History of the Desegregation of American Schools
Social inequality and racial collectivism in America did not only misplace and isolated the black community geographically but also crippled them in different aspects of their society. Such aspects are: economy, politics and culture. The geographic isolation of blacks undermines the power of pluralist politics and means that whites have less to gain when public funds and resources are channeled to all black areas and away from multiethnic communities. The isolation contributes to the disinvestment and decline in many urban black areas by making them vulnerable to cutbacks in public funds and services. White politicians are more apt to target black neighborhoods for spending cuts because of the minimal political fallout.
According to (1996), the story of international action against racial discrimination as of international action against many other evils, is that of the great effort to extend the rule of law. It is a highly political struggle, because it is about cajoling states to give up a little of their sovereignty. They are uncertain to do this unless they can get something in exchange. By complying with a convention they may be able to contribute to a cause they think important, to improve their image in the diplomatic world, or to put pressure on some other state of whose policies they disapprove.
The African American culture has been of great interest to a large number of studies. This is due to the unique and fascinating character and personality of its people. African Americans have a history and life experience that they alone fully understand. The civilization they experienced and the current social and economic pressures they endure are largely different from the more popular and highly researched lives of the Caucasians and Asians. As a race, these people have suffered greatly in the long story of their existence, and until these days, it is still evident in the low treatment of the racist and narrow-minded groups of people that, for some people, is inevitable in the global community that is now shared all over the world. This is evident in the calls that concerned individuals and private institutions, foundations and sectors that address anti-racism and anti-discrimination in the national and international setting. Such social stigma related to skin color is doubled by the discrimination felt by the African American gays and lesbians in their community and in the workplace. In effect, it is highly relevant that the roots of the nature of gender orientation be given light to others to fully understand and empathize with African American homosexuals.
The segregation and discrimination of the black urban community is the result of politics and economy in the mainstream history of the United States. It is also a given fact that the black community is in the side stream of America’s history. From 1450 -1750, the North American continent experienced enormous changes. The European explorers ventured to what they called then as the “New World” in search of vast amounts of natural wealth. Corollary to these exploratory activities, these European explorers also traveled to Africa and began a trans-Atlantic slave trade. Millions of Africans were brought to the Americas and traded there as slaves. This mass movement of people led to a new social and economic system; with the color of the skin as a determining factor whether one would live as a slave or as a free citizen. By 1750, both the free and enslaved black people showed an intense attachment to America. After 1750, many African-Americans already found their freedom. In 1830, Philadelphia held the first meeting of the American Society of Free Persons of Color (later became the National Negro Convention). This organization for the black people was created to establish a black community and seek true freedom ( 1998).
America is a country that places great values to education as an important characteristic in sustaining the democracy maintained and uphold by the Constitution. The significance of education has long been hailed through the innovations in science and technology pioneered in the United States in the goal to provide the best kind of learning experience to the young members of the population. The support of the government and private sectors and organizations in promoting and upholding the right to education of every student has long been the driving and mechanical force in putting children in schools for them to avail the needs to be educated. The United States in particular has been known to uphold freedom and equality in experiencing the good life. The individualist cultural orientation of the country made the people of America to place importance in the concept of independence in the effort and time dedicated in advocating the relevance of individual choice and freedom. And the application of such concepts in the everyday life importantly covers the aspect of education.
The problem it seems, with the educational system is that it has been too complacent or too comfortable to address the issues of institutionalized racism. The academe has taken refuge in its insistence that racism could not exist in an academic institute because of the ideals that the institute claim to uphold. In the University, no student or employee shall, on the basis of their race, color, or national origin be disqualified or excluded from participation in, be denied or deprived of the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any University program or activity. University programs and activities include, but are not limited to, admissions, recruitment, financial aid, academic programs, student treatment and services, counseling and guidance, discipline, classroom assignment, grading, recreation, physical education, athletics and employment (Campus Conduct). Most of the time, discrimination is associated with the act of making a disparity, as in favor of or against a person or thing. It is a form of behavior that shows prejudice, but not only the form. It is the failure to treat people in the same way. In most cases, discrimination exists because there is no acceptance and respect. It has also been influenced by traditions and cultures.
The rise of civil rights movement in America since 1940 brings a significant change in the life of the African-American people. Two of the primary goals of the modern civil rights movement are to push for educational change and to improve the educational situation of African-Americans. However, the reforms demanded by the movement were not well received by the majority of school personnel and researchers (1991). Many years of bloody revolutions and social uprisings took place before American schools; lunch counters and worksites were desegregated. President issued an executive order in 1961 offering opportunities to the African-American community as compensation for years of discrimination. By the late 1960s, President instructed companies working on federal projects to attain minority-hiring objectives. On the other hand, President , taking side against the Michigan in the Supreme Court case, said that he strongly supported diversity of all kinds including racial diversity in higher education ( 2003).
In 1965, there were only few African-American students who chose to enroll at the previously all-white schools of Cave Street Elementary for grades one to six and Deshler High School for grades seven to twelve in Alabama. In Deshler, one’s race interfered with one’s right to have a decent education. Maria, an African American student, recounted some incidents that demonstrated her perceptions of hostility about the educational atmosphere in Deshler (2000). By the 1970s, African-Americans have shown intense interest in pursuing their educational goals. In 1992, 52 percent of them planned to proceed directly to a four-year course after high school graduation as compared to 32 percent in 1972. Also, there was an increase on the percentage of African-Americans to enter academic programs at two-year colleges. During the 1980s and 1990s, the number of bachelor degrees given to African-Americans increased noticeably. In spite of these gains however, their number was still lesser compared to the number of white Americans and Asian-Americans who wanted to enroll in college after high school. The U.S. Census Bureau in 2000 revealed a lesser percentage of African-Americans who received bachelor’s degree in their 20s and 30s. This statistic is smaller than the percentage for all racial and ethnic groups in America, taken together. This discrepancy caught the attention of the political leaders in the United States that is why they wanted to increase the participation of African-Americans in higher education, as one of the country’s educational objectives ( 2002).
According to the report made by the National Assessment of Educational Progress last 2000, the standardized test scores of average African-American and Hispanic students are lower, as compared to the scores of white students at comparable grade levels. The U.S. Department of Education concluded after its examination on 27 school reform models, that most of the reform models failed to make significant improvements. In January 2002, President , signed the No Child Left behind Act into law. This new education reform bill was designed basically to close the achievement gap between white upper-and middle-class public school students and poor children and children of color (2003). According to, U.S. Secretary of Education, he optimistically said before the National Press Club that every day our service to our children becomes better and each day we come one step closer to the future of excellence and inclusion, discarding the deficiencies and rectifying longstanding problems (2004).
(1996) authored a book that deals with racism in schools, its effects on the academic performance, interpersonal relationships as well as the general outlook on life of African American students as well as other students of ‘color’. He pointed out how most academic institutions, in their confidence that racism has no place in such an idealistic institution often forget that some of their actions and behavior actually have racist implications. Accordingly, racism shows itself repeatedly in classrooms owing to the ignorance of individual teachers as well as administrators through institutionalized racism. The article entitled “A Pernicious Silence: Confronting Race in the Elementary Classroom” by Lillian Polite and Elizabeth Baird Saenger talks about creating classroom communities which are supposed to be, constructive, developmentally appropriate communities of learning that are necessary for solid learning to happen. There is an emphasis on everyone’s need to feel comfortable in order to take risks, and learning that is built on risk-taking. The problem is that teachers may also unwittingly create communities of silence ( 2003).
The provision of appropriate educational needs for children with special disabilities has long been a common issue in education. Arguments and debates have been raised in line with the right policies on how to educate children with special educational needs (SEN). According to (1997), children with disabilities are traditionally educated in segregated classrooms, specifically designed to cater the students’ certain incapacities. Educators find this segregation system beneficial, as they are able to apply curriculum formulated specifically for special children. Likewise, children with disabilities benefit from this system not only because of the appropriate curriculum but the thought of attending classes with classmates of the same disabilities enhance their confidence or self-esteem as well. Furthermore, being segregated assures the security and sufficient support the special children needs. While social skill development may vary based from numerous results of previous studies, inclusion is capable of enhancing children’s academic achievement through speech and language programs, improved parent–teacher communication, greater use of group work, a student participation in class discussions, and increased community acceptance of people with disabilities. Furthermore, several educators have argued that exposing children into ordinary education settings will be the most effective means of equipping children into better self-supportive adults in the future.
There are concepts of schools as ideological state apparatuses, and of cultural capital, used to analyze curriculum knowledge that has been selected, and cultural behaviors privileged and rewarded through both the formal and the hidden curricula. There are also identified mixture of gains and losses created by the National Curriculum in terms of educational equality regarding 'race', gender, special needs, sexual diversity and social class. The general principle is that policies are being directed toward school populations which are differentially recognized for educational purposes and for whom higher levels and different modes of financing are required. A whole range of school populations, however they are delineated by country authorities, according to various social, cultural, linguistic, racial, ethnic, geographic, physical and mental characteristics, are the subjects of special educational attention. A new comparative study could usefully follow the precedent established in the present report to examine the general principles in this field in which policy is related to finance (1979).
For the positive aspects in integration, it is included that the additional resources should now be available for all students. Although the validity of normalization as a basis for integration was questioned from the start, the concept played a significant role on pressures towards integration, and continues to do so. Critics claimed that normalization did not recognize the fact that the society includes a wide range of individual differences. Moreover, it did not adequately recognize the diversity of educational, vocational and other opportunities that are available to people in the adult world. For the advocates of integration, however, the right to education meant the right of students with disabilities to receive an education mean. These are speech and language programs, improved parent–teacher communication, greater use of group work, a student participation in class discussions, and increased community acceptance of people with disabilities. Students at mainstream schools were more likely to have higher academic achievements than those at special schools, even when developmental level was similar. Against these benefits, inclusion also brought its share of challenges. Although the concept of inclusion may have its own set of drawbacks, such disadvantages can be resolved primarily through effective training of educators.
Human development is crucial. It was said that no country can secure sustainable economic growth or reduce poverty without healthy, well-nourished, and well-educated people. The love for learning is so great that it should be associated with a way of life. Education helps people to be more objective in their approach to life’s problems, more analytical in trying to understand them and more aware of the consequences that can arise when handling them. Education can help lead a fuller and richer life and to be more conscious of the economic and social environment.
Annotated Bibliography:
(1996). International Action against Racial Discrimination
However, in democratic countries people are accustomed to seeing their governments criticized daily in many of the morning newspapers, but when a foreign official criticizes the same government, reactions are different. People would ask whether conditions in the foreigner's country are such that he or she is entitled to complain. Diplomats, in particular, are trained to defend their countries' honor. They are always on the look-out for fear that the rules of international relations are applied unfairly to their countries' disadvantage (1996).
Campus Conduct (n.d.). Race, Color or National Origin Discrimination. 20 Dec 04
Individuals are being treated unequally due to the influenced of some strong factors like religion, sex, national origin, sexual orientation, and even disability. Efforts towards establishing an earnest multicultural institute are being made however to address and handle this problem and it begins with initiating a self examination on one’s awareness in detecting racist forms of behaviors and attitudes. Common solutions propose to break the silence by gaining enough courage to talk it through with the kids in order to gain a better understanding of themselves as well as growing in a culturally diverse environment (Campus Conduct).
(1979). A study of British Policy and the Political Impasse in India
Through contacts with the parents much has been learned by the teachers about the children, which has, in many cases, enabled them to solve problems and unexplained difficulties which they had encountered. But a great deal remains to be done. The policy is to be implemented thoroughly and completely. There are crucial areas where policy has failed to effect change in the past and where it can succeed in the future, particularly in relation to equality. Policies legitimate certain concerns, provide resources to further them, and provide a basis for evaluation and refinement ( 1979).
(1997) Mainstream or Special? Educating Students with Disabilities
These argument concerned academic achievement, the detrimental effects of labeling associated with placement outside the mainstream, the racial imbalance in special education, and recent advances in individually paced curricula which would make it possible to accommodate students with disabilities in the regular class. Most importantly, it was argued by educators that these centers are the best way of preparing students with disabilities for ultimate integration into the community as self-support adult (1997).
(1996) Through Students' Eyes: Combating Racism in United States Schools.
In both urban and suburban schools, students of color experience inequality by being given a smaller amount of instructional time biased texts and curricula, harsh sanctions (suspension and detention), lowered teacher expectations, and teacher/administrator and school denial of racist actions. White students who lack sufficient understanding of racism on the other hand often accuse the victims of using their ethnicity or race as a crutch in order to get special treatment due to their laziness to do things on their own initiative. As a result, some potentially brilliant student of color represses his skills and talent out of fear of being bullied and a resentment of not being taken seriously ( 1996).
(2000). Creating Caring and Nurturing Environments for African American Children.
During that time, African-American students were treated unfairly and unjustly by some teachers and white students (2000).
. (2003). Race matters: this year, the Supreme Court could dismantle affirmative action. Would it be ending an unfair practice or hurting the cause of racial equality?.
This affirmative action does not only help the minorities who have been subject for discrimination for so many years but also improved the educational experience of everyone in the university. One student from a university in Michigan said that she is proud for having friends who are black (2003).
(2003). Pernicious Silence: Confronting Race in the Elementary Classroom
The article states that when teachers avoid the subject, and pretend that it doesn't exist as an issue, or when the issue is treated lightly, they are sending a very strong message which may be unintentional but it produces stifling results. However, when teachers find ways to address the issues surrounding race in society it has been found that children feel liberated. They begin to be more open about their questions and there is more space for them to focus on all kinds of learning (2003).
The Terrible Transformation, Revolution, Brotherly Love and Judgment Day (1998)
Many societies were founded by the blacks. The black community in Philadelphia created schools for their children because they were denied access to public schools. However, the conflict between the blacks and the whites worsened which led to the Civil War in 1861. After four years, African Americans were promised of rights of citizenship and slavery was abolished (WGBH Educational Foundation, 1998).
. (2003). Predicting African American Parents’ and Guardians’ Satisfaction with Teachers and Public Schools.
The law requires every classroom to have a highly competitive teacher likewise; the states are required to measure the students’ performance regularly. Recent reports show that the law is working well and the strategies are very effective ( 2003).
(2002). African Americans’ Educational Expectations: Longitudinal Causal Models for Women and Men.
Aside from being a political and social issue, this issue is also economic. The economic success of young people also relies on their achievement of an academic degree (2002).
U.S. Secretary of Education Rod Paige Delivers Remarks at the National Press Club (2004).
There are various opportunities offered to African-American students. The African American Cultural Program (AACP) offers experiences beyond academic pursuits. It provides training in the areas of news casting, promotions and public affairs. The Central Black Student Union (CBSU) extends help in planning and sponsoring social, educational and cultural programs for students through early events like “Cotton Club” (2004).
(1991). The Education of African American
One important milestone in the African-American education was the landmark case of Brown versus the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954, in which the Supreme Court unanimously overruled the “separate but equal” doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson, holding for the first time that the de jure segregation in the public school clearly violated the principle of equal protection under the law guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution. The decision was then applied to mainly southern school systems ( 1991)