable pattern so of behavior that leads to cooperative expectancies. Each culture provides predictability, thus changing culture can quite become difficult unless the cultural value being changed  has proved to be of less value or not useful to the group. Cultures also test ideas and introduce changes. For instance, the introduction of English on a worldwide basis for business and international trade has threatened some cultures (, 2004,  ).

Culture is the most important issue in the successful conduct of both the international business and international HRM. The knowledge and understanding of culture affects the outcome of business more than any other aspect. The absence of insights into the ways of others it is less likely to develop credibility and inspire a workforce. The culture affects how businesses are run, what characteristics are to look for in the selection of employees and how to manage them and work with teams.

2.        Cultural Assumptions

            Every culture has its own set of values that determines goodness and badness. For instances, Japanese people assign goodness to collectivism while Americans value individualism. Such values are related to cultural assumptions but refer to the existence of phenomena rather than the assignment of value to them. So in terms of the said example Americans assume the existence of individual identity as necessary for individualism to exist while the Japanese assume the existence of collective consciousness as necessary for collectivism occur. There are five dimensions of cultural assumptions: relationship of people to the environment,  to each other,  to activity, to time and to the basic nature of human beings (, 1998, ).

3.         Significance/Importance of Intercultural Communication in Multinational Corporation

            One of the major factors influencing companies to go global is to exploit market opportunities. However, operating in these countries requires multinational corporations to communicate cross culturally. It is for this reason that intercultural communication becomes important to multinational corporations.

By understanding the cultural uniqueness of a country, one will be able to use the most effective message, format and channel of communication to deliver that specific message.

 For instance, Chinese expatriates work on both high context (Chinese) and low context culture (Americans). High context cultures depend greatly on non verbal communication while the low context cultures depend on verbal communication. The negotiation behavior in a high context culture involves social and economic status and other implicit cultural norms. They use contracts to reflect relationships while low context used contracts to define relationships (, 2000, ). Moreover, high context negotiators treat their counterparts as persons and take on informal settings to settle important issues. The process of building relationships is more important than technical or formal solutions. Such understanding of cultural differences will enable multinational corporations to negotiate and transact effectively with a particular culture.

3.1             The Influence to People Around the World

Intercultural communication is influences and changes  ones’ view of other cultures through increased exposure to people of other cultures and co culture. At a larger context, it helps in the discovery of shared humanness through examining, allowing and respecting differences. In addition to the building understanding through valuing differences, cross cultural comparison supplies the necessary information to help people who are learning to live and work in new situations.

4        The Practice of Intercultural Communication in Multinational Corporation

            In MNCs, businesspeople from different cultures interact. They step outside their cultural and business environment and create new context. With this, MNCs understand the impact of key organizational concepts such as hiring practices, promotion policies, decision making, negotiation styles, regulations and business laws on the intercultural communication process. They bring with them their own corporate cultures and from these cultures emerges a new transaction culture. It is through intercultural communication that they are able to understand the way of doing business in a particular cultural setting.

5.       Key Elements of Intercultural Communication

            According to  (2004)  intercultural communication consists of three major elements: (1) worldview (2) language and (3) nonverbal communication (particularly the use of space and time). Worldview is the orientation of people to things and issues with the concept of being. Another significant element is language which is the medium through which a particular  culture expresses its worldview. The importance of language is greater especially when cultures speak different languages.  The differences in meaning across culture can also become significant when each culture uses the same language. For example,  a British may tell an American to put things in the boot. The American may not understand that the British told him to place the things in the trunk of the car. Finally, nonverbal behaviors differ from culture to culture. For instance, in the Chinese cultures, continued eye contacts are strongly emphasized. Americans on the other hand, consider such gesture as a sign of aggression

6.       Identifying Cultural Conflicts

In the context of intercultural encounters, conflict is perceived as the actual incompatibility of values, expectations, processes or outcomes between two or more parties from different cultures over substantive issues. Intercultural conflict usually starts off with miscommunication which leads to misinterpretations and pseudo conflict. If the miscommunication goes unmanaged this can lead to interpersonal conflict (, ).    

6.1     Resolving Cultural Conflicts

            Effective conflict management requires people to communicate effectively, appropriately and creatively in different world views and ways of dealing with a conflict situation. This requires sensitivity to the differences of low context and high context communication patterns and to attune them to the appropriate negotiation rhythms of individuals (, , ). It is also important to be aware of the goal oriented and process oriented conflict negotiation pathways and requires careful attention to the close relationship between cultural variability and different conflict communication styles.

7.  Core Factors that Enhance and Hinder Effective Intercultural Communication

            One of the detriments to communication is language. Aside from the verbal language, understanding non verbal behavior is also a requirement since non verbal cues constitute the majority of the individual’s communication process. However, the meanings attach to these forms of communication vary from culture to culture.

Stereotyping is also one of the common factors that hinder the effective communication. It is a generalization about a group of people based on their membership. It assigns identical characteristics to any person within the group regardless of actual variation among members of that group. Research suggests that stereotypical beliefs are rigid, unresponsive to reality and resistant to changes ( & , ). There are four ways in which stereotyping damages communication:

• It can be assumed that the widely held beliefs are true when in fact they are not.
• If a stereotype is accepted, then it is likely for one to believe that every person in that group conforms to that stereotype.
• Stereotypes lead to self fulfilling prophecies. That is, if one is labeled according to the stereotype then he will behave towards that label.
• Behaviors are likely to be interpreted according to the stereotype which ignores other possible interpretations of their behavior.

One of the steps is to avoid ethnocentrism. This is the belief that one’s own race is superior to others, a natural attitude inherent in all cultures.  For example, it is logical to think that time is money and that it should not be wasted. This is why American business people in Asian countries feel irritated over the time spent over coffee or other social rituals before business transactions are initiated. In such cultures, time is viewed differently and personal relationships must be established before negotiations may proceed. Ethnocentrism causes people to judge others by their own values. People with such attitude expect others to react and act as they would. As a result, misunderstandings may occur (, 2006, ). Ethnocentric reactions can be reduced by acquiring knowledge of other cultures and developing an increased intercultural sensitivity.

Developing intercultural competence also requires changing attitudes. One must remember that culture is learned and it is through interaction with can new attitudes be learned and behaviors can help bridge the gap between cultures. Tolerance is a desirable attitude that can help achieve intercultural proficiency. Closed minded people cannot look beyond their own ethnocentrism. But as global markets expand and the society becoming more diverse, tolerance becomes especially significant. Being tolerant also involves patience. If a foreigner is struggling to express himself in English, Americans must avoid finishing the sentence for them and provide the word which they assume is wanted (, 2006, ). When words are put into the mouths of foreign counterparts, they often agree out of politeness but the word may not express their thoughts.

Lastly, the messages must be adapted to the intercultural audiences whether they may be verbal or non verbal. As opposed to non verbal skills, verbal skills can be mastered if one studies hard enough. On the other hand, non verbal skills are much harder to learn. They include areas such as eye contact, facial expressions, posture, gesture and the use of times, space and territory (, 2006, ). Thus, it is necessary to be conscious of the use of language as they may be interpreted differently in other cultures.

8.         Conclusion

Communicating cross culturally requires a great deal of cultural adjustments. It is necessary that managers grasp a degree of understanding as to the culture of the people and the environment they will work on. The lack of knowledge and insensitivity to the culture will likely to result in frequent mistakes both on business and personal interactions. Thus, a framework of the possible barriers and implications of decisions must be studied in order to deal with future problems. With the greater awareness and understanding of the culture from these countries, managers will be able to acquire the ability to coexist peacefully with people even if they do not necessarily share their values. In this respect, culture plays a pivotal role in effective communication. By understanding the cultural uniqueness of a country, one will be able to use the most effective message, format and channel of communication to deliver specific messages and work harmoniously with people of differing cultures.

9.        Recommendations

• Understand the culture of other people. This would enable one to communicate effectively without appearing offensive or disrespectful of the culture

• Create awareness of one’s culture and how it contrasts with others. People must also refrain from ethnocentric attitudes and respect differences in culture in terms of values and traditions
• Recognize the barriers in accommodating intercultural communication and overcoming them. As discussed above, some of these barriers may occur naturally and it takes conscious effort to surmount them. However it may be difficult, it is necessary to become intercultural competent because this will lead to a more productive and effective working relationships in a diversified workplace.

 

 

 

 

References

Books

 

Law and Social Theory (Base on Weber's reading)

DO YOU THINK WEBER'S CATEGORIES OF LEGITIMATE AUTHORITY ARE HELPFUL IN UNDERSTANDING WHAT MAKES THE CURRENT AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF LAW AND GOVERNMENT LEGITIMATE.

 

Introduction

 

The political system in Australia offers a unique kind of government system. It is an amalgamation of political process from both United States and the United Kingdom. Similar to the United States, the Australian political system is characterized as a federal from of government.[1] In the Australian setting, there are two levels of government, the federal government in Canberra and the regional states governments. On the other hand, the system of government in Australia is said to be similar to the UK because it has acquired some of its government practices being a colony for several decades. This paper intends to look into the existing government and laws of Australia in relation to the concept of legitime authority coined by Max Weber. For clarity and coherence, the discussions of the paper are going to be divided into several parts. The first part will serve as an introductory part that discusses the concept of legitimate authority as stated by Weber. Secondly, a discussion on the kind of government that Australia possesses. After these, a discussion with regards to the concept of legitimacy and the authority of both government and the laws in which these bodies of authority work on.     

 

The Concept of Legitimate Authority

 

Although Weber conceived quite a few kinds of authority, most concentration has centred on the pure or ideal-typical class of charismatic, traditional, and rational-legal. Rational-legal authority anchors on the principle in the legality of outlines of normative laws and the right of those promoted to authority under such laws to present instructions.[2] Deliberately instituted abstract regulations that are generally appropriate make the implementation of rational-legal authority doable. Rational-legal was the most recent authority type to extend and is essential to the models of bureaucracy and capitalism. In Weber's works, the bureaucratic organizational structure is a simple expansion of rational-legal authority: The purest kind of practice of legal authority is that which uses bureaucratic administrative personnel. The other two pure kinds of authority include the traditional and charismatic types of leadership.[3] Even though traditional authority holds a lot of subtypes, their legitimacy is anchored on the inviolability of the order and the attendant authorities of control as they have been provided from the past. At the same time as traditional authority can produce personal faithfulness and allegiance to the sovereign, the basis of this faithfulness and allegiance is social class or kind, not individual attributes. Not like rational-legal and traditional authority, which draw from theoretical standards and established practice, correspondingly, charisma originates from the amazing individual merits of a person. Weber characterized charisma as dependent on the dedication to the particular and outstanding inviolability, heroism or commendable nature of an individual person, and of the normative models or command exposed or predetermined by him.[4] For the reason that it comes from personal peculiarities and originality instead of rationality or established custom, charismatic authority is commonly a basis of revolutionary alterations and the disruption of time-honoured institutional types. One vital distinction involving the three authorities rests on the level of leeway or vagary given to individual leaders. In the bureaucracy, jurisdiction is cautiously characterized and limited, at the same time as the charismatic leader takes pleasure in limitless discretion. Tradition stands for a midpoint on this field; leaders have subjective control in spheres not compelled by tradition. It is almost certainly likely for organizations to employ over one authority type concurrently, or a combination of authority class, however the emphasis in this paper is on relatively pure instances of single authority institutions present in the context of Australia.

 

The Government of Australia

 

Government of Australia is composed into three branches. These include the Parliament, Executive government, and Judicature.[5] Thus, conventionally the law making structure is the Legislature, the one accountable for executive purposes is the Executive, and the one in charge for shaping the connotation of law is the Judiciary. The historical cause for separating the roles was to protect freedom for the person by managing exploitation of public power applied by authoritarian rulers. Basically, this separation of powers would not be able to be applicable in Australia on account of the close connection of the Executive and the Legislature.

 

The nine Parliaments in Australia are the standard law-making establishments.[6] Therefore, law-making authority of the Commonwealth is carried out by parliament. Parliament has a couple of major purposes. This includes the creation of Legislation and monitoring the Executive. The parliament of Australia could not be considered sovereign for the reason that of the separation of legislative powers involving the Commonwealth and States. The constitution separates total law making commands into specific powers, which is provided to Commonwealth parliament and general law making mandates are kept by the individual states, both the powers are restricted by constitution by compelling prohibitions.

 

 to the nine parliaments, Australia possesses nine Executives branches. This arm is consigned to as the Government. Governor-General as Queen’s envoy implements this authority.[7] Executive council has a couple of types, Cabinet and Executive Council. The former includes of collection of ministers from the Parliament, their job contains the creation of political choices and to resolve issues of legislation to put before parliament. The latter on the other hand is composed of the Governor and two or more ministers. The Governor is counselled by judgments completed by Cabinet and the Executive Council provides the legal power to Acts of the Executive. This executive power allows the Commonwealth Government to apply the common law prerogative authority of the crown, which takes account of the power to proclaim war, enter agreements and carry out diplomatic affairs. Royal commissions to carry out investigations can similarly be taken on by the Executive, and it doesn’t require Legislation to approve these actions.

 

Moreover, the Commonwealth judicial power is placed in the High Court and other federal courts produced by Parliament. It is perceived as a guardian of the constitution.[8] The functions of the judiciary consist of resolving disagreements and inferring laws. Judges perform in the prevailing procedure by understanding the law created by legislature. This means they have the legal authority to establish the connotation of rule of law. Nevertheless, it does not itself re-evaluate the uncertain law, until the moment it is not disputed by a civilian or group of people whilst bringing to action. High Court carries out a significant function in resolving disagreements involving Commonwealth and States on the subject of their respective authorities, given that it is the final court of appeal from federal and state courts.  

 

Discussion

 

At this point the discussion will focus on the legitimacy of the authority present in the Parliamentary of Australia. Generally, parliamentary sovereignty denotes the lack of any legal limitations on the legislative authority of the Parliament. The character of parliamentary sovereignty was that Parliament is entitled to create or unmake any law whatsoever, that no individual or organization is acknowledged by the law of as possessing a right to overrule or leave behind the legislation of Parliament.[9] The sovereignty of Parliament is consequently presented in three features. One is that there are no legal restrictions on the legislative capability of Parliament. Another is that courts are under a responsibility to implement the laws created by Parliament and no Parliament can restrict its successors or be restricted by its predecessors.

 

It is a rule that, so as to preserve the superiority of the parliament and guarantee that they are free to ratify new legislations, the Parliament may not to be restricted by the past Acts. In this respect, the said legitimacy of the legislature of Australia reveals a rational-legal stance.[10] If a legislature intends to change a law ratified beforehand, they can ratify a new Act which specifically rescinds the old law or condition the specific modifications to the old legislation. On the other hand, they can rescind the Act implicitly by ratifying an Act which is totally not in agreement with the preceding one they intend to revoke. When courts encounter a couple of acts that are totally not in agreement with each other, the courts will implement the principle of implied repeal, which follows the later Act as an alternative to the previous one. This principle of implied repeal is implemented in Vauxhall Estates Ltd v Liverpool Corp.[11] and Ellen Streets Estate Ltd v Minister of Health[12] where it was decided that the stipulations of the newer Act have to outweigh the earlier one to the extent that they were in disagreement. So as for a Parliament to guarantee that its Act is recognized on a firm underpinning, it may possibly attempt to bind its successor by instituting a deadline for which the Act cannot be revoked for the duration of that phase of time. When a term per se is incorporated in an Act, the Parliament may or may possibly not be capable of cancelling it right away.  

 

There is, nevertheless, a thin line involving the institution of rules restraining the processes for legislation and restricting the successors from making laws. This is attributable to the fact that seeing as Parliament may possibly be capable of instituting new procedures for legislation it may well be capable of generating complicated processes to put off the succeeding Parliaments from making laws.[13] Consequently, it is left on the courts to distinguish and specify the limits between rules controlling the way of legislating and rules that will restrict the successors of Parliament. Parliament is as a result, sovereign, in the context that there are fundamentally no legal restraints on its legislative authority. They could decide to change the methods for legislation, making it more complicated for any changes to be carried out. Nonetheless, the rule that no Parliament can restrict upcoming Parliaments has to still win through and by itself, courts will have the duty to make a decision whether or not the processes as instituted in the Act have to be deemed to be compulsory on upcoming Parliaments.

 

Even though courts in Australia are forced to comply with Australian decrees not considering how reasonable, just or sensible they are, judges do possess a certain degree of flexibility in construing them. It is their duty not only to implement the statutes but similarly to provide their understanding as to what parliament intended to accomplish by such a statute.[14] They may understand a statute austerely if they deem this is indispensable, or if it is phrased in such a manner that makes vagueness unworkable, or they may permit a statute a comprehensive explanation, frequently as they may possibly sense firm application may not be fair in a particular case. Judges may very possibly construe a statute to denote one thing in one lawsuit and something totally conflicting in another lawsuit but constantly have to keep in mind their responsibility to act lawfully. Courts are permitted to defy and dispute delegated legislation as ultra vires if it goes beyond the extent of authority established by primary legislation or if the acceptable processes have not been complied with.[15]

 

Conclusion

The paper has presented the context of the Australian government and laws in Weber’s view of legitimate authority. As presented above, it appears that He perceived the political system administered by opposing parties competing for entirely influential purposes of power as presented in the circumstances around the parliament of Australia. Moreover he recognized a democratic mass equipped of being influenced unreasonably by opposing individual appeals of specific groups. Altogether, these elements guarantee the safeguarding of an open society. Such a society is reliant on the outstanding disposition of people (leaders) with a passion together with the insensate struggle for power of different party engines. To this extent, the legitimacy of the authority presented by the government of Australia along with its laws is established.

 

 

ENTREPRENEURSHIP

The Gale of Creative Destruction

For many decades, American sociologists puzzled over the atavistic persistence of entrepreneurial values and aspirations in the labor force, despite the declining money returns of the entrepreneur role and its dwindling numbers. Given the nation's laissez-faire traditions, it was easy to understand entrepreneurial ambition as a cultural residual of an economically by-gone era. The founder of entrepreneurship research,  (1958, 1978), claimed that Puritan theology had once encouraged believers to adopt the entrepreneur's role and to redefine the role's content. As a result,  claimed, European capitalism received a stimulus that enabled it to break away from guild traditionalism, a restraint that frustrated capitalism elsewhere in the world. Weber identified a causally significant entrepreneurship because he linked theology, a non-economic determinant, to the supply of entrepreneurs.

In business and the culture hospitable to it, not much is more important than the moral status of entrepreneurship. If the entrepreneur is a rascal, rouge, the system that gives such a person a home is surely tainted.

Without the moral legitimacy of entrepreneurship – the process of initiating commercial ventures, ambitiously embarking upon business enterprise -- the spheres of commerce and business would turn out to be under a constant moral cloud.

When a political economic system lacks moral support for one of its essential ingredients, competing systems that lack this weakness become powerful even if not immediately viable options. They are what invite fierce loyalty from idealists who insist that justice must be pursued and evil must be erased.

 

Capitalism changes the standards of commendable behavior, making a role model of billionaire innovators, particularly if their earnings stem from contributions to production. For the rising wealth and power of the capitalist entrepreneurs enable them to purchase respectability, both through their impressive productive and accumulative accomplishments, and via good works they subsequently undertake with their wealth. In short, the free-market economy offers encouragement to productive entrepreneurship such as no other form of economy has ever provided. This is, then, plausibly, another crucial component underlying the dramatic growth performance of capitalism.

 

 has argued that the US economy had been controlled by big monopolies since 1890’s and these monopolies were made by the technological economies, and is inevitable and desirable. This is referred by  as lifeblood of competitive capitalism. He also viewed that competitive market structures were unwelcome and the real concept of competition had been misinterpreted by laymen, politicians and professional economist. also added that profit maximization as the motor force behind all economic activity and this profit came from innovation like the creation of a new product, new technology or a new form of business organizational structure.

 

In essence, the innovator of a new product or a new technology gains temporary monopoly profits while destroying its outdated competition. Innovation is essentially a "creative-destruction" process, however, since it results in higher levels of productivity concomitant with reduced prices. As illustration, the flat bottom river boat gave way to the steamship just as overland horse-drawn stages and freight wagons gave way to the railroads. In turn, the railroads underwent painful readjustments and bankruptcies due to the competitive pressures from the air transport and the trucking industries.

The concept of innovation has become more complicated in other ways as well. The first major scholar to address this topic, , defined innovation as encompassing the entire process, starting from a kernel of an idea continuing through all the steps to reach a marketable product that changes the economy. Now, there is not only a distinction between three major types of innovation (process; product/service; and business concept) but current scholars now distinguish levels of innovation (incremental to radical and sustaining versus discontinuous), no longer restricting the term to major innovations that change the economy. Finally innovation is no longer restricted to the process of creating something new from beginning to end but can include the capacity to quickly adopt externally created innovations that may be of benefit to the organization.

 

It is, of course, possible to incrementally improve one’s business strategy but  (1996, 2000) contends that radical business concept innovation is now paramount. He claims that the current environment is hostile to industry incumbents and hospitable to industry revolutionaries. The fortifications that protected the industrial oligarchy have crumbled under the weight of deregulation, technological upheaval, globalization, and social change. What is now required to ensure organizational success is to continually revolutionize the basic organizational strategy, which progressively typically requires: Radically preconceiving products and services, not just developing new products and services, redefining market space, redrawing industry boundaries. If radical business concept innovation is successful in accomplishing these objectives, it is by definition discontinuous.

 

The primary drivers of innovation include: Financial pressures to decrease costs, increase efficiency, do more with less increased competition. In regards to shorter product life cycles and value migration there are stricter regulations. Industry and community needs for sustainable development through increased demand for accountability. Rising customer expectations regarding service and quality and greater availability of potentially useful new technologies coupled with the need to keep up or exceed the competition in applying these new technologies and the changing economy. Although cost reduction has been a major driver of innovation, other drivers are also important. Regulatory drivers have become more important in the last several decades. In addition, companies increasingly feel they must promote their image and this has become a major driver of environmental and sustainable development innovations. A good image can help promote both customer loyalty and a company’s growth strategy. As noted above,  (1996, 2000) sees important recent change in both (a) the drivers of innovation and (b) the importance of radical business concept innovation for organization survival. Basically, he argues that a dramatic change in the overall economy has occurred and that this economic environment no longer protects established mainstream businesses. He further argues that organizations must develop an innovation competency if they are to survive: radical business concept innovation must become a core component of this competency.

 

The process of innovation and adaptation is essential to the survival of any organization. To stand still is, in effect, to go backwards as there will always be rival organization going forwards. All products have a finite life cycle. They will be displaced in the market by changing tastes and the emergence of better products; therefore firms must pursue a policy of creating new products that will meet changing needs, and for this some speculative research and development will be needs. In fact, in order to remain competitive in uncertain and turbulent times, innovation is a MUST for companies ( 2003).

So what is innovation? Innovation has been attributed with various definitions, such as that of the (1995) that defines the term as “the successful production, assimilation and exploitation of novelty in the economic and social spheres” (p. 9); or that of  (1991), which described innovation as “The generation, development, and adoption of novel ideas on the part of the firm” (p. 556); or of  (1973) that characterized innovation as “Any idea, practice, or material artifact perceived to be new by the relevant unit of adoption” (p. 10).

Broadly speaking, definitions of innovation can be classified in two categories: innovation as the final event and innovation as a process. In the first category fits the definition given by researchers  (1973). With the latter, meanwhile, fits (1968) attribution of innovation, which they see as a process that proceeds from the conceptualization of a new idea to a solution of the problem and then to the actual utilization of a new item of economic or social value.   (1987) adopt the latter definition and use the terms innovation and innovation process interchangeably.

Innovation has always being an important area of research for scholars studying Economic—an example would be Karl Marx whose theories helped revolutionize the viewpoints on economy, society, and politics, among others—innovation on increasing productivity (e.g.  1996) and creative destruction (e.g. 1943) to scholars of management science with focus on sources of innovation (e.g. 1988), on the dynamic nature of innovation (e.g. 1994) and many others. As one will see, the trend of research on innovation moves from the macro aspects of innovation, like how innovation impact the economy, country, and the world, to a more micro aspects of innovation, like the characteristic (sources, type, static and dynamic impact) of innovation in the market. The unit of analysis in innovation switches from industry and nation or country to individual and organization or firm.

An implied feature of innovation is that it must be useful ( 1998). Innovation is generally defined as the first application of a new product, process or service in the market, like an applied invention. This distinguishes an innovation from an invention, which may not have practical application (1998). Another main point of contention is whether innovation is a process, or an outcome. This difference may be of use, for example, when studying stages of innovation as an organizational process, or researching at what point firms become innovative.

At the present time, innovation does play a role in company operations in order to be and stay competitive. Products, services and business processes are all subject to change, inspired by new scientific, technical and organizational knowledge. Effective Innovation boosts the effectiveness of organizations and individuals ( 2004, p. 33). Effective innovation means innovation that changes and improves the company position in the market. It is a continuous process which does not die by the end of a certain product or service. This kind of innovation will result in the company gaining a competitive advantage over its rivals and competitors ( 1980).

Furthermore, innovation has rapidly assumed a position of prominence in world competition. Today's marketplace is characterized by fast-paced and unremitting competition on a global scale. To compete in this environment, organizations need a level of innovation to survive in the stiff competition of the market place. As competition becomes more global and time-based, corporations must develop and deliver better new products in less time (1997). The challenge for modern organizations is to revitalize through continuous improvement and development so they can successfully and continuously develop new products and new businesses. Internal or external drivers are the factors that force changes (1998), innovations may be done at different level in the structure of any organization ( 1997) and that reforms may be universal or limited (1994) in nature. Internal drivers for change could include evolving business requirements, organizational restructuring or revision to corporate strategy/business objectives. External drivers could include developments in technology, economic trends that affect the profitability/value for money of the relationship and the need for electronic or technical service.

 

The Learning Organizations

According to a study, with the initiation and implementation of processes of organizational learning in the company context innovation processes may be started which improve the performance of organizations in adapting to their environmental and producing new development in this respect. (:1990) Second, the company should render the processing of information in and by organizations more systematic, more efficient and more transparent for the benefit of organizational development. Third, the company should also intensify the production of knowledge and improve the management of knowledge and extend its basis and support and thus permit cultural, structural and strategic innovations through organizational learning.

 

            Also according to  (1990) as a rule, especially if a company have problems in designing their organization in such a way that they remain capable of learning and changing in the long run and thus ready for innovation. Owing their structures, they often lack the possibilities to develop and sustain organizational change as a continuous process. Yet in a company, unsystematic development activities and failures therein represent considerable risks which might easily threaten their entire existence. Thus, processes of organizational learning should also be used for innovations within and by a company or business. These processes might contribute to an improved ability to learn and to change and to enable better control of the organization and more flexibility and thus also express itself in an improved efficiency and performance and more organizational stability.

 

            Since innovation can be described as the commercially successful exploitation of new technologies, ideas or methods through the introduction of new products, structures and processes, or through the improvement of existing ones. (1997) Innovation is therefore the commercialization of original knowledge as distinct from invention, which is the original knowledge itself. The interactive process comprises the networking process firms and the basic science infrastructure, between the different functions within the firm especially employees and employers, between producers and users at the inter-firm level and between firms and their wider institutional milieu. These network-relationships exist or can be commercially envisaged in research and higher education institutions, private R&D laboratories, and technology transfer agencies, chambers of commerce, business associations, vocational training organizations, relevant government agencies and appropriate government departments. There are three levels of learning concept of innovation: the system level where learning systems and its element, the regional level where learning regions as learning economies and finally, organizational level where learning companies as learning organizations.

 

            Thus, a learning system is a complex of elements which are connected to each other within a common border. (:1998) They possess flexible structures and the ability to adapt themselves effectively to external changes and to continuously improve their own learning and problem-solving capabilities. Learning systems need three qualities of interaction in order to function. These qualities are: sensing, the spotting signs of change external and internal to the organization. The second quality is awareness, communicating the signs and explaining them so that others understand their implications. Lastly, responsiveness, it is mobilizing resources to respond to emergent while maintaining a steady course.

 

            While learning economy according to  (1998) entails three basic elements: innovation as an interactive process, tools and training that enhance individual productivity and social networks and norms that facilitate coordination and cooperation. Within this concept the learning economy uses all patterns of learning that directly foster the capability of the companies and their regional supply networks to create an innovative area for a sustainable development. Within this concept the learning economy uses all patterns of learning that directly foster the capability of the companies and their regional supply networks to create an innovative area for a sustainable development. These patterns are: learning by producing including by doing and learning by using, learning by searching and learning by exploring. At the same time, learning regions as learning economies are indicated by the capability of the regional actors to use regional networks to improve the capabilities for action within the region and utilize these as a learning systems and learning economy. Examples are the introduction of new methods of working in the factory, more effective networking relationships between the firms and the supply chain and the exploitation of synergies between public and private sectors. The innovative regional cluster will consist of firms, large and small, comprising an industry sector in which an innovation system consists of elements and relationships that interact in the production, diffusion and deployment of new and economically useful knowledge.

 

            On the other hand, a study claimed that innovation in a company have external and internal barriers. (:2005) The external factors which have been mentioned most frequently as obstacles were legal regulations, bureaucracy, tax regulations and the number of competitors. A comparison of internal against external barriers to innovation shows that the external factors which cannot be influenced by the individual company have been mentioned far more often than the internal barriers which could be influenced. The analysis between innovative and not innovative companies showed that there is a different perception about external barriers to innovation. Innovative companies mention these external factors less often as obstacles than not innovative companies. This also reflects the company owners attitude towards change meaning that innovative people do not let their innovation activities depend on regulations or bureaucracy.

 

            While the internal barriers to innovation listed by companies are more or less place factors which are always mentioned when companies are asked why they do not do something such as investment into human resource, time and cost. (:2005) More than half of the companies say that, besides employees’ attitude towards change and motivational factors, daily routines and the high cost risk of innovations are the main impeding factors for innovation. It is true that the capital base might be weal and therefore the high risk and uncertainty of innovation represent a major obstacle for them, but the analysis also shows that the innovative companies mention less these factors as obstacles than the companied which are not innovative. This results indicate again that the attitude towards change and new developments is crucial for the undertaking of innovation activities meaning that if there is a supportive company culture and a positive attitude of the company management the barriers to innovation are less impeding,

 

            Another study said that obstacles to change are an expression not only of the identity of organizations but also of people’s individual identity. (:2004) Sustainable change processes are aimed at achieving a changed identity. During the process of innovation every enterprise experiences tensions between a desire to preserve the status quo and a desire for change. This is due to a number of reasons: Existing rules and patterns of thinking and action are persistent because they are proven, have been shown to work and because they are known throughout the enterprise. Adjusting the power structures within the organization produces those very tensions between preserving the status quo and the desire to change. Routine provides a sense of security, in that people can predict how others will react, and in that it is clear what is expected of each person. People do not have to go through lengthy deliberations before they can act. Routine is an important element in efficient and effective working.

Conclusion

While prescribed executive characteristics such as complexity and decentralization have been encapsulated elsewhere in paradigms of innovation, casual, culturally developed descriptions have not. The casual characteristics scrutinized here suggest the amount to which organizational standards encourages and commands behaviors connected with the innovation progression. It is imperative to think about casual controls on behavior in innovation studies, in view of the fact that innovation is an amorphous predicament. This denotes that neither the conclusion nor the methods of completing any unambiguous Endeavour to innovate can be forecasted with conviction. For that reason, innovation-related problems are not agreeable to resolutions using formal organizational methods, such as rules and procedures or appeals through the hierarchy.

 

On the other hand, organizations that look forward to be successful in innovating have got to one way or another guide and manage the process. Informal, inner absorbed controls, such as standards, can be an efficient means of motivating and leading the answer of amorphous predicaments. Standards have also been revealed to be a method of directing organizational behaviors in conformity with the principles and prospects of an organization's culture. These standards, if they are revealed to persuade innovation conclusions, should be integrated within existing paradigms sequentially to move in the trend of making available a more all-inclusive, incorporated paradigm of organizational innovation.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

 

Governance and Management of Distribution Strategy of Wal-Mart

 

Governance and Management of Distribution Strategy

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

            Nowadays, in today’s top performing business, distribution strategy is an essential factor to really reach the purpose of business operations and management and make the products and services known to the global market because of having effective distribution strategy. The fulfillment of the process can be linked towards such distribution channels and resources in order for organizations to truly actualize and execute proper governance and management of distribution strategies being used. The assessment then will be pointing towards certain issues of governance and management in the distribution strategy as well as distribution channels in support with comprehensive literature studies through such critical evaluation of the process involved. Thus, the business organization in focus then will be Wal-Mart, due to the fact that their business environment centers on the process of distribution and that such related governance and management of certain distribution approaches is relevant factor for operation effectiveness within markets. Then, analysis of information and content should be seen and applied for a complete understanding of the situational value that can be affected by the reality imposed by modern distribution structures in review to technology within the evolution of global market stance.

 

 

 

CRITICAL ASSESSMENT

 

Development of Effective Distribution

 

            The development of effective distribution approach has affected the ways Wal-Mart distributes products and services in such collaboration to the suppliers as directly as possible helping in promote satisfaction of the consumers (Cited from, Carroll and Siguaw, 2003). Although there can be presence of price disparities among the distribution channels of Wal-Mart which shaped the perceptions of shoppers who are now shopping around for better deals through online process (Cited from, Murphy et al., 2006; Thompson and Failmezger, 2005). However, by setting consistent governance management across distribution channels, Wal-Mart can assure its customers of better distribution ways that provide such effective products in lieu to theoretical perspective of channel equality. The primary contribution allows accurate picture of such Wal-Mart distribution process that can be based on the issues of ample market distribution. Aside, there can be distribution strategies in the market in light of major strategic and legislative developments taking place. In order to explain the changes in distribution it is necessary to provide context, thereby demonstrating the central role which distribution strategy is playing in the marketing plans of Wal-Mart along with its indication of globalization, a touch of internationalization of market values from within. 

 

 

 

Wal-Mart Distribution and Factors for Managing Distribution

            Thus, for majority of Wal-Mart distribution has been and still is led by the requirements of the distributors or the strong product orientation of the providers. In context the customer has no role to play and will result in such disillusioned public which is skeptical in the business industry. Thus, on the other side distribution strategy can be influenced by disclosure as known as the significant amount of price and cost information within the business domain as such providers and channels will become a commonplace. The implications for distribution strategy are related to customer retention, the need to provide added value through the distribution process itself and the extension of the process to allow the customers’ time to take effective decisions. Direct sellers and tied agents will need to satisfy customers that the products and services from their company really are appropriate for the customer’s needs, while Wal-Mart management will need to capitalize on their unique proposition of being able to linked in the market strategically and provide bespoke solutions for individual shoppers, the customers.

Furthermore, key success factors for managing distribution can be as follows:

-       control over the Wal-Mart sales teams in terms of time management and customer targeting

-       Wal-Mart customer relations – the development of long term customer relationships like on single product sales

-       improved productivity at Wal-Mart

            Meanwhile, players in the market will need to maximize productivity from existing customers, particularly given the fact that the cost of acquiring new customers will be increasing. It is no longer appropriate for distribution to be treated as a short-term and tactical issue because it is inextricably linked with the longer-term customer retention policies. Wal-Mart networks are expected to change and the more successful will take a proper customer-oriented franchise approach. At present such networks have been constructed to provide shelter for unviable business partnerships which benefits from effective market positioning and complete consistency in operation. As Wal-Mart can comprise tailored one stop service, simple and complete product presentation and customer acceptance. They have set new standards in customer relationship building and servicing which are light years ahead of most existing banks and life companies. In their part of the market, which is likely to extend into more and complex products and advice as time passes, they will be formidable benchmark. The low cost base provides enormous scope to compete from business directions particularly price and the existing providers and advisers ignore the direct writers at their peril.

 

  

Wal-Mart Global Business

 

            Today’s changing global business requires Wal-Mart to develop better approach to global manufacturing operations and of its particular importance is the interaction between logistics and manufacturing activities. As Wal-Mart business continues to globalize, effective governance of distribution is essential to the long-term success of Wal-Mart Company in the area of constant business innovation. Moreover, the process that embraces the effectiveness of the global distribution caters to ample potentials of such global companies within its desirable and better valued logistics programs and business putting such significant competitive advantage over other sectors involved in the process of distribution success (Cited from, Richardson, 1995). Thus, there indicates that certain global distribution perspectives as well as logistics participation can be deemed essential in carrying useful strategic weight that are nice execution of the logistics power by stable companies. Meanwhile, by means of upright logistics mechanisms in believing that improved strategic vision will be handled suitably to clearly define such roles and objectives of global logistics utility as being contributed directly to economic profitability and strong performance in the global market sense (Cited from, Bowersox et al., 1990).

 

 

 

Governance and Management of Distribution at Wal-Mart

 

            In addition, distribution strategies must reflect that Wal-Mart is just simply good in operations with increased customer satisfaction within physical distribution of products from within. Although costs and customer satisfaction may be measurable across industries, the concerns, problems and challenges of international distribution are often unique to Wal-Mart industry as noted cited (Cited from, Christopher, 1993, p. 260; Wood, 1993 p. 56). Wal-Mart distribution is regarded as one of the most critical determinants of business success within unbalanced economic development reflecting visible factors of fragmented distribution with presence of management value and ways of getting more sales. Therefore, beyond situations, Wal-Mart will have to face bureaucratic restrictions that prohibit them from legally importing, selling, and servicing products in straightforward manner. There have been strong demands of distribution and logistics services should lure greater investments into the distribution and logistics sector.

 

            Managing the process of distributive governance lies at the core of business in practice of global relations. (See, Hedley) There agree that the problems associated with distribution issues are growing in scope and often appear inadequate to manage Wal-Mart as distributive governance and management does not replace business authority to develop sanctions for governance and to condition management expectations of appropriate marketing conduct. (Cited in Krasner, International Regimes, p. 1) To begin, Wal-Mart networks contribute to establishing international policy agenda and offer mechanisms for developing global business policy. Second, the Wal-Mart networks facilitate the process in negotiating and setting global standards in specific issue areas. A third key role global networks play is in the development and dissemination of market knowledge that is crucial to addressing business challenges. They also contribute to the creation, deepening, and effective regulation of global markets and to the provision of innovative mechanisms for implementing global agreements in specific issue areas. Finally, Wal-Mart networks try to address the participatory gap that afflicts current international institutions by creating inclusive processes that build trust and social capital through effective distribution interaction. Wal-Mart adaptability allows them to influence the international distribution process as new management issues does emerge. With little institutional legacy to overcome, such distribution channel at Wal-Mart can influence global business governance efforts as new operation issues for instance do become part of the international business agenda of Wal-Mart, particularly related to Wal-Mart corporate governance as focus on economic effects of Wal-Mart system in impact to domestic policies of involved country for business.

 

            There normally combine strong measure of protection for shareholder interest while balancing management interests regulating Wal-Mart's exposure to financial and other risks and ensuring that stringent procedures for internal and external auditing and fiscal transparency are in place. From Wal-Mart's perspective, the emerging consensus is that corporate governance is about maximizing value subject to meeting the corporation's financial and other legal and contractual obligations. This inclusive definition stresses the need for boards of directors to balance the interests of shareholders with the employees, customers, investors, and communities upon achieving a sustained value for distribution systems.

 

            The construction of distribution standards is aided by the guidance given by broadly based private and public international organizations. Although not exercising the legal authority of national governments, such institutions are not burdened by the controversies associated with existing national patterns of corporate governance and provide national regulators with sufficient flexibility to maintain their policy autonomy. In certain respect, the business contribute to distributive governance framework for the particular issue area of corporate governance that buttresses domestic governance, in so doing complementing, rather than replacing, the state. There include an emphasis on a consistent accountability to shareholders, the ability of Wal-Mart board to review distribution management activity and the ongoing commitment to provide enhanced transparency in financial dealings. More significantly, much of the text within these codes indicates that their primary purpose is to guide, rather than replace, national patterns of corporate governance regulation. For example, Wal-Mart statement of corporate governance principles argues that its purpose is "to serve as a reference point. They can be used by policy makers as they examine and develop their legal and regulatory frameworks for corporate governance that reflect their own economic circumstances and by market participants as Wal-Mart develop their own practices.

 

 

 

 

            The political implications of distributive corporate governance are several as the distributive governance framework helps overcome the noted difficulties associated with the unilateral extension of national law by providing a more inclusive and flexible forum for debate, dialogue, and standards formation. In this respect, distributive governance contributes to the phenomenon of soft law by helping to overcome the specific difficulties associated with creating and enforcing international law in general. The concept of distributive governance presents a daunting challenge to some traditional axioms of international relations research. The purpose of maintaining islands of theory and of limiting the application of those theories to specific issue areas is to provide analytic clarity from which testable hypotheses can be made and observed findings reported. Yet the phenomenon of globalization has made that process increasingly difficult; what is gained in clarity may engender a cost in relevance.

 

            Nevertheless, the established lexicon of international relations scholarship continues to provide some helpful concepts in understanding the process of governance in diffuse issue areas. Consequently, Wal-Mart distribution of power and legitimate authority between participating actors is clear as the distributive governance involves examining traditional international relations problems in new ways. It also provides a measure of freedom to turn the lens of international relations analysis in new directions, to examine issues that were once thought outside the field's purview and to incorporate extant literatures from adjacent fields that may bear weight on Wal-Mart’s distribution strategy system.

 

 

Wal-Mart Distribution Image

            For Wal-Mart to sustain its double digit growth rates, it needs to develop non-US markets. In this context, Europe is a logical target market for Wal-Mart. It comprises highly industrialized, developed nations with relatively familiar religious, government and economic institutions. Wal-Mart is not conventional retailer and acts proactively. There works, in addition to Treadgold’s attempts in the late 1980s/early 1990s to provide taxonomy of retail international development strategies (Cited from, Treadgold, 1990), provide partial explanation of the motives for internationalization and face difficult challenge when they attempt to transfer format and brand images want to develop global brand image that encompasses all of its products. Where the distribution chain is stretched, it is common to gain market share through acquisition of Wal-Mart into their target market. Wal-Mart is the exemplar of the low cost strategy and it has fine-tuned the low margin, high inventory turnover, volume selling practice (Cited from, Walton with Huey, 1993; Wagner, 1998). Volume buying in turn enables lower costs of goods. Furthermore, Wal-Mart demands vendors forgo all other amenities and quote the lowest price. In some circumstances, Wal-Mart buyers go to vendor premises to work on cost reduction. In addition to becoming supplier for the world’s largest retailer, a successful vendor may also become category manager (Cited from, Berry, 1998). Then, each department effectively becomes an individual shop proprietor with all the attendant feelings of ownership. Wal-Mart executives are not reliant only on computer-generated information.

 

            Wal-Mart premises the retail proposition on four determinants of store choice: low prices, wide assortment, friendly service and community support. Low prices are derivative of a margin schedule that in the US averages 27.5 percent over various product categories (Cited from, Redman, 1998). The margin also varies by international market according to the inherent competitive forces. Wal-Mart is the ultimate exemplar for it wants customers everywhere to recognise its retail brand as standing for “low cost, best value, greatest selection of quality merchandise and highest standards of customer service” (Cited from, Smiddy, 1998, citing Bob Martin, head of Wal-Mart International Division).

Complexity Stance

 

            Notwithstanding the complexity of Wal-Mart issues confronted by global marketers, legal ways on product distribution has been uncharacteristically limited in scope and vision as most of the literature has been devoted to describing the distribution contract and the laws of various countries relating to Wal-Mart product distribution including and multidimensional strategies at work in global product distribution. There implicitly suggests that the multidisciplinary issues of product distribution strategy are more appropriate for managers than for lawyers. Indeed, some attorneys may even take the position that the proper role of the lawyer in any global product distribution is merely to implement marketing and distribution strategies developed by management.

 

 

            Consistent with market perspective, some managers may view some lawyers doing anything more than drafting the distribution contract as interfering with the client's operations. While there is some merit to these concerns, the current and evolving global business environment demands reassessment of the proper role for lawyers. In order to establish the most effective marketing and distribution systems, global enterprises need rationally driven array of strategic options that take into account all the important variables. The matrix of strategic choices will improve if the impact of specific legal requirements is included in the analysis of options from the outset. For this effective strategic planning to occur, the collaboration between lawyers and the global marketers must precede contract formation. Deliberate use of the law to develop and select the distribution method within broader Wal-Mart business approach will tend to protect the global enterprise in the long run. For instance, some managed distribution strategies may be feasible only because of some facilitating or permissive laws. Others may be effectively crafted in spite of the law as with the help of lawyers, managers may come to view the law as an instrument for, rather than an impediment to, achieving corporate objectives.

 

Wal-Mart Integration

            Wal-Mart is beginning to integrate ASDA suppliers into their Retail Link intranet system and initiatives have been undertaken to apply best practice principles to both chains. ASDA store managers have been “twinned” with their US counterparts to share ideas. Despite all the operational improvements that will occur to the ASDA chain in the next year or so, the main profitability enhancements are likely to be achieved in the non-food areas. Remember that Wal-Mart’s move into super centers was to entice food shoppers to spend more on higher margin home and apparel lines. Thus Wal-Mart’s global buying power may be used to source health and beauty products and electrical appliances to challenge established chains in their core product categories. Boots’ share price is low despite a solid financial performance and this has been attributed to the Wal-Mart effect.

 

CONCLUSION

 

            In conclusion, with significant process of distribution systems Wal-Mart, as global enterprises are inevitably pushed towards the development of coherent and counteractive global product distribution strategies. Then, to certain degree, Wal-Mart strategic behavior is inherent in the nature of the global enterprise as the product distribution goals may only be achievable if other antecedent and complicated investment, product design strategies are implemented. While product distribution in Wal-Mart global operations could simply entail appointing foreign distributor, each specific management and laws for the distribution relationship may implement part of complex and efficient overall corporate approach of Wal-Mart to the global market.

 

            Therefore, in developing an appreciation for the business and strategic considerations of the future, there are several relevant factors to consider. First, the nature of the current and emerging global business environment provides the background necessary to understand the different distribution channels adopted by global enterprises. Second, in order to provide appropriate legal protection, attorneys, like global managers, must fully understand the reasons for various channels of distribution. Third, transnational practitioners must become more aware of product characteristics. If corporate counsel fully appreciate the differences among the types of products industrial, standardized, customized, specialty, or consumer, they can more easily develop an effective legal structure. Product differences have business significance in determining the appropriate channels of distribution and may also make a difference in the type of legal structure or contract form used in the transaction. Fourth, consideration of the preceding factors will enable lawyers more easily to understand the strategy behind the choice of one channel of growing linkage among the world's economies has been described as the globalization of business.

 

 

REFERENCE

 

Berry, B (1998), "Wal-Mart expectation of suppliers", London

Bowersox, D.J., Daugherty, P.J., Droge, C.L., Rogers, D.S., Wardlow, D.L. (1990), Leading Edge Logistics Competitive Positioning for the 1990s, Council of Logistics Management

Carroll, B., Siguaw, J. (2003), "The future of electronic distribution: effects on hotels and intermediaries", Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, Vol. 44 No.6, pp.38-50

Christopher, M. "Logistics and Competitive Strategy," European Management Journal, 11(2), 1993, 258-261

Murphy, J., Schegg, R., Qiu, M. (2006), "An investigation of consistent rates across Swiss hotels' direct channels", Information Technology and Tourism, Vol. 8 No.2, pp.105-19

Redman, M (1998), "Wal-Mart Image", QEII Conference Centre, London

Richardson, H.L. (1995), Logistics help for the challenged, Transportation & Distribution, Vol. 36 No.1, pp.60-4

Smiddy, P (1998), "What does all of this mean for UK retailing", QEII Conference Centre, London

Thompson, G., Failmezger, A. (2005), "Why customers shop around: a comparison of hotel room rates and availability across booking channels", Cornell University; CHR Reports, Vol. 5 No.2, pp.12.

Treadgold, A (1990), "The developing internationalization of retailing", International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 18 No.2, pp.4-11

Wagner, D (1998), "Wal-Mart merchandising", QEII Conference Centre, London

 

Walton, S, Huey, J Sam Walton: Made in America – My Story, Bantam, New York, NY

Wal-Mart (1999), http:/www.wal-mart.com/newsroom/4thqtr99.html

Wood ,A.L. "Develop an Agile Approach to Change," Transportation and Distribution, 34(11), 1993, 56

 

Other sources:

Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977).

Stephen Krasner, "Structural Causes and Regime Consequences: Regimes as Intervening Variables," in Krasner, International Regimes, p. 1. 16