The disadvantages of studying abroad for the country and students

The disadvantages of studying abroad for the country and students

 

Introduction

 

Education is very important in life. Pursuing studies abroad has been the most plausible trend nowadays for the purpose of gaining international exposures and experiential learnings. Such experience contributes in getting the best education so as to acquire the best knowledge and to obtain opportunities for employment. While also developing the individual’s adaptability and independence, studying abroad expands the horizon of the students and their network. In immersing to different cultures, the students will increase their chance of learning new languages and skills as socialization thereby becoming ‘a changed person’. Nonetheless, there are also inherent disadvantages into it, and these advantages could be evident from both country and students perspectives.

 

Disadvantages for the Country

           

For the home country, the main disadvantage would be the explicit disclosure of the weaknesses. Provided that students could improve understanding of the conditions of other countries such as political issues and tolerance of other views, comparison is inevitable. Through constant interactions with other people the deficiency of the home country could be revealed while the international students are not always equipped with avenues on how to explain further, thus the possibility of jeopardizing own culture. The deficiencies and inflexibilities of the education system of the home country compared to the host country could be also considered here.   

 

Educational travel is viewed to be an effective alternative tourism both for home and host countries. However, the undertaking disadvents international students in terms of the unequal power relations between the educational tourist and the locals which will be eventually evident on economic exchanges and exchange of knowledge. Stereotyping and idealizing of cultures is possible wherein lack of real contact and meaning characterizes the acquaintance. As such, gaining of respect for cultural differences will be less than superficial. The saddest part of this is when the exchange of experience travel by word-of-mouth in which damaging the reputation of one culture is inescapable.

 

Disadvantages for the Students

 

Basically, the endeavor is in itself a hard thing because of the fact that the student will be away from the family for a significant period. There are people who are uncomfortable without their family and the people they know so well, making them emotionally dependent onto their presence. This typically results in homesickness and the way to deal with it will be also a challenge to the student. The distance inevitably destroys family relationships especially when conversations are limited and there are no resources to prioritize telephone calls, online chatting and etc since it can add up to the financial burden. Realising this, the offshore education is expensive in order to cover all the requirements such as a place to live, transportation, food and books among others. Not to mention, the pressures to equate with the spending habits of colleagues is also a serious issue herein.   

 

Aside, international studies are tended on the fact that the student will experience culture shock. Studying abroad requires that the person will readily immerse himself in whatever cultures are apparent in the host country. Since there is a relatively high difficulty of conforming to local language and customs, confusions could arise and may affect the confidence level of the student. These people who suffer from getting passed the acculturation stage will normally feel outcast and intensifies homesickness, which in return could affect the academic performance. In this stage also, the person could not fully developed the sense of trust with his or her colleague and would always want to watch their backs. The possibility that conflicts will emerge is high and that the person will resort in otherwise unhealthy practices such as withdrawing from reality and hurting their selves.

 

Given that universities abroad will endow students with no special favors, the study habits and learning practices that the students had grown accustomed with could be also challenged. Unique to every country are official ways of dealing with paperwork and rules and these are expectantly extended to academic undertakings. Several rules and regulations are outlined in student handbooks that might sound alien to the student. Further, international students are expected to collaborate within and outside the classroom and this maybe another burden to them; linguistic and cultural barriers may limit expectations. There could be also the possibility that older students may feel tensions and frustrated since they are surrounded by a pool of twenty-year-old students. In a scenario that no one could assist an international student in coping with the localization process, the tendency is isolation and poor academic performance.

 

Conclusion

 

Studying abroad does not only mean to participate in classes at university but also to be immersed in different cultures and languages. In country context, the primary disadvantage of studying abroad is on unequivocal disclosure of the weaknesses of the home country with persistent comparisons with that of the host country. The second disadvantage would be the lack of authenticity of cultural exchange as manifested by shallow understanding of cultures and of the international study program in general. For the students, the disadvantages are homesickness, culture shock, isolation, expenses and nonconformity that affects the socialisation process as well as the academic performance.     

 

 

 

 

References

Kauffmann, Norman L., Judith N. Martin, Henry D. Weaver and Judy Weaver. (1992). Students Abroad: Strangers at Home. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.

 

Maiworm, F., & Teichler, U. (2002). The Student’s Experience. In Teichler,U (Ed.) Study Abroad. Bonn: Academic Cooperation Association.

Opper, S., Teichler, U., & Carlson, J. (1990). Impacts of Study Abroad Programmes on Student and Graduates. London: Jessica Kingsley Publisher.

Pearce, Douglas and Butler, Richard W., eds. (1993). Tourism Research: Critiques and Challenges. New York: Routledge.

Sample Essay Organizational Background and Objectives

Organizational Background and Objectives

            Being one of the top clothing companies in Asia, a vertically-integrated firm currently has a stable market share in the region.  Aside from control and cons-effectiveness of its vertical structure, its competitive advantage also comes from manufacturing expertise, branding and strategic location of its boutiques.  It is also known for innovative and trend-setting designers that are very compatible with the high-level of sophistication demanded by its main market consisting of high-end consumers.  However, the entry of European companies into the regional industry resulted to market stagnation and threat to current market share as globalization of apparels has significant appeal to the high-end market.  In addition, major distributors of its products are also insisting stricter quality standards otherwise they will no longer carry the brand.

 

            Due to environmental changes, the firm forced to modify and improve its current operations particularly with the focus on creating an integrated quality assurance system.  Adopting a single schema for all departments to observe quality is important because of the vertical nature of the structure of the firm.  Consolidated departmental effort cannot be avoided while benefits are also corporate-wide.  When quality is assured, prevention about the risks on poor quality is possible while there will be improvement in the areas of productivity, operational competence and market base.  Cost-savings can be obtained through quality assurance in design and innovation to avoid re-work while revenue-generation can be offered by dealing with customer satisfaction needs.

Significance of Information

            In the process of developing a strategic plan to enable the implementation of an effective quality assurance objective, research should initially be conducted.  Through research, a strategic plan can be obtained which can rationalize and transform the operational idealism into workable and realistic one.  However, conduct of research has its own constraints especially those concerning time, budget and quality of information.  With the use of secondary information, these bottlenecks can be minimized.  For example, statistics about the most popular model of apparel for customers can be derived by collating data of past invoices.  This is very important information because related to quality assurance objective because it will inform the firm what models require higher quality attention due to their product-line position.  With secondary information provided by the invoices, conducting additional surveys will minimize the cost and time of getting the data.          

 

            As they are already documented, secondary data are easily accessible to the planners and also serve as historic evidence which can support past and current quality performance of the firm.  This will enable planners in setting realistic goals, emphasizing organizational processes that require quality attention and allocating budgets to work on implementation.  Secondary data will aid in building parameters and guide planners in resolving conflicting interests.  For example, the planning phase concluded that substantial investment should be reserved for the acquisition of modern equipments and increased in automation.  Although this is lucrative to the manufacturing department, the same is not true to accounting and perhaps some of the manufacturing workers as capital outlay will be increased while labor will be displaced.   

 

            On the other hand, the role of primary data should not be undermined especially for the purpose of conducting research to address quality issues about information which is usually limited by time and budget constraints.  For example, there is no available secondary data on employee behavior about change in work description due to quality standards in non-manufacturing departments.  Primary information has the capability to tackle non-recordable and ever-changing human perceptions about the company especially in the aspect of quality.  Although it will take time and money to conduct primary research, the results can be used for future reference and be part of secondary data for further quality improvements.  These will justify the need for primary research.  Ultimately, primary and secondary research can support each other to rationalize findings and establish a valid, realistic and effective quality assurance plan.

 

Sources of Information

            Although both internal and external source of information is a collection of data that can be arranged (i.e. already in the records) or raw nature, the former pertains to data that can be gathered to different departments and also from the directors of the firm.  International quality standard audits (i.e. ISO certifications) can provide an external expert analysis about the level of quality compliance.  This is useful to minimize managerial biases or subjective appraisal about quality performance.  It can be the ultimate basis to determine the extent of quality conformity of every department.  On the other hand, internal records can support the qualitative assessment of external quality auditors.  For example, quality can be observed through the occurrence of training conducted in several events in the past.  These records can also determine the capacity of the firm to have an integrated quality assurance system. 

 

            Financial statements can identify potential resources that the firm can offer for quality improvements.  This will also show the effects of additional investment required from investors and recognize appropriate sources of financing.  This particular engagement will serve as the basis for allocating the budget necessary for every department to act according to the plan.  This will also set the boundaries on to what extent financial back-up can cover the quality efforts of the plan.  Manufacturing records such as productivity, machine time and material wastes can provide data about potential source of quality improvement or sourcing of quality strength to other departments.  The latter is supported by the fact that the efficiency in manufacturing is attainable through purchase of quality raw materials or recruitment of qualified machine operators.           

             

            In contrast, external source of information can be gathered from government agencies, private companies, interest groups, consultants, past studies, textbooks, media and primary research initiated by the firm.  Relevant to the objective of the firm, current events in the operational environment can be foreseen through the use of media channels tackling political, economic, technological and social issues.  Media such as newspapers can provide the external canning inputs necessary to minimize cost of research for general stimuli such as the future of political turmoil.  However, the firm should select a trustworthy media provider to avoid false and inappropriate reports.  Consultants can also endow industry reports (i.e. apparel) and trends for the benchmark-setting purposes where the quality system can assure that the targets are according to industry standards.  Although consultant fees can add-up to costs, this is a more cost-effective approach to provide the most recent industry data that the firm should include in its quality assurance plan.

 

            Government agencies such as archives and studies of different departments (i.e. Trade and Industry) can also broaden the industry inputs already provided by consultants.  This external data is more relevant on the legal constraints the firm is facing when implementing the quality plan.  For example, the textile material that is used should be durable and free from harmful chemicals to pass market entry.  In addition, they can also provide useful updates on the current national relations of trading countries.  This strategy will minimize the political risks of the firm as well increase its lobbying power for free trade when close partnership emanates.  Interest groups will signal the firm if its manufacturing operations are not harmful to people as well as environment.  In effect, assurance system will be aligned to the needs not only by the customers but also to the bigger public interest at stake.  As a result, the firm will not have myopic view on the adoption of the system and make it more adaptive to the needs of various stakeholders aside from major importance given to its stockholders and customers in isolation.       

 

            Since the firm is operating in a cross-border stance, garnering as many information as possible especially those that are relevant to its operations should be considered.  However, if time and money constraint will prevent quality from being embraced, the most important sources of information would be the above.  Textbook, previous studies and studies initiated by the firm can only be tapped if the quality dimension is so vital to a certain strategic plan that resources can be released for such purpose.  Otherwise, secondary data can simplify the process and provide the firm the minimum information requirements.  Quality assurance system, however, is very important to the industry existence and growth of the firm that primary research is considered an integral part of objective success.

 

Data Collection Techniques

            Pre-survey can be conducted such as interviews and group discussion to rationalize the structure and design of actual questionnaires.  It can also serve as an initial research invitation for the selected participants that can serve as a tool to increase response rate and interest of the group.  Pre-questionnaires can also identify the needs of target respondents about privacy, ease of language questions and generalized design of the actual questionnaires.  To increase accuracy of responses, managers of the firm will be applied with interviews.  This will create the framework for the research to ask only those relevant to the firm and exclude hard-to-relate factors.  For customer-oriented survey, managers can provide inputs on how the market perceives their products and what are the advantages of using competitor’s products.  As a result, improvement of questionnaires can be performed using different interview sessions describing the motivations of the customers in using apparel products and relation of quality in such choice. 

 

            Further, online chat-rooms can be used to survey employees/ managers of the firm who are separated by geographic constraints.  There is a need to install moderator in each session to assure cooperation of online participants.  The employee survey is crucial to the quality plan success because human behavior cannot be observed in secondary data.  The interface will indicate the response of the employees related to a set of questions developed by the planners.  Multimedia devices can also be installed to provide conducive environment for employees to feel that they are emphasized in the decision-making process of the firm.  Each corporate location in Asia will be allowed to inject representative of employee/ manager membership and will be notified through a letter of recommendation by their top-level management. 

 

            The bottleneck of online char-room is that anyone can post subjective opinions and does not represent the general feeling of the population.  Information can be distorted in a manipulative manner to save the interest of the participant and also the interest of their managerial supervisors.  Since the research highly attributes success to information, the moderator should have the necessary tools and judgment to increase the effectiveness of the interface to prevent these occurrences.  For example, they should be continuously reminded that the data that will be gathered will be used primarily to improve the performance of the company.  This will result to opening of communication lines between managers and employees for efficient implementation of data-gathering tools.  Online chat-rooms will make participants to share their responses with their co-employees and even managers which will increase the response activity that can lead to a more responsible, guided and rational answer.          

 

            In every questionnaire, interview, group discussions and online moderating, the planners will adopt a flexible method continuously balancing objective and subjective responses.  On the contrary, communication would tend to be informal to delete any managerial outlook that employees can attach to the research that can minimize their motivation to participate.  All must act as if they will all be adversely affected (i.e. hassle) by the integrated quality system but afterwards will be rewarded due to its effective implementation.  Generalization should also be considered in data collection.  For example, online answers can have similar responses that although inserted with different presentation approach they are referring to one general obvious answer.  Deductive collection of data can simplify the work of the planners and respondents alike. 

Data Analysis Techniques

The nature of grounded theory is to collect as many ideas as possible, analyze them to figure possible problems and conduct investigation for theory to emerge.  In this view, not only interview but also desk research is important as to suffice the need of grounded approach to test the emergence of the theory from additional data.  The researcher wanted to gain in-depth in sight about the research problem that this design becomes useful.  When it comes to sample, a negative case will be excluded rather it will be the task of the researcher to find samples suited to the needs of the research to construct a relevant theory.

 

Common mistakes from interviews are asking in a confirmatory way in which extreme ideas of the interviewee are not accounted for and failure to ask them to maximize findings.  In this view, there is a need to formalize the interview atmosphere in such a manner of avoiding limiting the findings as well as to prevent adverse attitudes during interviews.  The desk research will also serve to smooth the rough edges of the interviews.  It will confirm, evaluate or dispute the data gathered during interviews which are incidentally affected by distortion of answers relevant to the research problems. 

 

Responses will be collated in the form of tallied frequencies and convert them to percentages.  The information that will be gathered will be encoded in a computer and place under SPAS program.  The results will be evaluated and validate the hypothesis develop throughout the research.  This evaluation will then be posted in graphs, tables and text format.  To analyze interviews, content analysis will be used.  According to Stevens, content analysis “is the systematic description of behavior asking who, what, where, where and how questions within formulated systematic rules to limit the effects of analyst bias.”  Narrative Summary Analyses will also be used to “explain views of the participants not just relying on the raw data itself.”             

 

The quantitative data gathered from the questionnaire will be compiled and encoded in the computer.  Afterwards, it will be processed in SPAS and the results of significant and insignificant factors will be presented in numerical (percentages), graphical and text forms.  The text part of the research will discuss the implications of such numerical values and will be used to summarize and give conclusions.  The qualitative data, as said earlier, will suggest important indications attributable to the respondents.  Other relevant data got from related sources like expert will also be presented in numerical form if necessary.  Important to note that their professional views is suffice to backed up any results and findings of this research.

 

When it comes to reliability, the study will adapt triangulation (interview and observation) technique to enhance its reliability (Anastasia, 1999, p. 71).  Thus, reliability can be multiplied though mechanically recorded data during desk research.  The researcher will also make sure that the steps undertaken in the interview and browsing proper will be included and made explicit for user’s reference.  In terms of enhancing validity, the same technique is necessary.  It can also be tested when future similar study is conducted and compared with the initial.  Collaboration should also be prevented due to too much time spends with interviewees that may defeat validity.  To prevent the mental modes of the researcher to distort reality, member checking can be used.      

 

Data Storage

By using flexible research method, the researcher opted to utilize ways to gather information in simple and efficient manner.  The focus group is interviewed one-by-one during their vacant periods and their answers are recorded in tape.  The process avoids departure from the real statements.  The conversation is informal and the researcher keeps an atmosphere of carefree to prevent irritation and disinterest of the interviewees.  This supported exploratory nature of the flexible research in which the mental state of the sample is withdrawn from illusions rather personal behavior and experience.  However, there is a need for the researcher to consolidate some general answers.  In addition, deduction is exercised due to irrelevant and too much elaboration on the part of some interviewees.  The summarized statistics and excerpts are then shown to them and solicited their consent.  Further, the storage of quantitative data will be encoded to the computer database including the notes from the planners regarding the importance of them.  They will tally them to the spreadsheet and will enable easy access to SPAS.  Interview excerpts will be retrieved from audiotape to for content analysis.         

Final Output for the Target Audience

            The objective is to create a corporate-wide quality assurance system that makes the information relevant to every department.  It is expected that every department has their version of their own quality standards specific to their responsibilities.  This will provide the benchmark for the planners to built a relationship between then and create an integrated quality system.  The sales and marketing is responsible to get the feedback of the customers regarding the quality of the final outputs.  As a result, customer-related surveys can be helpful to expedite their evaluations.  Engineering and R&D groups are responsible for modeling the prototype or improving the design of the existing apparel.  Since development phase is the most crucial and the cause of “domino-effect” process, financial data, industry trends, and also customer survey can support their decision-making.

 

            Manufacturing department will necessitate ISO and internal records including industry trends primarily on new technologies and purchasing partners for raw materials.  In addition, government agencies and interest groups can provide legitimacy issues regarding environment and safety of plants/ equipments.   They are responsible in converting raw materials into final product that historical and current records can help them evaluate their outlook on quality.  Packing and delivery forms the end-phase of the quality assurance system and therefore should be aware of the threats to trade (e.g. delay due to national calamities) which makes media as the source of their quality basis.  After-sales service can be handed with studies about customer queries and complaints in the apparel industry which can be gathered through consultants or journal articles.  Textbooks can also be used to serve as manuals in framing services with different clients.  Lastly, accounting and human resource departments can use the combination of the above information tools because they are responsible for support systems for the quality plan.         

                            

   

A Rose for Emily

A Rose for Emily by William Faulkner is a short story published in the April 30, 1930 issue of a major magazine called Forum. In this literary piece, there are several aspects of the society that were shown all throughout the rest of the story. The author used literary conventions in order to illuminate such aspects for readers to recognize them. In literature, few writers can capture in their writings the flavor of the people's folktales. The manner in which they deliver the story is among the ways to fully demonstrate the effectiveness of the style in writing.

With A Rose for Emily, William Faulkner used the narration and description style of presentation using a storyteller in presenting the significant events that happened in the story. Faulkner chose to narrate and describe the story using an anonymous person that will help the viewer figure out what is being related to them. According to Georg Lukac (cited in Pizer 2002), writing is governed by narration. The narration in this literary masterpiece is a kinetic stylistic approach to imagination that weaved the plot's separated elements into a dynamic whole and allows the reader to experience the action. The description, on the other hand, focuses on minute features at the expense of chronological progress and creating fixed texts marked by conclusion, fragmentation, and boredom, which in return makes both the narrator and reader mere observers.

Faulkner as a naturalistic author is interested in using horror and depravity for their shock value (Corbett et al 1970, p. 1). While other authors differ radically in other details of plot and character, A Rose for Emily offer an opportunity for the consideration of the problem of to what degree the story belongs in the tradition of the Gothic horror tale. In narrating and describing what is happening in the plot, Faulkner developed a mental picture in the perspectives of the readers using the descriptions provided by him. The detailed description of the eerie locations in the story is also another way in which Faulkner treated the subject. For instance, the room wherein Miss Emily kept Homer Barron is so gloomy and ghostly that it elicits a feeling of horror. Another example is the image that the readers create in relation to the house in which Miss Emily lives in, the window pane in which she stands as an idol during the night that makes an image of a ghost, the portrait of her father in the wall that shocked people who immediately sees it, and the dusty, gothic, and aged furniture and other materials within the house. Schaub (2000) stated that readers create the story for themselves out of the pieces that the authors provide (p. 386).

Thematically, A Rose for Emily also treats of a conflict in values between the Old and New South in the period of transition. Faulkner used symbolism to signify Miss Emily as the Southerner and Homer Barron as the Northerner. It brings into contact a representative of an aristocratic person (Miss Emily) with a pragmatic outsider having the new-fangled principles of the industrial age (Barron). In the story, there are clashing visions of life, between romance and realism, liberalism and traditionalism, private and public face, pretended and real concern, sanity and insanity, children and parents, inner life and external behavior, the past and its questionable recollections, and inner life and ideologies.

Specifically, Faulkner presented some situations that depict the obsession and insanity of the characters. For instance, Miss Emily trying to convince the men that she paid her taxes and asking them to see Colonel Sartoris who is already dead for almost ten years, Miss Emily not allowing her father to be buried because she believes that her father is not dead, and her love affair with Homer Barron are pertinent examples. In relation to Faulkner’s treatment on the stereotypical conventions of gothic romance, there is the presence of tragedy that is characterized by horrible events. A perfect example is the love, or could be obsession; Miss Emily has towards Barron that made her insane. The spectacle on woman in this part is also noted. Faulkner's descriptions of Southern Gothic evoke something like classic gothic tales of heroines under siege and bringing attention to the spectacle of a woman (Donaldson 1997, p. 568). In Masse's words, the spectacle is "being hurt by a dominant other", sometimes by a male character, the community at large, and unsettlingly enough, by the audience of the story itself.

Additionally, in critique to certain aspects of Southern society, Faulkner showed specific conditions like people are gossipers (mostly ladies), suicide considered as a solution to life’s problems, children who are inclined to arts like china-painting, strict collection of taxes and sheer implementation of laws, patriarchal politics, and the notion of South and North like Northerner men are judge not to be seriously taken Southerner ladies.

Accordingly, A Rose for Emily is a criticism of the North and others claim it to be of South or battle of good (God) and evil (Satan) (Corbett et all 1970, p. 21). But all in all, the short story was a simple yet outstanding literary masterpiece of Faulkner that made him popular and good in his chosen field. The manner in which Faulkner deliver the story – narration and description, made it clear to the readers that he is certainly pointing out to something out of symbolism, description, situations, and characterization.

To conclude, A Rose for Emily is written artistically that any reader will have a vivid depiction of what is being described. Further, it presents realities that occurred during those times in the history that help people to develop and turn in better individuals. The way in which Faulkner treated the plot had challenged the ability of readers to comprehend and interpret the real meaning of the short story. May it be a criticism of the Southern society during those times or a classic gothic romance short story, A Rose for Emily and William Faulkner made its reputation in the world of literature. 

 

 

Risks for Multinational Firms in International Ventures

Risks for Multinational Firms in International Ventures

 

Introduction

As for many multinational firms doing business in new and unfamiliar countries, it made sense to create joint ventures with local firms.  After all, that local knowledge of customs, suppliers, and markets could save the newcomer months—maybe even years—of riding a painful learning curve.

However, new research on more than 3,000 American transnationals suggests that joint ventures are falling out of favor.  What’s the reason behind these findings? Increasing forces of globalization such as increasingly fragmented production processes make the decision not to collaborate pay off.

For a multinational firm to do business in other country, there are methods and approaches available to enter the desired market.  One of the most common and effective means of conducting business internationally is through joint venture or what is commonly called International Joint Venture. 

            In such mode of entry is the portrayal of relationship between two or more firms in a partnership.  There will be documents and agreements that will serve as provisions as to the particulars of the business for both parties.  The documents and agreements of the joint venture are critical to the success of the venture.  The joint venture agreement forms the basis of the understanding between and among the parties.  It is relied upon to ensure that all parties understand their roles, rights, responsibilities, and remedies in the conduct of the venture.  Organizations enter into joint ventures in good faith but closely scrutinize the joint venture documents if anything goes wrong.

            The importance of the documents is to cover, step by step, the critical elements to consider and include in the joint venture agreements.  Time is spent on what should be included in the agreements and why they should be included.  Equity participation, for example, may or may not be as important as operational control.  Technical participation in the venture may or may not be as important as the intellectual property rights that may result from the venture. 

 

However, by the time multinational firms decided to engage in the International Joint Venture, risks should also be anticipated since it is inevitable in such international partnerships.  Moreover, central propositions in a behavioral theory of the firm applied to creating and managing International Joint Ventures have shaped up some potential pitfalls to such mode of entry (1963).

 

Why do most International Joint Ventures Breakdown?

Risks for Multinational Firms

 

Multi-national enterprises (MNEs) are more likely to use International Joint Ventures in centrally planned or hybrid economies when the local government prefers such cooperation, even if wholly-owned subsidiaries (WOS) are permitted (1994).  National governments often create incentives for MNEs to create International Joint Ventures with domestic partners; centrally-planned government interference is believed to be greater for WOS than International Joint Ventures.

Most created and operating International Joint Ventures that include an MNE and a small domestic partner have life spans of less than five years.  The success and failure of such International Joint Ventures should not be judged by the length of their lives; the ability of the International Joint Venture in achieving multiple performance objectives should be the focus in valuing an ongoing International Joint Venture (1987).

 

Split Management between Multinational Firms and Domestic Partners

 

            The division of management control between joint venture partners has been a long-standing matter of contention among scholars studying Joint Venture entry into emerging markets.  Some Joint Venture scholars have suggested that Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) should secure dominant control of the Joint Venture's management when engaging in Joint Venture with local emerging market partners ( 1984;  1997; 1997; 2001).  These scholars argue that it is best for one of the partners (especially MNE partners) to dominantly manage the JV.  In the contrary, other JV scholars argue that management should be shared by both MNE and local partners if the JV is to be successful.  These scholars have advised MNEs to share control with local emerging market partners as much as possible ( 1985, 1993;1994, 1996).

            Most of the discussion about JV control has not explicitly considered another way of partitioning control: split control JVs. A small number of JV researchers (1983; 1985, 1993;  1988; 1989; 2001; 2002) have reported the phenomenon of split control JVs, sometimes even considering it from different perspectives or with slightly different terminology.  Split control JVs are ventures in which the two partners agree to control distinct functional activities. This division of labor between the partners is not emphasized in shared management ventures. Rather, control over almost all value-creation activities is shared between the partners. The phenomenon of split control management is important because JV partners' choice concerning who should control which particular activities influences the way value is created in the JV and eventually its performance.

Control is defined as influence exercised by the parents over the management of the venture (1983; 1983;  1985;, 1989).  The control that is partitioned between the parents thus represents the relative influence of each parent on the management of the JV.  Control is further conceptualized as a conduit through which parents' firm-specific advantages are transferred to the venture.  It is thus argued that if IV control is not properly partitioned between the partners, then JV performance is likely to suffer because of ineffective transfer of the parents' firm-specific advantages to the venture.  By proper partitioning of the JV's management control, it means a fit between the parent's firm-specific advantages transferred to the venture and the parent's control over the corresponding value-creation activities of JV management.

 

Risks in National & Organizational Culture Differences

 

            Growth in global markets and technologies has led to a dramatic rise in cross-national joint ventures even though joint ventures are considered to be risky (1992: 1989; 1993b). An estimated 37-70% of international joint ventures (IJVs) are reported to suffer from performance problems leading to costly failures (1989;  1995; 1985). Culture differences between joint venture partners have usually been considered a major factor that might influence venture failure or unsatisfactory performance (1993;1985).

            Despite different definitions of culture, there is a general consensus among organizational researchers that culture refers to patterns of beliefs and values that are manifested in practices, behaviors, and various artifacts shared by members of an organization or a nation (1980;  1993).

Because organizations are, in many ways, embedded in the larger society in which they exist, research on culture differences of cross-national businesses should examine both national and organizational cultures.  But with few exceptions (1990; 1996;  1996) past studies have not been concerned with culture distance at both levels.  Nowadays, such unattended concerns have caused risks to international mergers especially to Multinational Firms.   (1990) found that, whereas organizations from different nations differ in fundamental values, organizations from the same nation differ only in organizational practices. The authors therefore concluded that when both national and organizational cultures are examined, the former should be operationalized in terms of values, and the latter in terms of core organizational practices.   (1996) also found that in international and domestic mergers and acquisitions, national and organizational cultures are separate constructs with variable attitudinal and behavioral correlates.  As such, although national and organizational cultures have been regarded as separate constructs, it is also widely accepted that organizational culture is nested in national culture.  (1996) reported that work units perform better when their management practices are compatible with the national culture.  They advocate that management practices should be adapted to national culture for high performance.

In the context of both mergers and joint ventures, scholars have generally argued that alliances between culturally similar partners are more likely to be successful than alliances between culturally dissimilar partners.  Consequently, this has been in only fewer instances since most participating mergers in the international joint ventures are literally different in each other’s culture.  This becomes a difficulty that eventually brings about risks.  Unfortunately, the affected ones are those multinational firms trying to make partnership with the domestic market.

 (1993) define culture as "social glue," which serves to bind individuals and creates organizational cohesiveness.  They state that in alliances "selection decisions are generally driven by financial and strategic considerations, yet many organizational alliances fail to meet expectations because the cultures of partners are incompatible" ( 1993). Indeed, cultural incompatibility may cost more than strategic incompatibility in organizational alliances.  Different culture types create different psychological environments for the joint venture or the merged company, and differences in practices have a negative influence on performance (1993).  Thus, "the degree of culture fit that exists between combining organizations is likely to be directly correlated to the success of the combination" (1993).

Furthermore, cross-national joint ventures have been reported to suffer from communication, cooperation, commitment, and conflict resolution problems caused by partners' value and behavior differences, which in turn cause interaction problems that adversely influence joint venture performance (1988;1994;1991;  1994). Values and behavioral differences between culturally distant partners influence interpretation and responses to strategic and managerial issues, compounding transactional difficulties in international joint ventures ( 1997).

 

Instability of Joint Ventures Resulting into Risks

           

            In the greater part of previous studies, instability has been treated as a dependent variable to indicate the IJV's ultimate destination.  As a result, various factors contributing to instability have been identified, including conflicts in shared management, cross-cultural differences, ownership structures, characteristics of the sponsors, and external environmental forces.  These factors straightforwardly generate risks for both participating firms in the IJV with more threats on transnational mergers or the Multinational Firms than the domestic player.

 

Interpartner conflict in co-management

A key feature of IJVs is shared management between partners from different countries.  Partners could disagree on just about every aspect of an IJV's management.  Therefore, interpartner conflict in co-management is often a driving force for instability ( 1983;1989). (1988) found that differences between the partners in founding goals, strategic resources, and corporate cultures were responsible for shorter JV duration.  On the other hand, joint ventures between direct competitors were found more likely to fail because potential interpartner competition and conflict undermined the partnerships (1996; 1997).

Cross-cultural differences

Cultural differences often influence the way in which the partners in an IJV make strategic decisions and solve problems.  For example, Japanese and American managers tend to see interfirm alliances very differently: the former treat them as primarily interpersonal relationships whereas the latter see them as enduring by design, irrespective of the specific managers involved (1987). (1993,) point out that in IJVs in Japan, cross-cultural differences "lead to endless, energy-and-time consuming debates - futile talk that produces a lot of heat and prevents the company making the decisions it has to." The positive effect of cultural differences on IJV instability has also been evidenced in empirical studies with larger samples (1991; 1992; 1994;1997). However, the findings of several recent studies demonstrate that the relationship between partner cultural differences and IJV stability may be more complex than previous research has suggested.

 

Control/ownership structures

The structure of parent control has been found to influence IJV instability, although the direction of this effect remains ambiguous.   (1993) found that a dominant management structure can minimize coordination costs and hence outperform shared control IJVs.  However, an unequal division of ownership may give the majority holder greater power which may be used to the detriment of the minority owner.  Therefore, a balanced ownership structure in which partners' bargaining power is evenly matched is more likely to produce mutual accommodations (1988).

 

Characteristics of parents

 (1971) concluded that policy changes in the multinational enterprise (MNE) partner were responsible for IJV instability. When an MNE decides to tighten control over its foreign subsidiaries, it is likely to turn some IJVs into wholly-owned subsidiaries. Other partner characteristics, such as a parent firm's financial problems (1999) and the partners' prior IJV experience (1988; 1996;  1996) were also found to influence IJV instability.

 

External environments

Changes in external environments, such as local government policies and industry structures, may also influence IJV instability. It has been widely documented that unanticipated major changes in local political environments (e.g., changes in government policies regarding foreign direct investment in general and equity IJVs in particular) affect international business operations and contribute to IJV instability (1977; 1992;1992;  1994). The past several decades have witnessed such drastic changes in many countries ( 1990; 1995;  1994).

Industrial dynamics may also influence the evolution of joint ventures. For example, IJVs are found to be less stable in industries that experience intensive consolidation or volatile growth (1989, 1991;  1997).

 

Impact of Risks on Performance

 

            Out of all the previous studies,  (1988) was the only study that linked perceived risks to its performance in the IJV.   (1988) study included duration and sponsor-perceived success as well as stability as indicators of performance.  In her sample, 66.7% of the "unstable" ventures were judged as unsuccessful by one or more sponsors, echoing a high correlation between instability and partners' assessment of performance.

            While most researchers conceptually agree that the linkage of instability to performance is more than complex, many used the former as a proxy for the latter. Little research has been done to investigate the relationship and possible interactions between the two variables.

 

Conclusion and Recommendation

           

            Multinational Firms desired to do business with foreign and unfamiliar countries must consider the risks stated above.  Notwithstanding the fact that International Joint Venture is evidently a risky deal, there are still many transnational firms taking the chances of IJVs growing popularity and importance.  Additionally, researches have shown that IJVs averaged only five years yet several companies still take the risks. 

            For managers considering a joint venture, there are some things to keep in mind before taking the step.  First and foremost, separate and segregate the reasons for considering a joint venture.  Additionally, make sure that you can’t buy those services or that knowledge through an arms-length contract that doesn’t require sharing ownership.  Most of what managers want from joint ventures is likely to be available through such arrangements.  Given the notion on how costly giving up equity is, view joint ventures as a last resort. 

            Another important thing to consider is the expectations.  As a manager, clearly and openly lay out expectations for the partners in legal and informal documents prior to the creation of the entity for the reason that it would be clear as to what each party is providing.  With this pace, it would create security and precautions right before the business is about to commence.

            Then, try out partners without setting up a joint venture by conducting business with them in some way.  This would test how the partners actually do business in the anticipation of the outcome.  Bear this in mind – there’s no substitute for real contract with the whole organization.  Lastly, specify simple exit provisions at the onset and then don’t be afraid to walk and go it alone. 

            In general, multinationals often create incentives to have joint ventures by penalizing the risk-taking involved in going it alone.  The overall multinational body should have another look at its attitude toward joint ventures and make sure that managers on the ground don’t feel pressured having local partners. 

OLYMPIC GAMES

OBJECTIVES

As a person with knowledge of the Olympic Games, the author has always brought up to his superiors the viability of strategy formation regarding the analysis of this topic and at times fails to understand the reasons or logic behind certain strategic implementations imposed on it.

By delving into this project paper, the author intends to have better insights into how the Olympic Games are thought up, formulated and then imparted down into the respective hosting country. The author hopes to have an in-depth understanding as to how the establishment of the Olympic Games enables countries all over the world to compete effectively and profitably in sports where competition is extremely intense.

In order to reinforce the learning objectives, two key focal issues were focussed upon i.e. innovation and diversity. Innovation was discussed with regard to the Olympic Games where it was renowned for its developmental capabilities to constantly innovate. Diversity came under strategic thinking and formation as the author considered the diverse culture, political climate, economic surroundings, social environment, technological settings, government policies and legal systems in order to better understand the issues being discussed.

 

 

EXECUTIVE BRIEF

This essay utilized the Olympic Games for 5 countries (upcoming 2008 Beijing, 2004 Athens, 2000 Sydney, 1996 Atlanta and 1992 Barcelona) as the models to review their past and present impacts, origins, economic and sustainability issues and how they dealt with critical situations. From the analysis, key trends in the Olympic Games for 5 countries were then identified, how they worked and their effectiveness in dealing with critical situations was ascertained. The paper then moved on to assess these Olympic Games with regard to their suitability to critical situations, during which the internal capabilities of these Olympic Games in relation to the strategy being followed by the hosting countries were determined also. An overall analysis of the performance and effectiveness of the Olympic Games for 5 countries was also conducted to assess and compare the capabilities of these Olympic Games with those of others. Gaps in the Olympic Games and hosting environment were then identified.

Finally, several choices of strategies to improve the hosting of the Olympic Games for China as effective means in critical situations were recommended and evaluated in terms of appropriateness to the issues reviewed, feasibility in carrying out the options and acceptability within the key stakeholders and decision makers. Several key implementation issues related to managing strategic change were also addressed as well.

 

 

INTRODUCTION

The Olympic Games pertain to the international sports festival that occurs every four years and composed of the summer and winter sporting events. Because of its international stature, the management of such a gigantic sports event requires the hosting country to have a system that can be efficient and effective in terms of the implementation of the policies and tasks necessary to satisfy the needs of the athletes and all of the participants. The hosting of the Olympic Games focuses on the careful management of the processes involved in making the playing venues safe and enjoyable for everybody especially for the athletes.

More often than not, small and relatively underdeveloped countries don't really have the capabilities to host the Olympic Games. Instead, these countries engage in activities that issue their support for the Olympic Games. These activities include the sending of competitive athletes as well as experienced and well-respected umpires and referees.

However, the Olympic Games deal with all operations done within the hosting country in order to make it successful. Activities such as the management of resources, the control of advertising and media coverage, logistics and evaluations are often related with the management of the Olympic Games. A great deal of emphasis lies on the efficiency and effectiveness of processes. Therefore, the Olympic Games include the analysis and management of internal processes.

BEIJING OLYMPICS 2008

 

The 29th Olympic Games will be hosted by Beijing, China from August 8, 2008 to August 24, 2008. The city of Beijing won on the bidding to host the 2008 Olympics on July 13, 2001 against other powerful and highly industrialized cities including Paris in France.

Preparations

The organizing committee of the 29th Olympic Games has assigned workers that will have responsibilities in communications, recordkeeping as well as operations scheduling. The management team of the 29th Olympic Games is subdivided into key personnel.

Cargo and freight agents. These people track cargo and freight shipments with connection to the 29th Olympic Games. They may come from airlines, terminals or from shipping docks. They are in charge of keeping the records of missing and destroyed sports items as well as its excess supplies. These people are able to sort the numerous cargos based on their destinations. They also establish payment scheduling with sports agents and arrange the pickup schedule and delivery of freight.

Couriers and messengers. These people are assigned to deliver important business documents and packages of the 29th Olympic Games to other countries and their representatives. They keep records of deliveries and get the recipient’s signature.

Production, planning, and expediting clerks. These people do the coordination of the flow of information, work as well as the materials needed in the hosting of the 29th Olympic Games. These are done usually on a production or work schedule basis. They also the gathering of critical information for reports on, for example, the progress of work and problems encountered in the manufacturing of the new playing venues. They are also scheduling the shipments of sports utilities, costs estimation, and inventories of sports items.

Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks. These people are in charge of tracking all shipments of sports items being transferred among businesses, suppliers, and customers. Shipping clerks assemble and ship merchandise of sports items and their ingredients. Receiving clerks do the verification and recording of information on incoming merchandise. Traffic clerks do the recording of the destination and costs of all incoming and outgoing sports items shipments.

Stock clerks and order fillers. These people are in charge of receiving and the storage of the sports items as well as the maintenance and distribution of inventories. These inventories may include sports merchandises, supplies, or even ingredients. They may perform all of the abovementioned tasks and even those commonly handled by shipping and receiving clerks.

Marketing and Promotional Campaigns

The organizers of the Beijing Olympics issued a press release regarding the launching of the 29th Olympic Games, but other methods including Internet releases were also conducted. However, in order for these tools and techniques to be effectively utilized by the media, they must be able to generate a great interest from the public. For this to happen, the organizers of the 29th Olympic Games manipulated the press release in order to be a perfect match to the public. The organizers of the 29th Olympic Games believed that the most successful publicity releases are often related to topics that the general public can easily relate to.

Publicity is a term that is closely related to public relations. While public relations refers to the proper management of all means of communication among the organization and the people involved, publicity, on the other hand, is the careful management of a product or service’s means of communication between the organization and the general public. Therefore, it is basically an informative process. However, its main objective is the promotion of products and services being offered by an organization. Thus, a publicity plan is being made along the process in order to obtain excellent press coverage for the organization’s products.

The advantages of the publicity programs made by the organizers of the 29th Olympic Games include having low costs, and its credibility. New technologies such as the Internet and convergence are gradually changing the cost-structure. The disadvantages include the lack of control over how the releases will be used, and the accumulation of frustration regarding the low percentage of releases that are being accepted by the media.

ATHENS OLYMPICS 2004

The 28th Olympic Games was hosted by Athens, Greece, over a period of 17 days from August 13 to August 29, 2004. The city of Athens won on the bidding to host the 2004 Olympics on September 5, 1997 against other powerful and highly industrialized cities including Rome in Italy. A total of 11,099 athletes from 202 countries participated in the 28th Olympic Games, with the US, China and Russia topping the medal tally boards.

Preparations

Planning was a necessary function within the 28th Olympic Games. In the Olympic Games this process is often very difficult because of the fast rate of change and the occurrences of unplanned events. The organizers of the 28th Olympic Games used several methodologies depending on the rate of demand and the price of the tickets. Nevertheless, the objectives of the organizers of the 28th Olympic Games for every transaction did not change: efficiency and effectiveness.

Planning was implemented by the organizers of the 28th Olympic Games in order for its activities and resources to be coordinated over time. This enabled the organizers of the 28th Olympic Games to achieve its goals with minimal resource utilization. Planning also enabled the organizers of the 28th Olympic Games to monitor the progress of their plans at regular intervals and maintain their control over operations. Planning within the 28th Olympic Games involved four elements: scheduling, labor planning, equipment planning, and cost planning.

• Scheduling involved the specification of the beginning, the length or the duration, and end of the planned activities.
• Labor planning involved allocating the necessary personnel and delegation of responsibilities and resources
• Equipment planning involved identifying the types and needs in terms of equipments.
• Cost planning involved determining the costs and the possibility of their occurrence.

Marketing and Promotional Campaigns

In a general sense, advertising was utilized by the organizers of the 28th Olympic Games to be able to impart to the public the existence of such a spectacular sporting event in Athens. In a way, advertising was also able to provide critical information regarding the 28th Olympic Games to the public. Since the advertising campaigns for the 28th Olympic Games were achieved effectively, this led to an increased demand for its media coverage.

Advertising refers to the paid promotion of goods and services through a sponsoring organization or company. While marketing has the objective to choose markets that have the capacity to purchase a product,  advertising, on the other hand, is the paid communication through which relevant information about the product is conveyed to potential consumers.

There were three main objectives of advertisements for the 28th Olympic Games: (1) conveying relevant information regarding the 28th Olympic Games; (2) persuading the public to support the 28th Olympic Games; and, (3) keep the 28th Olympic Games under the watchful eyes of the public. The success of the advertising campaigns for the 28th Olympic Games was because of the mix of the elements of all three objectives. The advertisements for the 28th Olympic Games included informative, institutional and persuasive ads.

SYDNEY OLYMPICS 2000

The 27th Olympic Games was hosted by Sydney, Australia, over a period of 16 days from September 15 to October 1, 2000. Sydney won on the bidding to host the 2000 Olympics on September 23, 1993 against other powerful and highly industrialized cities including Berlin in Germany and Beijing, China. A total of 10,651 athletes from 199 countries participated in the 27th Olympic Games, with the US, China and Russia topping the medal tally boards.

Preparations

The occurrence of research within the 27th Olympic Games reflected the growing difficulty in its management that required the effective use of valuable resources such as money, materials, equipments, and people. This is the reason why research analysis was done by the organizers of 27th Olympic Games in order to determine the most effective ways to coordinate these resources through the application of analytical methods derived from fields of studies such as mathematics, science, and engineering.

Through this process, problems related to the hosting of the 27th Olympic Games were solved in different ways and alternative solutions were then relayed to the organizers. The organizers then selected the appropriate course of action in line with the goals of the 27th Olympic Games. More often than not, research analysis was concerned with complicated issues such as top-level strategy, resource allocation, designing of production facilities and systems, pricing and the analysis of large databases. Research analysis actually may vary according to the structures and philosophy of the event. But in the case of the 27th Olympic Games, it centralized research analysis in one department.

Marketing and Promotional Campaigns

The existence of Internet and the continued revolution in the world of Information Technology were certainly positive signs for the blossoming of many new advertising opportunities for the 27th Olympic Games. For instance, Popup ads and email ads started to invade the Internet 2 years prior to the start of the 27th Olympic Games. Most advertising firms in Australia also started to exert efforts to make their advertisements appealing to the public.

 

 

ATLANTA OLYMPICS 1996

The 26th Olympic Games was hosted by Atlanta, Georgia in the US over a period of 16 days from July 19 to August 4, 1996. Atlanta won on the bidding to host the 1996 Olympics on September 1990 against other powerful and highly industrialized cities including Athens in Greece and Melbourne, Australia. A total of 10,320 athletes from 197 countries participated in the 26th Olympic Games, with the US, Germany and Russia topping the medal tally boards.

Preparations

The organizers of the 26th Olympic Games determined the best ways to utilize its basic factors of production. These resources include the people, materials, information, and energy needed in the hosting of the 26th Olympic Games. Engineering was the bridge that linked the goals of the organizers of the 26th Olympic Games and operational performance. They were concerned with the increase in productivity through the proper management of people and choosing the appropriate methods of organization.

The organizers of the 26th Olympic Games performed the careful analysis and inspection of the 26th Olympic Games’ products, playing venues and their safety. In this process, they made use of various mathematical methods in its operations research to meet the requirements. They also developed systems of management control in order to aid in the planning of finances and cost analysis. These systems were eventually subjected to improvements for the effective distribution of Olympic services.

The organizers of the 26th Olympic Games performed the tedious task of selecting which among the various playing venue locations had the best combination of raw materials availability and costs. This time, the organizers made use of computers for simulations and robots for controlling various activities and devices. They also were in charge of the development of administration systems and programs for evaluation of participating athletes. The organizers of the 26th Olympic Games had enough flexibility to move into management positions.

Marketing and Promotional Campaigns

Sales were an important part of the marketing and promotional campaigns for the 26th Olympic Games. The most common approach to personal selling of the tickets for the 26th Olympic Games pertained to a systematic process of continuous yet measurable methods in which the person selling described the value of the ticket in such a way that the buyer was able to visualize how to benefit from personally seeing the 26th Olympic Games in an economic way. Selling was basically a part of the implementation procedures of marketing for the 26th Olympic Games. 

The continued interrogation in order to understand the goal of the 26th Olympic Games as well as the establishment of a set of feasible solutions by conveying the necessary information that convinces a buyer to achieve his goal at a reasonable cost was the main responsibility of the marketing team of the 26th Olympic Games. Aside from this, it was also the responsibility of the marketing team to be able to know the needs and satisfy the wants of the public effectively, and therefore convert possible customers into actual and reliable ones.

BARCELONA OLYMPICS 1992

The 25th Olympic Games was hosted by Barcelona, Spain over a period of 15 days from July 25 to August 9, 1992. Barcelona won on the bidding to host the 1992 Olympics on October 1986 against other powerful and highly industrialized cities including Amsterdam, Netherlands. A total of 9,956 athletes from 169 countries participated in the 25th Olympic Games, with the Unified Team (Soviet), US, and Germany topping the medal tally boards.

Preparations

It is interesting to know the basic innate characteristics of the organizing team of the 25th Olympic Games that resulted in its success.

·         Mental Stability

Mental stability was crucial especially in the pursuit of the correct decision as well as the management and development of the processes accompanying it. It was important for the organizing team of the 25th Olympic Games to remain updated with the latest developments to be able to stay aware and knowledgeable in all issues.

·          Performance and Credibility

The production of the best outputs came as a result of well-funded research management and development activities. The strong performance of the 25th Olympic Games in the market could also be linked to the effective strategic planning and human resource mobilization of the organizers. Thus, the organizers and the country’s credibility increased as the 25th Olympic Games progressed.

·         Planning and Strategy Formation Capabilities

Planning and strategy formation created the need for the organizers of the 25th Olympic Games to become aggressive especially in the area of marketing. This was because the access to strong media channels was critical for the success of the 25th Olympic Games.

·         Decision-making abilities.

Upon arriving at the correct decision or choice, the organizers of the 25th Olympic Games now gained confidence in their ability to make critical decisions or choices especially when the integrity of the 25th Olympic Games was on the line. Thus, the organizers of the 25th Olympic Games now searched for even more challenges and opportunities where they could further enhance their decision-making abilities regarding the 25th Olympic Games.

·         Holistic Mindset of Issues

Through the exposure to various puzzling issues in the 25th Olympic Games, the organizers along the process were able to develop a holistic mindset regarding the issues surrounding the 25th Olympic Games. The organizers now became keen observers of the truths and lies surrounding the issues being tackled, instead of relying on mere hearsays. The continuous pursuit of the truth behind the puzzling issues enabled the organizers of the 25th Olympic Games to consistently practice and enhance a healthy and holistic mindset which made it difficult for detractors to give influence. Because of this holistic approach, the organizers were able to effectively select the right choice and continue to maximize this potential.

Marketing and Promotional Campaigns

The TV commercial campaigns for the 25th Olympic Games were generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format, even amidst the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime. In the world of media and entertainment, a particular television commercial can be broadcasted continuously for months and even years. Normally, television commercial production studios often risk astronomical amounts of money for the production of a mere thirty-second television commercial. In this case, the broadcasting companies were financially capable for this kind of huge expenditures. The resulting number of high-quality 25th Olympic Games TV commercials, those with the best production values and the most popular personalities, were able to offset the huge expenses later on.

Billboard advertisements were also able to catch the public’s attention and thus created an immediate impression. They also were readable especially because they were usually noticed in roads and highways in Spain while the public was boarded at vehicles with high speeds.

CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

For the hosting country to be able to successfully host the Olympic Games, the following success factors are critical:

·         Financial Stability

Financial stability is crucial especially in the pursuit of the hosting of the Olympic Games. Along the process, it is important to remain updated with the latest developments to be able to stay competitive in the bidding process.

·         Available Resources

The effective hosting of the Olympic Games comes as a result of well-funded research and development activities. The strong performance of the Olympic Games could also be linked to their cost-effectiveness. However, the hosting country has to be aware of the positioning in terms of process so as to maintain satisfactory profits margin and remain competitive in the bidding process.

·         Marketing Strategy and Distribution

High awareness among the bidding countries has created the need for aggressive marketing, and access to strong media channels is critical in the bidding process of hosting the Olympic Games.

OLYMPIC ISSUES

Political Issues

The five countries that hosted the Olympic Games have experienced electoral and political transitions and crises over the last 12 years.  There have been at least four political trends that have emanated from these political events. These are: (a) the cry for democracy and reforms; (b) increased popular and local-level assertiveness; (c) greater public accountability; (d) re-definition of the concepts of power and politics. Also, the forms of political economies have slowly shifted from a bipolar (big government-big business) to a tri-polar structure (authorities - private sector – civil society).

 

           

 

 

Economic Issues

Despite the adverse economic trends in the first half of the 21st century, among the five countries it was the United States as a whole which experienced a relatively robust economic growth. It is estimated that the United States, taken together, posted a better-than-expected GDP growth of 4.5% last year, slightly higher than the 4.1% growth that they achieved in 2002.

Social/Cultural Issues

There have also been social and cultural trends that have been evident over the last 12 years among the Olympic hosting countries. These include: (a) the irreversible rise of civil society among states; (b) the rise of civil society blends perfectly with a tri-polar structure of political economy; (c) the increase in the roles of intellectuals; and (d) the beginning of a period of introspection.

Technological Issues

It is a common knowledge that hosting the Olympic Games requires the technologies of the bidding country to be able to hold down such a sporting spectacle. Countries like Spain and China has shown signs of rapid growth and it is being estimated that there will be more than a million technologies that will be shipped within the year in preparation for the 2008 Olympics. And it is further being expected that within the next years the tremendous growth and technological advancements will continue among the five Olympic hosting nations. For instance, mobile commerce and multimedia terminals are just some of the technological advancements already being expected in China. Therefore, the continued growth and development will also make it imperative for localization to occur in the years to come.

STRATEGIC OPTIONS

Deriving from the analysis between the four previous Olympic hosting nations, together with their operations management and capabilities, many strategic options would become imperative for China to improve its upcoming Olympic Games hosting in 2008. It is therefore essential to evaluate these strategic options as to whether they are appropriate to the issues addressed, whether they are feasible enough to be implemented and their acceptability to key stakeholders.

There is definitely a need to reconcile both the inside-out and outside-in capabilities. While China’s strategy in hosting the Olympic Games in 2008 involves focusing on its core competencies with market position following its resource base, the nation will be put into a disadvantageous position should it choose to neglect both the macro as well as the micro environment. Therefore, China has to be aware of the latest operations management changes, as well as changes in political, economic, legal and even demographic trends in order to develop the outside-in capabilities, such as market sensing, public linking, channel bonding and technology monitoring.

The advantages enjoyed by China may come in the form of increased revenues. Knowing what the hosting of the Olympic Games demands and the latest trends could help China fully exploit its research and development capabilities to come out with innovations which are not only cost-effective but also high in quality. The strategic option can even be used as marketing tool where the focus is on staying close to the public and listening to their feedbacks. On the flip side of the coin, there will be huge mobilization of resources involved, and the associated risks bestowed on China.

Nevertheless, the mentioned strategic option seems the most practical in the wake of globalization, since there is a sudden shift towards a more integrated and independent Olympic Games. The key stakeholders too should not have any objections so long as China’s core strategy is not threatened. By virtue of China’s centralized control of its hosting chores, it is being expected that major barriers should not exist in carrying out such an option except additional time may be required given the scope and span of operations.

Understanding the strategic importance of hosting the Olympic Games is something China has to be familiar with. China normally practices a centralized and globally scaled configuration of operations and capabilities. This allows information dissemination to be retained.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

A tie-up with various countries that already hosted the Olympic Games offers tremendous benefits in terms of access to their policies, infrastructure and even their resources. However, China must not lose sight of its core competencies and strategies while pursuing these tie-ups. Otherwise, the image of China might be put in jeopardy.

Meanwhile, the collaboration of China with its major competitors can be seen as a ridiculous move at first.  However, upon close examination, this move could pave the way for China to improve even more its capabilities to host the Olympic Games. The bottom line is both sides would be able significantly gain in such an alliance. China’s strengths in modern technologies combined with the operations management capabilities of their competitors can transform them suddenly into an unbeatable force to reckon with. One possible setback, however, is the differences in the cultures of the countries involved. Another possible setback could be whether any of China’s competitors has the need to form alliances.

The third option also focuses on alliances, but this time with either one of the suppliers specializing in sports products. The benefits of these alliances should outweigh the costs in the long run.

In terms of appropriateness, all three options are able to directly address the current issues mentioned. However, the question remains whether China could be able to implement any of these options, and whether these options can be acceptable to the key stakeholders. Any merger or alliances may also involve the sharing of expertise. China has traditionally relied on the inside-out approach. It is important to note that any transactions would have many implications on China’s values and culture as well as its resources. The key stakeholders definitely would be concerned with such options and need to be convinced of the positive aspects. Somehow, China will be able to overcome this barrier in managing strategic changes in the process of implementing any of the above mentioned strategic options.

CONCLUSION

The results of the analysis carried out on the five nations that hosted the Olympic Games indicated very significant effects, even amidst the threats of unrest. Therefore, we could conclude that the Olympic hosting in the future could still be expected to improve faster than average.

The review of the five previous Olympic Games, the hosting nation’s capabilities and its resources revealed very little inconsistencies regarding its hosting strategies. This is coherent with their traditional inside-out approach. However, the need to reconcile both the inside-out and outside-in approaches becomes imperative now for China as the upcoming hosting nation.

The analysis among the Olympic environment as well as the various Olympic issues revealed certain gaps, most of which are biased towards the environment. However, these gaps paved the way towards determining a number of recommended strategic options to secure the competitiveness of the Olympic Games.

 

 

REFERENCES