Summary/Critique Essay Instructions

Only need 3 paragraphs.

Summary/Critique should have three paragraphs:

Paragraph 1

The 1st paragraph summarizes the argument. The summary should briefly state the author's thesis and describe the arguments and evidence the author uses to defend that thesis. A good summary will also give the reader some sense of how the argument is organized. The summary should be as fair and objective as possible; try not to give away your judgment of the argument in the summary.

Note that good paragraphs have the same organizational qualities as good essays: they are unified around a single, clearly stated thesis; they develop all important parts of that thesis; and they arrange those parts into a coherent whole by making clear how different parts of the argument are related. Therefore, your summary paragraph should try to reflect, in a condensed form, the logical organization of the author's thought.

Paragraphs 2 and 3

The 2nd and 3rd paragraphs critique the argument: one paragraph will focus on the argument's strengths, the other paragraph on its weaknesses. Among the questions to consider in critiquing any argument are:

Does it provide strong and logical arguments?
Is the evidence credible, correctly interpreted, and sufficient to support the argument?
Does it define and use important terms consistently?
Are all reasonable objections to the argument anticipated and answered?
Are the organization and style effective, given the audience the author is trying to persuade?
Does the author appear reasonable, credible, and well-informed about the topic?
Your critique paragraphs should refer to specific parts of the argument mentioned in the summary. You decide in which order the two critique paragraphs will appear (i.e., first strengths then weaknesses, or vice versa).

Finally, somewhere in the summary/critique you must state your thesis: a single sentence stating your overall judgment of the argument. Your thesis will be the result of weighing the arguments' strengths against its weaknesses. You decide where to place the thesis.

Remember that critiques are assessments of the argument; your own opinion on the issue is not relevant and may in fact detract from the critique if it intrudes. Don't try to introduce additional evidence not mentioned in the article to refute an author's claims (you are probably not an expert on this issue, and even if you are, there's probably no way to demonstrate your expertise convincingly within this assignment). You may, however, criticize an author for failing to address arguments or evidence that typical readers might be aware of.

Please use the attachment for the Summary/Critique

Research proposal on Pulverized eggshell as an alternative in making Portland Cement

Pulverized eggshell as an alternative in making Portland cement

 

Introduction

Accordingly, cement, or some form of cementing material is an essential ingredient in most forms of building construction. This has been considered as the vital binding agent in concretes, mortars and renders, and is used for the production of walling blocks and roofing tiles. Since its invention in the first half of the 19th century, Portland cement has been noted to be one of the broadly used cementitious materials. Its dominance over other cements has been in part, due to successful, aggressive marketing. This is despite its clear technical disadvantages for specificalapplications. In addition Portland cement is relatively expensive to produce and is often in short supply in many developing countries. Typically, a rural abourer may need to work for up to two weeks to earn enough money to avail a bag of cement. Hence, they need a cheaper alternative for Portland cements ingredients to make it more affordable.  Since the cost of ingredients of Portland cements are very expensive, the government and other institutions are trying to make a better alternative to produce Portland cement. Primarily, the goal of this paper is to provide a project proposal on using eggshells in making Portland Cement.

Institutional Framework:

The aim of this project is to propose an alternative way to produce Portland Cement which is through pulverized eggshells, in this regard, the major national institution involved in this project framework can consider Science, and Technology along with the local community and local authorities in the Philippines.These groups can be considered to have broad ranging abilities in developing and initiating the new discoveries in agricultural sectors.

The proposed project has incorporated many of the suggestions put forward by the agricultural and structure department.  .

 

THEORETICAL & CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK:

The researcher theorizes that pulverized eggshells can be used as an alternative ingredients in making Portland Cement.. It is said that the research will conceptualize new discoveries to make a more cheaper but quality cements.        The theoretical framework guiding this research is the concept that pulverized eggshells can be used in making

 

Background Of the Study

Social advantages of alternative ingredients in making Portland cement include the potential for affordable quality housing and the opportunity for local employment generation. The technical as well as economic advantages of alternative ingredients  are not lost on architects and engineers from developed countries. Increasingly, architects, are becoming aware of the brittleness associated with Portland cement mortars, for instance, and are now specifying pulverized eggshell as well as re-discovering the ‘lost arts’ of using alternative binders, recent research has enabled the properties of alternative binders to be thoroughly investigated and catalogued. A body of knowledge has built up on the appropriate application of conventional binders such as clay, lime and pozzolanas, not only in the repair and conservation of historic buildings, monuments and structures but also in adventurous and innovative new build applications. However, there are new alternatives such as pulverized eggshells which researcher can use.

 

Research Design

This study uses the descriptive approach.  This descriptive type of research will utilize observations in the study.  To illustrate the descriptive type of research, Creswell (1994) will guide the researchers when he stated: “Descriptive method of research is to gather information about the present existing condition.  The purpose of employing this method is to describe the nature of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the cause/s of particular phenomena.”

The research described in this document is based on qualitative and quantitative method. The qualitative method permits a flexible and iterative approach, while the quantitative research method permits specification of dependent and independent variables and allows for longitudinal measures of subsequent performance of the research subject. During data gathering the choice and design of methods are constantly modified, based on ongoing analysis. This allows investigation of important new issues and questions as they arise, and allows the investigators to drop unproductive areas of research from the original research plan.

 

Marketing Research of Internet Bookstore

Marketing Research of Internet Bookstore

 

Introduction

 

            In the coming decade, the performance of computer chips will improve thirty fold, and communication and storage capacity will experience even bigger improvements.  The number of businesses and consumers connected to the Internet will easily surpass one billion.  The application of technology, however, will not drive the new generation of e-business. Instead, it will be powered by the transformational possibilities created when traditional companies successfully incorporate e-business practices (2001).

 

In the last 50 years, people seem to be connected to the Internet for good reasons in conducting business online which claims to be the new method of marketing.  However, many marketers jumped in with less knowledge on how to do business in the right way.  Therefore, anyone who is interested in doing business on the internet should take time to learn about what they will be getting into. 

The inexorable worldwide spread of the Internet and unprecedented rates of adoption of computer and telecommunication technologies by firms in North America, Western Europe, and selected parts of Asia continue to erode the relevance of traditional strategic weapons such as geographic location and favorable physical resources. The Internet now allows firms located anywhere in the world to project their influence in distant markets without creating a physical presence. Likewise, computer and telecommunication technologies are making the possession of heretofore advantageous physical resources increasingly irrelevant.

 

Generic Strategies and E-Business

 

Academicians have long been interested in the concept of strategy types (1986). Previous research on strategy types includes studies offering new typologies based on empirical analyses (1980; 1978: 1988; 1980), replication studies (1995;  1993;  1986), and studies adding new variables (1983; 1988;  1988). The most widely used strategy types are those developed by  and 

 

Cost Leadership Strategy

 

Cost leadership is believed to be a viable strategic choice in Internet commerce as in off-line businesses.  Lower price has been a key selling point of e-business firms like expedia.com and CDnow in America and Yes24 (an Internet bookseller) in Korea.  The cost leadership strategy may be particularly appealing to online buyers who are price sensitive.  In one study conducted in Korea, 71 percent of 500 first-time online shoppers indicated that price was their most important consideration (2000).

 

The Internet eliminates many traditional time and spatial barriers.  Early movers' strategies are easily imitated and entry barriers are much lower than in conventional businesses.  As a result, lower costs can be an effective defensive measure against competitors, since firms can be profitable even in the face of fierce competition if their costs are low enough.  And, the low prices offered by market leaders (based on their lower costs) can serve as an effective entry barrier against new entrants.  The Internet also allows firms to adjust their prices quickly so that Internet firms can enjoy a higher level of pricing flexibility and more efficient price competition ( 1998).

 

The Internet also helps consumers overcome bounded rationality in terms of price scanning. The long held Cyert and March's (1963) satisfying argument may be less applicable in an Internet environment since the speed and expansiveness of information search made possible by the Internet enable consumers to quickly gather a wealth of data on price comparisons.  Price comparison sites drastically reduce search costs, so consumers may approach near-optimal price comparison ( 1997).

 

Another characteristic of e-businesses is the law of increasing returns (1996).  For a firm to enjoy increasing returns, it must secure a critical mass of consumers as soon as possible.  Competitive pricing often offers the quickest and easiest way for a firm to secure the largest number of consumers.

 

 

Differentiation Strategy

 

A successful differentiation strategy can be built on many factors, including design, brand image, reputation, technology, product features, networks, and differentiated customer service, and true differentiation should be hard for competitors to imitate.  Many of these differentiating elements are applicable to an Internet business.   (1997) found that customers of internet bookstores in Korea saw brand as more important than price as their buying criteria.  He also reported that more people used these Web sites to search for information and to find certain books than to compare prices.   (2000) found that price might be ignored as long as the product-customer fit is enhanced.  They also found that buyers became less sensitive to price when they were given more information about how a particular product might meet their needs.

 

A key aspect of Internet marketing is not just offering differentiated products and services, but also differentiating the channel ( 1988;1991).  According to one recent study by Netsmart America, brand is becoming more and more important, with 65 percent of the respondents to the firm's survey indicating that brand is the most important determinant of Website visits (8/3/2000).  The survey also found that price was an important factor in purchasing decisions for relatively low price items such as books, entertainment, and toys, whereas brand was a more important consideration when purchasing computers, automobiles, furniture, banking, and security investments.

 

Lower switching costs on the Internet also encourage differentiation. In traditional businesses, consumers often tolerate mediocre products and services due to high switching costs.  In the e-business environment, however, consumers can get access to information previously impossible to obtain or to compare.  As a result, consumers can more easily switch to firms that offer additional value through differentiated features (2000).

 

In the e-business environment, in addition to the traditional factors such as brand image, product features, and customer service, speed of delivery, convenience, and the security of transactions are important elements of any differentiation strategy.  Although popular sites like Amazon.com do not always offer the lowest prices, people are attracted to these sites because of their brand reputation and credibility (1999).  This suggests that many e-business consumers are more concerned about security or delivery than price.

 

Focus Strategy

Firms pursuing a focus strategy target specific groups of buyers or product lines. Within their more limited competitive scope, they emphasize either low costs or differentiated products and services.  Many Internet companies are new entrants.  These new entrants may choose to compete against large, established firms by focusing on a particular niche.  Concentrated management of a niche market should not only increase their chances of success, but should also serve as an entry barrier.  In addition, the lower levels of investment required by many online businesses means that they enjoy lower break-even points.  Thus, targeting even small market segments can be viable, and consumers may be easily connected with producers that focus on niche markets due to the Internet's search advantages.

 

Furthermore, the Internet allows firms to customize their offerings to meet the specific wants and needs of their customers ( 1998).  Customers are identified every time they visit a Website, and a great deal of information about each customer can be accumulated over time.  Based on this information, firms can offer customized products or services for a particular customer.

 

Types of Strategies and Their Performance Implications

 

It is still uncertain whether the new e-business environment represents a totally different, discontinuous change from the old business environment or whether the old and new environments will share many features and competitive imperatives. Therefore, several assumptions have been made about the application of conventional generic strategies in the e-business environment.

 

One critical assumption underlying this study is that electronic technologies create a platform to support existing business practices and at this point have not advanced to the point of precipitating a paradigm shift.  Although the Internet provides an efficient means to order products, it is not entirely a new way of doing business.   For example, the catalog retailers with toll-free numbers and automated fulfillment centers have been around for decades.  The Internet only changes the front end of the process (2001).  (2000) argue that, just as in off-line commerce, e-business firms should attract customers in the pre-sales phase, make purchasing happen in the on-line sales phase, and provide customer service and problem resolution in the after-sales phase.  Finally, one of the most obvious advantages of e-business seems to be lower cost due to the absence of physical locations.  However,  (2001) found that pure on-line firms were not realizing real estate-related cost savings over their retailing competitors (brick and mortars and clicks and bricks).

 

As a result, an assumption has been made that firms still view customers in terms of shared characteristics (i.e., market segmentation is possible), that different sets of customers have different needs and desires (i.e., opportunities for product differentiation exist), and that products and services exhibit different demand elasticities (i.e., firms may compete on price). And, as suggested in the previous section, it is assumed that each of Porter's generic strategies can be applied to explain the behavior of Internet business firms.

 

Conclusion

             (2000) found that hospitals, facing a complex environment, with higher strategic complexity outperformed those with lower strategic complexity. In their study, higher strategic complexity means that a firm pursues "competitive advantage through a wider range of strategic activities (i.e., both cost leader and differentiator type activities), representing a more complex strategy ( 2000:). (2001) argues that some e-business firms have successfully employed a combination of two generic strategies. For example, Amazon.com is very competent at all activities involving differentiation elements branding, innovation, and channel management as well as lowering costs. It is hard to classify Amazon.com into either strategy-type.

The major contribution of this paper is to provide early, preliminary data suggesting that the important existing strategy concept of generic strategies is relevant to and can be applied to a new business environment. Considering the predominance of case studies in the e-business field, we hope this study can provide a useful platform for further rigorous, empirical studies that draw on large samples of e-business firms. The lack of performance measures and data may have prevented systematic empirical studies of e-business thus far, so another contribution of this study is its adaptation of existing subjective measures (1988) and use of an objective measure for assessing the performance of e-business firms. We also found our online questionnaire to be a useful way of gathering survey data, superior to conventional mail surveys in terms of time, costs, and convenience.

This paper also offers some tentative implications for management practice. First, the results provide support for the viability and success of hybrid strategies for e-business firms. The study also suggests that the choice of strategy depends on firm type (pure play vs. clicks and bricks). Possible synergies and potential conflicts between online and off-line operations, as suggested by this study, should be important considerations as incumbent firms develop their Internet strategies.

 

Ethics, Decision-making and the Hospitality Industry

Ethics, Decision-making and the Hospitality Industry

Introduction

            The hospitality industry is considered one of the largest industries worldwide. As its covers the fields of travel, tourism and leisure, the industry is indeed one of the important economic contributors to most countries around the world. In order to maintain the strong status of the industry, it is essential that its operators and managers employ the appropriate business tactics. In terms of decision-making, this process in tourism-oriented companies is important as it determines the success or failure of developed business strategies. Conventionally, decisions are based on objective and technical matters; however, over time, certain qualitative factors have already been integrated to make the decision-making process more adaptable to the dynamic nature of the industry. In addition, the concept of ethics had been stressed not only in the hospitality industry but to all forms of businesses. This paper will then try to evaluate how ethics is relevant to the decision-making processes involved in tourism businesses. Furthermore, the evaluation will concentrate on the role of ethics on the two basic forms of decision-making systems used in the industry. 

 

Hospitality Industry and Business Ethics

Hospitality industry is among the fastest growing economic sectors worldwide. The industry by itself is recognized as multi-billion dollar and still progressing industry (1998). It basically involves hotels and other forms of accommodations, fast food outlets, bars, retail stores, restaurants. These diverse segments of the hospitality industry made the business grow and eventually into a highly competitive global business (2003). While this industry enables the provision of vast services for the clients, work opportunities are also diverse. Indeed, the provisions of the industry for the customers are as unlimited as its opportunities for employees. People are able to work is different areas of interest while still be in a job within the industry. At present, more workers are employed in service provision than in manufacturing, indicating the continuous growth of the hospitality industry. In fact, about eight out of ten workers in the United States are in various sectors of the service industry including education, entertainment, retail, transportation and health care.

In the United States, seventy percent of the country’s gross national product is covered by service industries. By 2012, it is expected that this percentage will increase to ninety percent (2004). Likewise, hospitality industry is among the major economic forces in the UK as its enables growth and creation of job opportunities. According to the  (2002), the business has employed over 1.8 million workers who were distributed within 300,000 hospitality establishments, totaling to revenue generation of more than £64 billion. From these records, hospitality has indeed become one of the most competitive businesses in the world.

Business ethics on the other hand is defined as the study that deals with evaluating businesses’ decision-making processes based on moral principles. This concept basically aims to promote the business practice that operators should maintain balance between honest or fair operations and profitability. The application of this concept in business had eventually become complex as companies expand their operations to foreign countries; ethics-related issues appear to vary depending on the business site or location ( 2006). Nonetheless, ethics had been recognized as an important element of successful business operations. This had been emphasized further by scandalous business cases due to lack of business ethics. A concrete example was the Enron scandal. The company started out successfully; however, due to insufficient practice of ethical business operation, the company eventually failed and went bankrupt. Furthermore, the management’s poor decisions due to inadequate critical thinking skills also led the organization to become financially unstable (2001).

Business ethics is essential in the hospitality industry for a number of reasons. One of which is the issues typically encountered in this type of business. Accessibility, health and safety issues including fairness, equal treatment, contingency planning, individual and institutional responsibilities, emergency response mechanisms and informed consent are some industry matters related to business ethics ( 1999). Furthermore, the factors and operations surrounding tourism-oriented businesses require ethical actions and practices. For instance, considering that it main objective is to serve people or tourists, a service that is morally acceptable should be delivered. This form of business also makes use of natural or environmental resources for its operation; the protection and conservation of these resources on the other hand require ethical protocols.

These then stresses the strong relation of the hospitality industry with business ethics. However, it is yet to be determined whether ethical consideration is relevant to the decision-making processes conducted by operators and managers. The decision-making system in the industry actually has two types: the hard and soft systems.

 

Hard Decision-making

            The hard system (Hard OR) of decision-making is also known as the functionalist system approach. This decision-making process takes on the objective approach and is useful for problematic situations that are complex or technical in nature. Methodologies applied in this system include system dynamics, systems engineering and RAND type systems analysis. These methodologies are similar in terms on how they view a problem or issue. Specifically, these methodologies see a problem as technical and devoid of subjective or human aspects. The development of a solution for this problem would typically involve computations, spreadsheets, variable and statistical analysis, mathematical models and other quantitative techniques ( 2002).

            In general, hard decision-making system involves the use well-defined data, scientific approach and rigid procedures in order to solve a problem. It is considered the traditional method of analyzing and solving problematic situation and is focused more on computer-based implementations. Though this type of decision-making approach had been successful in dealing with highly complex and technical issues, this approach is now less relevant in handling current human activities.

 

Soft Decision-making

            The soft decision-making system (Soft OR) on the other hand, is centered on applying the subjective approach. Also referred to as the interpretative system approach, this system solves problematic situations by applying a more holistic view. The holistic view involves concepts such as experience, cultural background, social aspects, education and personal values. A decision-maker that uses this approach develops a personal conceptualization of the problem and identifies relevant behaviors and relationships affecting it ( 2002). The focus of the conceptualization is mainly on people and the diversity of their interest. Thus, the soft system approach is useful for handling issues that have a certain level of human complexity. However, such approach may be ineffective for technical matters.

            Problems addressed by the soft decision-making approach are insufficiently defined and disorganized. In most cases, these problems also involved human conflicts brought about by differences in personality, culture and interest. When solving problems with this approach, users usually aim to facilitate communication between parties involved in the problem; this in turn, can help establish a common ground among them. Interactive management, hypergame analysis, robustness analysis, soft systems methodology, operational gaming and metagame analysis are some of the methodologies used for this approach ( 2002). In general, soft decision-making solves messy problems that mainly involve differing human factors. Solving this type of issues through this approach uses creative problem-solving techniques. Instead of coming up with a concrete solution to the problem at hand, the outcome of soft system application usually include learning as well as a better understanding of the problem.

 

Role of ethics

            From the description above, the types of decision-making used in the hospitality industry are clearly two different approaches. Technical matters in tourism businesses are handled through the hard system whereas those involving human factors are managed through the soft approach. If ethical consideration will be integrated into these two approaches, the effect will perhaps be different as well. In order to evaluate this, the different factors that require decision-making in the hospitality sector were taken into account. How ethics will affect the soft and hard decisions will be considered.

 

• Business Operations

Hard

            The business operation sector of the hospitality industry basically involves the different aspects that bring development, progress and profitability to the companies. If the hard system approach will be applied, information systems or technologies that would help increase sales, manage customer records, improve resource management practices or enhance marketing efforts are the main focus. Applying ethics or moral principles in this case, are not necessary. Deciding on which system or technology will help develop the operations of the tourism businesses does not really prioritize human factors. In most cases, the type, efficiency and cost of the system are the ones highlighted.

 

Soft

            On the contrary, ethics has an important role in soft decision-making for the business operation sector. In particular, how the companies will operate in such a way that they will benefit and meet the needs of the people are hospitality issues that require ethical considerations. A relevant ethical concept for this is corporate responsibility. According to  (1996), corporate responsibility is supported by the concepts of multidimensional definitions and social marketing. In the multidimensional definitions concept, the focus is on the major responsibilities expected from companies. These major responsibilities include economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic dimensions (1991). These responsibilities must be performed in order to benefit not only the company operators but also their employees, customers, the community and the general public. (1991) notes that the social marketing concept of corporate responsibility stresses that companies should operate in a way that maintains or enhances the well-being of its customers as well as its society.

 (1992) supported this concept further by stating that CSR is the avoidance of harm and the provision of good services. The definition given by the authors on corporate social responsibility may vary to a certain degree. However, the meanings of these definitions emphasize on one matter, and that is, a socially responsible organization must have priorities other that short-term profitability ( 1996). Operating for the benefit and safety of people surrounding hospitality-based businesses require the soft decision-making approach as it is centered on differing human factors and issues; in order to direct businesses towards corporate responsibility, ethical considerations should be considered. For example, businesses could take on the utilitarian perspective, an ethical principle where the act is considered morally correct if the effect will be for the good of most people.

 

• People

Hard

            The people sector of the hospitality industry includes the employees, customers/tourist and other shareholders of the businesses. In terms of hiring and recruitment, hard system approach is applied in order to ensure that objective selection of the employees is observed. Rather than focus on ethical aspects, objective standards including the potential, capabilities, knowledge and skills of the applicants are used for deciding. The progress and promotion of the employees on the other hand are also based on similar standards, specifically their contributions and overall performance. Improving the services given to the tourists on the other hand can also be managed through hard decisions. The application of technology-based that will help improve the companies’ relations with the tourists for example can be utilized. A common system used for this purpose is customer relationship management, an IT-based system that enables companies to get a hold of essential customer data, which they could use to improve their services.

 

Soft

            Soft decisions in the hospitality sector are also observed; in this case, the role of ethics becomes more significant. Among employees, the soft decision-making approach is often employed when handling internal conflicts. In order to negotiate and reach a settlement effectively, understanding complex human behaviors is important. The same also applies when the conflict occurs between company management and the customers. In order to handle conflicting matters ethically, it is important that just decisions are developed. Aside from managing conflicts, ethics in soft decision-making is also applied in meeting the needs of the customers or tourists. Hotel chains operating in foreign locations for instance, would have to consider the preferences and standards of both local and common foreign tourists in the site. Through this, the hotel management will be able to attract more visitors and achieve better business outcomes.

            In the hospitality industry, understanding the differences among customers is essential for success. This then makes ethical considerations important. In particular, identifying human differences and attempting to bridge the gap or establish a common ground is an ethical act that requires the soft decision-making approach. According to (2003), gaining the support of foreign market would require the reconsideration of marketing strategies. In order to succeed, they must first develop a mass-marketing mindset and consider various human factors. With this, the businesses should pay particular attention to local aspects such as consumer needs and price competitiveness. Through this, international hospitality-oriented businesses will be able to reach out to these multicultural markets. This is actually the application of the local responsiveness theory which suggests that the differences of countries in various aspects should be taken seriously. Businesses should then tailor their approaches in accordance to their local markets’ needs.

 

• Environment

Hard

The environmental sector of the industry has been considered an important decision-requiring factor since the operations of most tourism businesses involved the environment, natural resources and vacation spots. Decision in the industry’s environmental sector that involves the hard system would probably on the initial development of the business. Identifying good tourist locations or determining a good site for a hotel or restaurant would typically require feasibility studies. Commercial establishments within the area, specific types or classes of people or car count are some essentials variables necessary to make hard decisions. Statistical analysis, computations and similar quantitative procedures would have to be done to ensure the success of the business prospect. For this, ethical considerations are less prioritized.

Soft

            The soft decisions in the environmental sector of the industry are concentrated on the aim of most businesses to implement a sustainable environment. Such concept is mainly focused on preserving and protecting natural resources. This aspect of the industry emphasizes the role of ethical considerations. Specifically, reduction of various types of pollution, prevention of environmental damages and the provision of support to environment-oriented agencies are part of this movement. Sustainable tourism promotes the ethical principle that future generation should be able to enjoy and utilize both historic and current tourist locations ( 1997).

 

Conclusion

            Based from the evaluation of the different sectors of the hospitality industry, the influence of ethical considerations in the decision-making process appears to be strongest in the soft system. Considering that the soft system is more concerned on values, attitudes and people, ethical principles are then more related to this decision-making approach. Although ethics is an important aspect of the industry, it should be noted that the hard approach is also essential; quantitative measures should also be considered in order to support operational efficacy of tourism-oriented businesses. In conclusion, business ethics should be integrated in the hospitality industry as this field of business is centered is centered on providing efficient and satisfactory services to the customers. However, other measures that would ensure the success of the business should be given equal value.

 

Organizational Change in Coca-Cola Company

 

 

Introduction

 

The environment, people and the system in this world is constantly evolving. Just as the popular quote mentioned “change is the only constant in this world,” change and transformation is very apparent from the changes in the physical attributes and characteristics of an individual, to the changes in the environment and surroundings. Just like the people and the environment, organisations also undergo transformations; the change could be either massive or minimal. Often times change happen within the management of the organisation; in order to keep up with the competition, at the same time, improving the efficacy of the human resource. Currently, the competition for the Coca-Cola Company is for the national and international competition.  Also, competition for the leading competitors such as the PepsiCo is highly considerable.  Since Coca-Cola Company deals with food and beverage products, the market has shown several growth of competition within the local and the international area.  Many had been trying to put up an industry that will satisfy the needs of people in eating. Basically this paper will evaluate the efforts of the company concerning social change in their external and internal environment.

            Coca-Cola Company will be analysed through the use of different theoretical concepts in change management.  The paper contains preparation for change wherein it includes the current stance of organisations’ internal and temporal environment. In addition, a proposed action will also be made in this paper. Basically, Coca-Cola Company is one of the most popular companies in the world. Aside from the fact that it is also one of the oldest corporations that was able to withstand World War II and further changes in the market over the past years. The truth still remains that it is one of the most famous brands of Cola in the world (The Coca-Cola company case n.d.). The Coca-Cola Company was able to defy the obstacles that happened; the company was able to utilised change management as competently as possible to survive the hindrances.

 Thus, this paper will discuss and evaluate the organisational change processes that would help an organisation to achieve its mission and to survive with the stiff competition.  Specifically, this paper will study the organisational change that would be imposed in Coca-Cola Company.

 

Evaluation of Coca-Cola Corporation’s Internal and External Social Environment

            Coca-Cola was established on May 8, 1886 by Dr. John Stith Pemberton, a local pharmacist in Atlanta, Georgia. It was first sold in Jacob’s pharmacy for five cents per glass. Initially Coca-cola was sold as a drug, Pemberton during that time considers Coca-cola as a cure for diseases such as dyspepsia, morphine addiction, headache and impotence (North America Operating System, 2009). 

            Coca-cola Company is one of the most popular companies in the world. Aside from the fact that it is also one of the oldest corporations that was able to withstand World War II and other changes in the economy over the past years. The fact still remains that it is one of the most famous brands of Cola in the world (The Coca-Cola company case n.d.).

            The Coca-Cola Company was able to resist the hindrances that occurred; the company was able to utilised change management as efficiently as possible to withstand the obstacles.    As mentioned earlier, changes in management is caused by three different factors which are the external environment, internal changes and the proactive reaction to possible threats and difficulties.

            External Social Environment Evaluation- over the past decades, the Coca-Cola Company has faced a number of changes in the external environment that have transformed the management of the company. One of the best examples is during the World War II. The company was able to maintain the status of the company, at the same time, was able to enter new markets despite the environment. Instead of lying-low because of the war, the company became more aggressive through providing free drinks for the GIs during the World War II. Through this the corporation was able to hit two birds at one stone. First, because the carbonated drinks sent by the company, it became a patriotic symbol by the United States soldiers in which led to consumer loyalty. Second, the company was able to take advantage of the situation and established the product in newly-occupied countries by the Ally forces and because of that the company established plants in various locations worldwide paving the way for its post-war expansion.

            Another aspect in the external environment is the change of taste and expectations of the consumers. During the mid-1980s wherein the Americans favoured the sweet taste of the rival product, the company created its counterpart but became a commercial failure; however instead of backing down, Coca-Cola changed its management strategy and returned the old formula, and just renamed it as Coca-Cola Classic. And with the rise of obesity in the United States and consumers became health conscious the company released new versions of Coke in order to address the needs of these type of consumers, such products include Diet Coke and Coca-Cola Zero.

            In addition, according to Bool (2009) companies such as Coca-Cola are compulsory to transform due to trends that have a huge impact on their business, and one of these trends is the health and fitness. A number of people are noe investing more in their health, and in order to keep up with the trend, Coca-Cola introduced their new product which is a calorie burning soft drink, the Enviga. Moreover, Coca-Cola is collaborating with the Swiss company Nestle. Coca-Cola is dealing with innovation and change. During the Asian Financial Crisis, Coca- Cola was also triggered to change its course of management in that particular region.  The responses and reactions of Coca-Cola with the external environment are its internal changes.

            Internal Changes- as mentioned earlier, Asia experienced its financial crisis in 1997. According to Barton, Newell and Wilson (2002) as the financial crisis swept the Asian region, the chief executive officer, Douglas Daft responded to this by mobilising his executives to workshops about how Coca-Cola would seize new growth opportunities. Barton et al, stated that Coca-Cola gave emphasis on acquisition opportunities, Coca-Cola bought acquired bottling business in South Korea which gave more access in retail stores in South Korea, as well as, better entry in China, Japan and Malaysia. Coca-Cola disregarded its country-defined market perspective and focused on regional strategic view and acquired local brands of tea and coffee.

            In the case of health trends and changing taste of the consumers, Coca-Cola responded to this through innovation and change. Innovation is accomplished through development of new products such as the Enviga, Diet Coke, Coca-Cola Zero, and other variants of Coke. The change is incited by the trend in health and fitness and consumer tastes which had an impact on the business of Coca-Cola. During World War II, the response of Coca-Cola to the situation is to provide free drinks to the GIs in order to access new markets in which the company was able to do.

            Organisational Change Management- this theory presents a general procedure for managing the change in the side of the people at an organisational level (Kotter, 1996).  According to Hiatt and Creasey, the organisational change management is consists of three phases, which are, preparing for change, managing change and reinforcing change.

            The theory of organisational change management was effectively utilised by Coca-Cola. Different managers in various parts of the world have used organisational change management in order to address the issues that the Coca-Cola faced. From the case study (The Coca-Cola company case n.d.) these people are:

            One of the most notable CEOs of Coca-Cola Company is Mr. Gouizetta, he was the chief executive officer of Coca-Cola for seventeen years. He was able to determine the problem against other manufacturer of carbonated drinks. Mr. Gouizetta played a huge role in measuring the operation of Coca-Cola and developed strategies that aided the Coca-Cola to defeat competition. In addition, Mr. Gouizetta played important roles in planning and leading the tasks in achieving the goals and objectives. In addition, Mr. Gouizetta also appointed Mr. Ivester whom transformed the weakness of Coca-Cola into opportunities and strengths (The Coca-Cola company case. n.d.).

            Furthermore, the paper of Pigseye, the following organisational management changes that occurred in Coca-Cola over the past years. Coca- Cola has distinguished various forms of its advertisements in order to target different forms of consumers instead of focusing on one group. The company changed the packaging of Coke. Coca- Cola also developed new products such as Gatorade and it extended globally which is composed of the African group, Middle and Far East group, the Latin America group and the European Group (The Coca-Cola company case. n.d.).

 

Interventions

            As part of the interventions, it is very vital to identify the leveraging changing in an organisation. In identifying the leveraging changes in the Coca Cola Company a Force Field will be used. Force Field Analysis according to Bass (2009) is a technique created by Kurt Lewin in order to analyse the forces that are opposing to change.

            The current state of the Coca Cola stores in Hong Kong is pretty good and it is still one of the top distributors of softdrinks in Hong Kong. However, if it will be compared to other Coca Cola convenience stores in the world the inventory, marketing, and performance of the personnel is not equal to other Coca Cola company. The company hopes to increase the efficiency of the marketing and inventory, as well as the productiveness of the workforce through implementing management change programmes. If the changes are applied within the management and businesses, it is projected that there would be an increase in the output of the company. On the other hand, if changes will not be implemented the inventory, performance and other marketing would deteriorate and continuously be inefficient, therefore there is a possibility that the competitors might be at par or even overtake the market.

According to the presented case, the main emphasis of the Coca-Cola is to meet the needs of their customers with excellent product manufacturing and product distribution.  The company’s change management is very fragile since they predicted that there are some marketing challenges in the near future that they need to face. 

In order to address the changes in the Coca Cola Company, there should a concrete identification of problems present in the company. The employees and other stakeholders of Coca Cola Company will be affected of this so-called “radical changed”. Basically, the route of the change is towards the workforce development and not on the services since the company has already established a reputation of delivering good services in the market. The change is also about the possible financial problems that the company may face in the near future.  From this discussion, the following figure shows the force-field analysis of the change management procedures suggested to the application of change management within Coca Cola Company.

 

Figure 1. Force-Field Analysis

 

From this force-field analysis, it can be seen that the computed forces to change is much higher compared to the forces against change.  Force-field analysis is very vital in change management (Bass, I. 2009). Meaning to say, the plan is quite logical with respect to possible opposition.  Actually, change management is basically defined as the formulation and assimilation of change in a methodical process (Kotter, J. P., & Schlesinger, L.A. 1979). Meaning, the major objective of change management which is the introduction of new systems in the work organisation i.e. total change project is normal to companies that are engaged in change management. This can similarly be compared to the adoption of new marketing strategies. Businesses like Coca Cola Company must normally undergo change in order to evolve to a higher level of for instance, stability, management or production. And since Coca Cola Company wanted to have an extreme development or a ‘radical change”, the CEO of Coca Cola may include changing the company’s mission, reforming business operations, application of new technologies, major group efforts, or adoption of new programs.  Usually, the organisation is encouraged on settling on change management due to external influences, usually termed as the environment (Nickols, 2004). Thus, change management can alternately be defined as the response of different business to changes brought about by environmental influences in which organisations have minimal or absolutely no control over.

Perhaps the space between the new organisation design and implementing it into actuality is the whole coverage of organisation change and development. As mentioned in the introduction, people are adaptive to change. However, certain skills must be present from the initiators of change so as to successfully implement their project. Thus, managers need to have the necessary abilities not only on detecting what needs to be changed but also how to introduce the change effectively. Thus, in this review of related literature, some of the approaches, common problems, influences, case studies and best practices in change management will be analysed in relation to the research problem.

 

Recommended Plans

            With respect to the force-field analysis that has been previously conducted, the following details are the recommended plans for managing change in Coca Cola.

 

Renewing Systems and Structures

            The organisational form of Coca Cola is the Entrepreneurial start-up or the simple structure. According to Mintzberg (1992) the structure is described as having a little or no technostructure at all, it also has few support staffers, restrained division of labour, minimal differentiation in the work place, and a small hierarchy in management. Moreover the behaviour within the organisation, particularly in the convenience store is not that formalised wherein it utilises minimal planning, training and liaison devices.

            In the new organisational form of Coca Cola businesses in Hong Kong, it would be Machine Bureaucracy. According to Mintzberg, the machine bureaucracy is an organisational structure wherein there is a clear configuration of the design parameters wherein it consistently held up researches it includes specialised routinely operating procedures, formalised procedures in the centre of operations, propagation of rules and regulations, proliferation of formalised communication throughout the company, dependence on the functional basis for tasks wherein it needs group work, comparatively centralised power for decision-making, and a complexly detailed administrative structure with sharp differences between the line and staff.  In this form of organisational structure Coca Cola will be able to monitor the efficiency of the performance of the workers because there would be standard procedures and more elaborate structure of management.

 

Cultural Web

Routines and Rituals- the Coca Cola, Inc. does not have any formal training with its work force particularly within the convenience stores. There are no specific routines emphasised in the organisation, and just like most companies, the managers and workers come in to the work place to perform their job and the cycle goes on. This behaviour does not encourage any worker to perform their job better and if ever changes will be implemented within the organisations it will not look peculiar. The new training programs that will be implemented will focus on customer service. In industries like in Coca Cola customer service is a very important aspect in sustaining the loyalty of the consumers. The routines can easily be changed due to the fact that there is no particular routine in the work place.

Organisational Structures- the management within the stores have limited hierarchy and the overall setting is informal because there are no strict rules and regulations within the convenience except for the usual the punctuality and absenteeism. The management structure in Coca Cola encourages collaboration with Coca Cola but competition with other organisations in the same industry. The power structure within Coca Cola is democratic because prior to the changes in the management sectors that will feel the impact of the changes directly will be educated and informed and also their opinions will be heard.

Control Systems- In Coca Cola the most closely monitored is the distribution of softdrinks. The company does not emphasise punishment and rewards to the employees, apart from the usual which is the bonus for rewards and removal from the job for punishment. There are few controls in the workplace and the control in the workplace is associated with the history of the company wherein it provides the customers fresh products.

Power Structures- the main beliefs of the senior management of Coca Cola is that the success of the company is due to the efficient evaluation of the challenges in the workplace, as well as, the market and quickly respond to the opportunities. The power is distributed to three management teams, the senior leadership team, vice presidents and the division leadership. The dominant culture of the organisation is its being practical and open to the opportunities given to them. The changes in the management programmes can be implemented easily because the proposals of the company are attainable and do not have a negative impact on its employees.

 

Overcoming Resistance

            Resistance of the employees in the change management programmes in any company is inevitable however overcoming the resistance is important in order to implement the required changes in the management strategies. According to Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) there are six approaches that an organisation can use in dealing with the resistance by the workforce and these are:

Education and Communication- In order to overcome the resistance in Coca Cola the employees should be educated and informed regarding the transformations within the company before implementation to prevent incorrect information that will surround the work area.

Participation and Involvement- the employees must be involved with the planned changes in the management programmes of the company because once they become involved the employees will not resist but instead will participate in the transformations that will be undertaken.

Facilitation and Support- Some of the employees will resist the changes because they are unable to adjust with the new programmes implemented by the management to avoid resistance the management must support the employees that are having a hard time with the changes, establishing a support system will aid the employees to quickly adjust.

Negotiation and Agreement- Coca Cola should talk and negotiate with the employees, and during the talks the management must discuss the incentives they will receive once they accepted the changes in the management strategies.

Manipulation and Co-option- if the other approaches did not work inviting the union leader to participate and be a representation in the change process will aid in overcoming the resistance to change.

Explicit and Implicit Coercion- if all approaches did not work the last step would be forcing them to accept the implemented changes and threaten them that if they will not comply the employees will lose their jobs. 

 

 

Conclusion

Change management is basically defined as the formulation and assimilation of change in a methodical process. The major objective of change management is the introduction of innovative means and systems in the work organisation. This can similarly be compared to the application of certain information technologies in the company or the adoption of new marketing strategies. Businesses must normally undergo change in order to evolve to a higher level of for instance, stability, management or production. Appointing a new head officer, for example, can greatly enhance his subordinates based on his management principles and personality.  From these discussions, we may conclude that change management is a process in which all companies undergo. This is an important procedure because it enables the organisation to make decisions that will be advantageous and beneficial to the company. In addition, organisations that are open to change are generally more successful compare to companies that resist it. In a globalise market, new technologies and procedure are emerging rapidly, in order to keep up with this progress a company must be willing to adapt to management changes. The international, as well as, the local market has a very stiff competition, therefore in order to be on top change management must be utilised by companies. Coca-Cola is one of the best examples of companies that utilised change management efficiently and have yielded positive results. The evidence is the dominance of Coca-Cola in the soft drink industry not just in Asia but all over the world.

 

 

 

References:

Barton, D., Newell, R. & Wilson. G. 2002, When Is a Good Time to Make Strategic Advances? during a Crisis, of Course. The McKinley Quarterly, pp. 77+

 

Bool, H. 2009, Change and Pressures to Innovate- The Coca Cola Case. Ezine Articles, viewed 25 March 2009, http://ezinearticles.com/?Change-and-Pressures-to-Innovate---The-Coca-Cola-Case&id=328921

 

Kotter, JP. 1996, Leading Change, Harvard Business School Press

 

North America Operating System. 2009, Coca-Cola Company, viewed 25 March 2009, http://www.thecoca-colacompany.com/investors/annualandotherreports/2003/opseg.shtml

 

Bass, I. (2009). Force Field Analysis, Six Sigma First, retrieved 25 March 2009, http://www.sixsigmafirst.com/ffa.htm

 

Kotter, J. P., & Schlesinger, L.A. (1979). Choosing strategies for change. Harvard Business Review 106-114.

 

Mintzberg, H. (1992) Structure in Fives: Designing Effective Organizations. Prentice Hall.

 

Nickols, Fred (2004).  Change Management 101: A Primer.

 

The Coca-Cola company case. n.d., Pigseye, viewed 25 March 2009, http://pigseye.kennesaw.edu/~jmburu/case2.html

 

Discuss the issues involved when using quantitative and qualitative methodologies in research

FIRST PART

 

Discuss the issues involved when using quantitative and qualitative methodologies in research

 

INTRODUCTION

          Although research is important in such investigative activities, there is no consensus in literature on how it should be defined. Ideally, good reason can possibly that research mean many things to diverse people such as those part in healthcare and clinical milieu as such qualitative and quantitative methods used in research do imply the process of enquiry and investigation that has been systematic and methodical towards better increase in knowledge and expertise in such field. Thus, such qualitative and quantitative research do amicably reach the stage wherein the demand of its validation has allow usage of ideal principle as found into real world situation in refining as well as integrating crucial search points as it can require operational essence for instance, appropriate scientific methods to be used, such evidence be gathered.

 

 

 

          Thus, certain involved research in qualitative and quantitative notion may be conducted in spirit of information inquiry which rely on certain facts as well as experiences, concepts, hypotheses also such principles and laws constituting better language of research posits that enables such precision in employing of communication channels as deemed important to such formation of adaptable outcomes in those methodologies qualitatively and quantitatively assessed. Moreover, the point of understanding how research methodology is of functional approach should be considered as it do refer to procedural framework in which qualitative as well as quantitative research is being conducted at the right perspective (Cited from, Remenyi et al., 1998). Thus, a lot of underlying factors to be considered when choosing appropriate research methodology for such type of method utilization as it must be investigated and researched with ample questions serving as core drivers (Cited from, Remenyi et al., 1998).

DISCUSSION

Quantitative and qualitative methodology

          Research may be categorised into two types, the qualitative and quantitative, as it concentrate on observations to express reality and attempts to describe events and or people in natural situations as the quantitative approach grows out of strong academic tradition that places considerable trust that represent opinions or concepts. Thus, the exact constitution of the two methodologies varies somewhat from author to author or is defined with varying degrees of specificity, there is substantial agreement about the fundamental antinomies and their practical implications for the conduct of research.

Defining and justifying qualitative research

          Furthermore, qualitative research is conducted through an intense and prolonged contact with “field” or life situation and that, reflective of everyday life of individuals, groups, societies and organisations (Cited from, Miles and Huberman, 1994). In some senses, research data are qualitative; referring to such issues relating to factual situations (Cited from, Berg, 1989, as cited in Miles and Huberman, 1994). Then, one good feature of qualitative data is their richness and holism, with strong potential for revealing complexity within descriptions that are nested in real context and have truth and such qualitative data are collected over period makes it powerful for studying certain process it involves. =

Defining and justifying quantitative research

          In addition, quantitative research designs are characterised by assumption that human behaviour can be explained by what may be termed social facts which can be investigated by methodologies that utilize deductive logic of natural science (Cited from, Horna, 1994). The process is directed towards the development of testable hypotheses and theory which are generalisable across settings and the methodology is more concerned with how complex description of specific situations under study will evolve. Aside, there implies quantitative philosophy being the extreme of empiricism according to which theories are not only justified in extent as verified but also by enough application of facts as duly acquired. There is branch of thought which tried to find out the origins, justifications and progress of knowledge through observation, but is considered to have meaning if being derived well (Cited from, Chalmers, 1976). Thus, quantitative studies do search for distinguished elements as well as empirical boundary there is intending to measure how much research it does or how often the research has been considered (Cited from, Nau, 1995).

 =

          Also, there is strength in quantitative research design as concerned with defining some epistemological methodology as it will determine truth-value of propositions and allows flexibility in treating data, like in ways related to comparative and statistical analysis and the repeatability of data collection in verifying the content structure of reliability. The weaknesses of quantitative research can possibly lie mainly in their failure to ascertain deeper underlying meanings and explanations even when data are significant and valid. Quantitative research is tough in measuring variables such as quantitative assumption regarding construction process capability in that process reduced to set of variables which are somehow equivalent across construction projects, persons involved and across situations and when the measurement is one of the focuses of the research, then quantitative approach may be justified. Although quantitative methods can be used to measure such factors, their appropriateness in explaining them in depth is more limited. A further weakness in quantitative approaches lie in tendencies to take snapshot of situation, that is to measure variables at specific moment in time and that several aspects might be affected by temporal changes which cannot be identified within single investigative option.

 

 

 

          Aside, there can be ways adopted in triangulation involved in combination of methodologies in research phenomenon as the assumption in triangulation is that the effectiveness of triangulation rests on the premise that the weaknesses in each single method will be compensated by the counter-balancing strengths of another. It does denotes reference to combination of research methods and employing of qualitative and quantitative techniques together which is powerful for gaining outcomes and insights that such as assisting in making good conclusion (Cited from, Fellows and Liu, 1997).

 

Triangulation of qualitative data

 

          The combination of methodologies can then focus on relevant strengths as researcher should aim to achieve situation wherein blending qualitative and quantitative methods of research can produce final product which can highlight significant contributions (Cited from, Nau, 1995) and where qualitative data can support explicitly what is meant by quantitative research respectively (Cited from, Jayaratne, 1993).

Tactics for research

          Besides the qualitative and quantitative and the positivistic-phenomenological classifications, there are many different ways of describing research approaches and methods. There is limitless number of research tactics and variations, many of which have been borrowed from other disciplines and some believe that research in the areas is not well in scientific sanctions. As the qualitative research may be conducted in dozens of ways, Smith (Cited from, 1992) does observed, field methods, qualitative inquiry, participant observation, case study and responsive evaluation have been basically identical to understand how and why they come to have better perspective.

Philosophical relationships

As Galliers (Cited from, 1992, as cited in Remenyi et al., 1998) provide list of approaches and important to note that research tactics listed can be used as either quantitative or qualitative devices.

 

          Several analyses of quantitative data concern searching the data patterns of various types and hypothetical relationships are established. Many quantitative approaches are subject to particular analytical techniques with prescribed tests, such as discourse analysis as well as comparisons and hierarchies are duly evaluated and examined and that such quantitative data are suitable for statistical interpretation and the analysing are to provide information about variables and relationships in between possibly being combined with theory and literature in such assimilation of data analysis.

Components of Data Analysis

 

 

Assessment

          Thus, review of research methods will be incomplete without considering the fundamental issues relating to evaluation of research outcomes. In many respects an evaluation is focused on measures to counteract the weaknesses inherent in the particular research strategy chosen to carry out piece of research (Cited from, Then, 1996) as such debate is rooted in philosophical differences about the nature of reality and takes the form of qualitative versus quantitative methods amiably so, the value of any research stems from validity of results and the extent of contribution to the body of knowledge undertaken.

CONCLUSION

          There is no uniquely best approach to research, either in the natural world or in the BE in particular and the best that can be done is to describe the ways in which research is carried out in variety of situations. Therefore, understanding of fundamental issues pertaining to different types of research typologies is important in such qualitative and quantitative options that can be likely to affect the ideal form of research process, as the success of study project will depend on possible robustness of strategy applied in completing and realizing research studies.

SECOND PART

Several Related Research on "sitting balance training in children with cerebral palsy"

 

Related Research No. 1

(Note: Only Abstract)

Effect of balance training on muscle activity used in recovery of stability in children with cerebral palsy: a pilot study.

by: M Woollacott, A Shumway-Cook, S Hutchinson, M Ciol, R Price, D Kartin

Dev Med Child Neurol, Vol. 47, No. 7. (July 2005), pp. 455-461.

 

“This study explored possible neural mechanisms that contribute to improvements in balance control produced by reactive balance training in children with cerebral palsy (CP). Six children with CP (four males, two females; mean age 9y 4mo), two with spastic hemiplegia (Gross Motor Function Classification System [GMFCS] level I) and four with spastic diplegia (GMFCS level II,) were given 5 days of intensive training in reactive balance control (100 perturbations per day on a moveable force platform). Surface electromyography was used to characterize changes in neuromuscular responses pretraining, immediately posttraining, and 1 month posttraining. Training in reactive balance control resulted in improvements in directional specificity of responses (a basic level of response organization) and other spatial/temporal characteristics including: (1) faster activation of muscle contraction after training, allowing children to recover stability faster; (2) emergence of a distal-proximal muscle sequence; and (3) improved ability to modulate the amplitude of muscle activity (increased amplitude of agonist and decreased amplitude of antagonist, reducing coactivation). Each child with spastic hemiplegia or diplegia showed a different combination of factors that contributed to improved performance; the level of change in neural factors depended on the severity of involvement of the child: hemiplegia vs diplegia, and level of involvement within each diagnostic category”.

 

Related Research No. 2

(Note: Only Abstract)

Effect of balance training on recovery of stability in children with cerebral palsy.

by: A Shumway-Cook, S Hutchinson, D Kartin, R Price, M Woollacott

Dev Med Child Neurol, Vol. 45, No. 9. (September 2003), pp. 591-602.

“This study examined the effect of massed practice in balance recovery of stability in six children (four males, two females; mean age 9 years 2 months, SD 2 years, range 7 years 5 months to 12 years 11 months) with cerebral palsy (CP). Four children were diagnosed with spastic diplegia (Gross Motor Function Classification System [GMFCS] level II) and two with spastic hemiplegia (GMFCS level I). A single-subject, multiple-baseline experimental design involving three pairs of children matched for diagnosis was used. A moveable forceplate system was used to test and train reactive balance control. Area per second (i.e. area covered by the center of pressure over a one second period) and time to stabilization from center of pressure measures were calculated following perturbations. The intervention phase consisted of massed practice on the moving platform (100 perturbations/day for 5 days). Analysis included hierarchical linear modeling and a repeated measures ANOVA. All children demonstrated a significant improvement in their ability to recover stability as demonstrated by reduced center of pressure area and time to stabilization following training. These improvements were still present 30 days following completion of training. Results suggest that postural control mechanisms in school-age children (7 to 13 years) with CP are modifiable”.

Related Research No. 3

Orthotic Management of Children with Cerebral Palsy Research done by: Christopher Morris

By definition, the impairment known as cerebral palsy (CP) describes damage to the immature brain resulting in problems with balance, coordination, and movement. Stability in any position of lying, sitting, or standing requires consideration of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic stability involves controlling the position of the center of mass within the body. Extrinsic stability involves maintaining the center of mass within the supporting area. Common training targets include encouraging head control by providing trunk stability or using wrist orthoses to facilitate manual dexterity when grasping objects.

Thus, prestanding children will spend all their time in either lying or sitting postures. Based on earlier work to develop systematic assessment protocols, the Chailey scales of 'levels of ability' in lying, sitting and standing provide another framework for assessing the progress of children with postural impairments.16 Thus, spending much of their time sitting and are therefore predisposed to contractures of the muscles of the lower limb. Many of the major muscles around the hip, knee, and ankle actually cross two joints. For instance, the major bulk of the calf muscle is the gastrocnemius, which crosses both the ankle and knee. To provide an efficient stretch of the gastrocnemius, preventing plantar flexion must be augmented with an orthosis to extend the knee.

  

Related Research No. 4

Diplegic Cerebral Palsy: Case Study

Research Done by: Ferreira M.A; Viljoen J.M.; Wentzel GJ and Mothabeng D.J.

 

Balance is the process by which postural stability is maintained and Cerebral Palsy is used to describe motor disorders resulting from pre-natal developmental abnormalities or peri-natal or post-natal central nervous system damage occurring before the age of five years and characterised by impaired voluntary movement (Cited from, Berkow, Fletcher and Beers, 1992). 

Method

This study received approval from the Ethical Committee of the University of Pretoria, Republic of South Africa, and was given the approval number S90/2002, after amendments were made.

Study Design

The single subject research design is divided into phases that define sequential introduction of intervention and withdrawal of intervention, in a pre-determined, randomized order. Each participant is evaluated before and after each phase.  The purpose of non-treatment phases in the single subject research designs is to determine whether the effects of the intervention used in the particular project are long or short term.

Study Population

Two subjects (subject A and subject B) affected by diplegic cerebral palsy participated in this study.  The subjects were ten and twelve years of age.  Informed consent was acquired from the subjects’ parents.  The subjects acted as their own control and therefore the single subject research design was applicable.

Measurements

This study employed quantitative as well as qualitative measures.  Quantitative measures are of scientific value whereas qualitative measures only help the researcher to get a broader idea of the possible effects of the intervention (Cited from, DePauw 1986, as cited in Teichmann Engel, 1994). Cratty (Cited from, 1967) formulated the scale that was used to quantitatively evaluate the subjects. 

The researchers did not receive responses from the subjects’ parents, the qualitative evaluation on the behavioral changes of the subjects relied solely on the researchers' observations. Although qualitative research is non-scientific and subjective, the literature found emphasises the importance of this type of research when investigating the psychological effects of Equi-therapy. 

Results

The subjects’ balance were evaluated by means of the Cratty scale (Cited from, 1967), regular evaluation made it possible to not only compare overall balance performance, but also the performance over the project period.

Discussion

According to the overall results of this study, Equi-therapy had a positive effect on poor balance in the two children who are affected by diplegic cerebral palsy.  Similar positive results were reported by Biery and Kauffman (Cited from, 1989) who studied the effects of Equi-therapy on poor balance in children affected by cerebral palsy.  The important difference between the study done by Biery et al (Cited from, 1989) and the current study, is that the individuals who participated in the study by Biery et al (Cited from, 1989) received Equi-therapy once week over period of twenty-four weeks, uninterrupted; while the current project time was divided into treatment phases and non-treatment phases. 

 

Limitation and Recommendation

The researchers noticed changes in the subjects’ postures during the project period.  Formal research has to be done on the effects of Equi-therapy on posture in children affected by cerebral palsy, to confirm the observations made by the researchers of the current study.  Finally, it is recommended that research be done on the effects of Equi-therapy on children affected by other conditions within cerebral palsy, such as those suffering from athetoid and ataxic cerebral palsy.

Conclusion

Therefore, the alternate hypothesis that Equi-therapy would result in a clinically significant improvement in balance in standing and quadruped stance in children, between the ages of nine and fourteen, affected by diplegic cerebral palsy, measured by means of the Cratty scale was proven applicable.  Through quantitative and qualitative measurements, positive results were obtained in the subjects’ balance and behavior, after ten-week trial. 

 _____________

Words: 2500 excluding diagrams, in-text citations, reference and bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Related Research No. 3

CHRISTOPHER MORRIS, MSc, SR Orth, is a Principal Orthotist at the Nuffield Orthapaedic Centre NHS Trust; and a Graduate Student with the Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, affiliated with the National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, Oxford, UK. 2002 American Academy of Orthotists and Prosthetists.

Endnotes/Citation:

Evans C, Gowland C, Rosebaum P. The effectiveness of orthoses for children with cerebral palsy [abstract]. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1994;36(Suppl. 70):26-27.

Freedman B. Equipoise and the ethics of clinical research. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:141-145.

Hallet R, Hare N, Milner AD. Description and evaluation of an assessment form. Physiotherapy. 1987;73:220-225.

McConachie HR. Conceptual frameworks in evaluation of multidisciplinary services for children with disabilities. Child Care Health Dev. 1999;25:101-113.

Poutney T, Mulcahy C, Clarke S, Green E. The Chailey Approach to Postural Management. Birmingham, UK: Active Design Ltd.; 2000.

Yusuf S, Collins R, Peto R. Why do we need some large, simple randomized trials? Stat Med. 1984;3:409-422.

 

Related Research No. 4

The study was done at South African Therapeutic Riding Association under the supervision of the Author (Engela Young) in the year 2002.This research has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree B.Phys.T (University of Pretoria) by coursework and research report.

Research conducted by: Ferreira M.A. (University of Pretoria); Viljoen J.M. (University of Pretoria); Wentzel GJ (University of Pretoria); Mothabeng D.J. (B.Sc. Phys. Medunsa), (M. Phys.T. (UP), (D.Ti. (UP)

 

REFERENCES

Berg, B. (1995), Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences, Allyn & Bacon, London

Berkow, R., Fletcher, A.J. & Beers, M.H. (Eds.)  1992. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy.  Merck Research Laboratories: New Jersey.

Biery, J.B. & Kauffman, N.  1989.  The Effects of Therapeutic Horseback Riding on Balance.  Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 6: 221-229.    

Chalmers, A (1976), What is This Thing Called Science?, Open University Press, Buckingham

Cratty, B.J.  1967.  Movement Behaviour and Motor Learning.  Lea & Febriger: Philadelphia.

Fellows, R, Liu, A (1997), Research Methods for Construction, Blackwell Science Limited, Oxford

Horna, J (1994), The Study of Leisure, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Jayaratne, T (1993), "Quantitative methodology and feminist research", in Hammersley, M (Eds),Social Research: Philosophy, Policies and Practice, Sage, London

Miles, M.B, Huberman, A.M. (1994), Qualitative Data Analysis, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA

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